A REVIEW OF NEW INNOVATIONS IN POWER SYSTEM CONTROL D.

SUTANTO Department of Electric Power Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering, The University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. ABSTRACT Financial and environmental constraints have
afflicted power systems throughout the world. Environmental pressures have forced the retirement and non-replacement of power station close to urban load centres as well as making it more difficult and expensive to establish additional transmission tines to supply these large load centres. All these factors have altered the method of power system operation from the manner originally planned. Larger amounts of power are being conveyed over the interconnections. This results in transmission bottlenecks, underutilisation and sometimes unwanted extra loading of transmission facilities. Recently, devices known as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission systems) specially designed to introduce more "flexibility" both in normal and emergency operation of an electric power system have been proposed. The flexibility is related to the direct control (both local and centralised) of both active and reactive power. The main aim is to increase the utilisation of existing facilities even to its thermal limits (without sacrificing reliability) in order to reduce the difficulties in installing new transmission lines and to permit larger transfer of low-cost electricity through interconnected areas or countries. This paper provides a review of the basic concepts of FACTS, the possible FACTS options currently available, the recent development and demonstration efforts in USA and Europe and the cost benefit analysis of such an installation. The paper concludes that FACTS technology is now available for use. although the cost may be prohibitive initially, but as financial and environmental constraints increase in the future, the use of FACTS technology may be unavoidable.
1. INTRODUCTION

during the five-year periods from 1968 to 1987 and the projected additions through I987 [I]. Larger amounts of power are being conveyed, not only over the interconnections but into the important load centres. Financial pressures have minimised the production from oil-fircd generation. Consequently some utilities maximise the import of power by keeping tie lines at their limits some 90% of the time. These higher power flows throughout the network result in transmission bottlenecks, where some transmission lines are overloaded and some are either underutilised or used in an undesired manner. The higher power flows also produce a large increase of series reactive power losses in the process of supplying these important load centres.

EHV Transmission Line Additions i the US. n Aetual (1968-1987) and Projected (1988-1997) Sources: EEI Statistical Yearbooks of the Electric UtTtv

Period

EHV Additions
345.500 and 765kV

Changing conditions associated with the evolution of power systems have created a continuing sequence of fresh problems. In recent years, the power system has become increasingly more complex to operate and system have become more insecure. Serious collapses have occurred in greater number, e.g in the United States, Canada, France, Belgium, Sweden and Japan. The circumstances which have created this condition include:

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the increasing reliance o n interconnections between power utilities the effect of the 1973/4 oil crisis on the relative costs of different methods of electricity production. This has considerably reduced the emphasis on oil-fired plant. the reducing and erratic rates of electricity growth, the financial pressures that this has imposed on electricity utilities, the increasing environmental constraints which also add to financial problems all these factors have inhibited the construction of new power stations. the permanent retirement of power stations within large urban load centres financial constraints have curtailed the addition of redundant system elements, so important for high levels of system reliability.

All these factors have radically altered the method of power system operation from the manner originally planned. Added to this is the lack of the power stations which had provided an important backup supply to many large urban load centres. Further, it is increasingly difficult to acquire new transmission line easements to relieve loadings on the power grid. To illustrate this, Table 1 shows the aggregate EHV transmission additions placed in service in USA

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Fig. 1 Universal Transmission t i n e Curve lncrease of Net Reactive Power Losses with Line Loading

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To gain a better appreciation of this influence, it is useful to examine the reactive power characteristic of a typical transmission tine. For this purpose Fig. 1 provides a universal reactive power characteristic of transmission lines which is applicable to lines of any voltage level once the no load charging (B) and surge impedance loading (SIL) are known for the line. It can then be used to quantify the net reactive power losses of that transmission line, which can be of any voltage or length. A numerical example has been evaluated in Table 2 to provide a basis for understanding transmission line net losses on reactive power demand. For this evaluation, in Table 2, a 160km.500kV transmission line with a no load charging of 133MVAr and SIL of 850MVA is used. As both line charging and SIL are proportional to the square of the transmission line voltage level the effect of 90%. 95% and nominal voltage levels on the net reactive power losses have been evaluated in the Table 2.
TAR1.E 7

These difficulties have provided the motivation to investigate novel ways to better utilise and control existing transmission systems. Specifically, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) are designed to provide the ability to direct the active and reactive power flow along pre-determined corridors within large AC interconnections. This is achieved by application of fast switching of modern power semi-conductors, advanced control and protection concepts similar to those developed for HVDC systems. Consequently, full benefit can be made of existing but underutilised thermal capacity with the intention of avoiding or delaying new construction. This paper reviews a limited set of possible FACTS options that are currently being investigated in USA and Europe.

2. FACTS OPTIONS
The concept of FACTS was initiated in early 1988 by EPRl in USA [2]. The technology is envisaged to offer the power authorities the following possibilities: 1. Rapid control of power flows on their transmission routes, 2. Secure loading of transmission lines to their full thermal capacities The central technology of FACTS involves high power electronics supported by advances in digital control using microprocessors. digital protective relays, integrated communications (including fibre optics) and advanced control centres. Some of the power controllers that have been considered are [3]: a) b) c) d) e)
f)

NET REACTIVE POWER LOSSES IN 160 km 5OOkV TRANSMISSION LINE

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1 Line Loading

Series Reactive Power

2550MVA Line Load 2975MVA 3.5

3.3

I200 3.7 1463 1370 1650

3.88

g)

h) i) j) k)

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SSR (Sub Synchronous Resonance) damping Static VAR Compensator Thyristor control phase-shifter Controllable series capacitor Dynamic Load brake High Energy Arrester Modular series reactor Fault current limiter Circuit breaker Load tap changing Ferro resonance damping Combination of the above

Two of these, the SSR damping device and the static VAR compensator, are commercially available. Current research work in US and Europe tends to concentrate on the next two technologies, i.e. power angle regulator and modular series capacitor[3]. Recently battery energy storage schemes 141 and novel unified controller scheme [5] combining some of the FACTS options have also been reponed in the literature. 2.1 Power Transfer Equations The power transfer across a transmission facility is determined by the relative magnitudes and phase angle of the sending and receiving terminal voltages and the electrical characteristics of the network facilities connecting the sending and receiving end terminals as shown in Figure 2. The equation given is a good approximation for EHV systems where the inductive reactance component is much greater than the resistance component.

Voltage (kV) 230 345 500 165 I100

SIL (MW)
150 400 850 2200 5200

Typical Thermal Ratings 400 I200 2600 5400 24000

Fig. 2 Power Transfer Equation

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Examinations of the Power Transfer Equation provides insight into the techniques for power flow control. The only viable options to control the power transfer across a transmission facility is to modify one or a combination of the following parameters: the terminal voltages (E1 or E2), the inductive reactance (Xl2) or the relative phase angle (612)between the two terminals. Static shunt VAR compensator attempts to regulate voltage magnitude at the point of connection (usually at the receiving end) to increase the transmission capacity of the power system. In this way, the static shunt VAR compensator provides both voltage support and increased stability margin. While the inductive reactance of the transmission line can be reduced by physical changes to the conductors, the emphasis of FACTS devices is to introduce external components having a capacitive or inductive reactance characteristics to change the transmission effective reactance. For example, the insertion of series reactors increases the inductive reactance between the two terminals, thereby reducing the power flow, and the insertion of series capacitors reduces the inductive reactance between the two terminals, thus increasing the power flow. This is the basis for the controllable series compensators, where series capacitance and inductances are rapidly inserted or bypassed. The final part of the power transfer equation includes the term sin (612). The magnitude of the power flow will vary in direct t proportion to the sine of 612 and will be maximum a 90'. It is important to note that the direction of power flow is determined by the relative phase angle between the terminals. As a result. altering the effective reactance of the transmission circuit will not alter the direction of power flow. However, a power flow control device utilising phase angle adjustment techniques can produce bidirectional control. This establishes the fundamental concept of a solid-state phase shifting device. Such a device continuously adjust the power angle 612 to produce a rapid control of power flow. 2.2 Implementation of some FACTS controllers [5] The following descriptions of FACTS implementations are taken from Reference 5. Other applications are described in recent EPRI "FACTS" Conference[6]. 2.2.1. Static VAR Compensator A typical shunt-connected static VAR compensator, composed of thyristor-switched capacitors (TSCs) and thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs), is shown in Fig. 3. With proper co-ordination of the capacitor switching and reactor control, the VAR output can be vaned continuously between the capacitive and inductive ratings of the equipment. The compensator is normally operated to regulate the magnitude of voltage of the transmission system at a selected terminal, often with an appropriate modulation option to provide damping if power oscillation is detected. The static VAR compensator can also provide transient stability improvement.

a substantially higher maximum admittance at full thyristor conduction than that of the fixed shunt-connected capacitor. In this case, the TCR, with an appropriate surge current rating, can be used essentially as a bypass switch to limit the voltage across the capacitor during faults and other system contingencies of similar effect.
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Fig 3 Static Var Compensator employing thyristor-switched capacitors and thyristorcontrolled reactors

Fig. 4 Controllable series compensator using (a) thyristor switched capacitors, and (b) a thyristor-controlled-reactor with a fixed capacitor

2.2.2 Controllable Series Compensator

Thyristor-controlled series compensators consist of thyristorswitched capacitors, or a fixed capacitor in parallel with a thyristorcontrolled reactor. The development of such compensators have been recently reported in the literature [1,7]. These schemes are @. shown in FigA(a) and 4 )

In the thyristor-switched capacitor scheme of Fig.4(a). the degree of series compensation is controlled by increasing or decreasing the number of capacitor banks in series. To accomplish this, each capacitor bank is controlled by a thyristor bypass switch, or valve. The operation of the thyristor switches is to co-ordinate with voltage and current zero crossings: the thyristor switch can be turned on to bypass the capacitor bank when the applied ac voltage crosses zero, and its turn off has to be initiated prior to a current zero at which it can recover its voltage blocking capability to activate the capacitor bank.

In the fixed-capacitor. thyristor-controlled reactor scheme of Fig. 4@). the degree of series compensation in the capacitive operating region (the admittance of the TCR is kept below that of the parallel connected capacitor) is increased (or decreased) by increasing (or decreasing) the current in the TCR. The TCR may be designed for

Fig. 5 Thyristor-controlled tap-changer for phase angle control.

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2.2.3 Phase- Shifter

Although there is no high power, non-mechanical phase-shifter in service. the principles for using a phase-shifting transformer with a thyristor tap-changer are well established [8]. Just as the conventional phase-shifter with a mechanical tap-changer, the thyristor-controlled counterpart also provides quadrature voltage injection. The magnitude of the quadrature voltage injected could be varied continuously by thyristor firing-angle control at the expense of harmonic generation. However, a step-like control, generating no harmonics, appears to be better suited for high power applications. A thyristor-controlled phase shifting transformer arrangement is shown in Fig. 5 . It uses three non-identical transformer windings in proportions of 1:3:9 and. with a switch arrangement that can bypass a winding or reverse its polarity, it can produce a total of 27 steps using only 12 thyristor switches (of three different voltage ratings) per phase. The phase angle requirements for power flow control can be determined from generator rotor-angle measurements, if possible, or from power measurements. With these, the thyristor-controlled phase-shifting transformer could be applied to regulate the transmission angle to maintain balanced power flow in multiple transmission paths, or to control it so as to increase the transient and dynamic stabilities of the power system.

coupling transformer. In this way, the inverter output voltage injected in series with the line can be used for direct voltage control, series compensation, and phase-shift.

Fig. 7 Implementation of the unified power flow controller using two-voltage-sourced inverters with a direct voltage link. Inverter I (connected in shunt with the ac power system via a coupling transformer) is used primarily to provide the real power demand of Inverter 2 at the common dc link terminal from the ac power system. Since Inverter 1 can also generate or absorb reactive power at its ac terminal. independently of the real power it transfers to (or from) the dc terminal, it follows that, with proper controls, it can also fulfil the function of an .independent advanced static VAR compensator providing reactive power compensation for the transmission line and thus executing indirect voltage regulation at the input terminal of the unified power flow controller.

2.2.4 Implementation of a unified power controller [fi]

A unified power controller can be described by the circuit in Figure 6. The power flow controller consists of two controllable elements. a voltage source, inserted in series with the line and a current source, connected in shunt with the line. Both the magnitude and angle of the voltage source can be freely regulated, whereas only the magnitude of current is variable with its phase angle is fixed at 90 degrees with respect to voltage at the point of connection. The current source, therefore, provides reactive power compensation and the voltage source provides the series compensation and phasc shifting ci ibility

2.2.5 Battery Energy Storage Plant (BESP)

Research work is currently being carried out at the University of New South Wales to investigate the use of battery energy storage plant as an extension of the unified power flow controller. In Figure 7, the power to provide the real power demand comes from the power system itself, negating some of the benefits of reduced losses. Clearly if a battery energy plant is available, it can replace the DC link capacitor in Figure 7. It can provide all the active power requirements of the device and in time of emergency (line outage). inverter I can supply emergency load for a short duration (4 hours or so). The advantages of Battery Energy Storage Plant to system planning and operation have been reported by Lachs and Sutanto[4].

Fig. 6 Unified Power Controller There are a number of feasible solid-state implementations for the unified power flow controller described above. The implementation considered feasible and economical with presently available power semiconductors is similar to those proposed for the advanced static VAR compensator, controllable series compensator, and phase-shifter. It employs voltage source inverters (i.e. inverters fed from a dc voltage source) composed of gate-turn off (GTO)thyristor valves, in appropriate harmonic neutralised configurations which ensure almost distortion-free output, economic manufacturing and inherent redundancy for multi-level partial availability. The proposed implementation of the unified power flow controller using two voltage-source inverters operated from a common dc link capacitor, is shown schematically in Fig. 7. This arrangement is actually a practical realisation of an AC to AC power converter with independently controllable input and output parameters. Inverter 2 is used in the arrangement shown to generate a voltage source at the fundamental frequency with variable amplitude (0 5 Vpq S Vpqmax) and phase angle (0 S 6 < 2%). which is added to the ac system terminal voltage vo(tf8, the series connected

In our proposal, the G T O s in Figure 7 will be replaced by either IGBTs or MCTs. A microprocessor provides the interface between the energy stored in the batteries and the AC system. It is the versatility of this microprocessor controlled electronics that can allow the Battery Energy Storage Plants to have the following features:

With IGBT or MCT control, the AC output of the BSP can be varied in a fraction of a second This output of both real and reactive power can be varied extremely quickly between maximum output and input With its stored energy, the nominal output could be doubled for short periods Its reactive power output can provide the necessary shunt and series reactive power compensation and hence it can provide a rock steady control of voltage This reactive power control does not appreciably tap its stored energy Its maximum reactive power output is independent of voltage levels on the AC network. With a fault on the AC network, the contribution does not exceed its rated output. Battery Energy Storage Plant (BESP) is most useful if continuously run in parallel with the AC network

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BESP can also maximise the utilisation of grid-connected renewable energy plants, such as solar or wind generators If external supply is temporarily lost and later restored, a BESP can automatically be re-synchronised.

Figure 8 shows AC Power Flow in Parallel Paths. Without any control, power flow is proportional to the inverse of the various transmission line impedances. It is likely that the lower impedance line may become overloaded. I n this case it is not possible to control the steady state power flows in the two parallel lines.

2.2.6 System Operational and Planning Features of a BESP used as a Unified Power Controller
Controlling the outputs of groups of BESP is useful for the operation of the main transmission system which links the urban centres with the system's generators as described in the following sections.

AC Power Flow - Parallel Paths

2.2.6.1 Fast Load Pick-up

Wear and stress occurs on turbines, boilers and their control at times of rapid load change. Fast load pick-up of numbers of BESP acting as unified power flow controllers would allow much slower rates of load change on turbo-generators as well as aiding the operation of the power grid.

2.2.6.2An alternative to Pumped Storage Plant.

Hydro pumped storage schemes, which are connected to the transmission grid, require substantial capital outlay by electric utilities. However, by pumping at off-peak periods to raise water storage levels, the energy can then meet peak demands or difficult operating conditions. BESP acting as a unified power controller would be more effective as their control assists distribution networks as well as the transmission grid.

Fig. 8 AC Power Flow in parallel paths without any control Figure 9 shows AC and HVDC Lines in parallel. With HVDC, power can be controlled freely and continuously. Further, because power is electronically controlled, an HVDC line can be used to its full thermal capacity if adequate converter capacity is provided. If necessary, HVDC can also help to maintain stability. This is the main advantage of the HVDC system. However, HVDC is usually too expensive for widespread use and will only be considered when long transmission lines are involved or if asynchronous ties are required.

2.2.6.3Transmission Grid Emergency

When an emergency causes a sudden increase of loading on transmission lines supplying cities, receiving end voltage would deteriorate and system voltage instability could be threatened. The major factor leading to system voltage instability is the sharp increase of series reactive power losses of the suddenly more heavily loaded transmission lines. Rotating unit field forcing would provide access to extra reactive power resources to gain a period of respite [ l l ] . With mainly shunt capacitors for reactive power compensation (as city power stations are retired), their characteristics would exacerbate the voltage reduction in urban areas, BESP acting as a unified power controller can instantly produce maximum reactive power output and their MW output would lower transmission line loadings, so significantly reducing the series reactive power losses. Like rotating unit field forcing. this can provide the initial calm which is so valuable in regaining operational control at the first stage of system voltage instahility and so prevent collapse.

2.2.6.4 Summary of advantages and disadvantages

In summary, some of the main advantages are as follows:

Battery Energy Storage Plant can supply some of the load at heavy demand periods (maybe 1 or 2 hours a day) Battery Storage Plant can be charged at night and used during the day providing a better load factor Fast load changes can be met by BESP BESP can raise the levels of operational security and reliability Reduction of losses at heavy load Improved Voltage control at point of connection Reduction of spinning reserve Allow new and renewable generation, in small blocks, to be effectively connected By proper design of inverter I, the unified controller can act an emergency supply

Fig 9 AC Power Flow in Parallel Paths with HVDC line Figure 10 shows one of the transmission lines with additional impcdance in the form of a high speed controlled series capacitor. With this arrangement, one can obtain substantially (but not completely) the same advantages as with HVDC but at a much lower cost. This is because with high speed control of series impedance, one can obtain appropriate steady state power (within the range of impedance control) yet changdmodulate impedance as rapidly as required for stability considerations. Figure 9 also shows that one of the AC lines may have a highspeed phase angle regulator. Again, with this approach, one can obtain substantially the same advantages as HVDC, but with less cost. Whereas the series capacitor controls the impedance to levels below the series inductance of the line, the phase angle regulator with plus-minus range, controls the apparent impedance both ways. The HVDC link is in effect, an electronic 360 degree phase angle regulator.

Some of the main disadvantages of BESP are: BESP can be more expensive in its initial cost BESP require a lot of storage areas to store the batteries and associated protective equipments and watering system

3. POSSIBILITIES OFFERED BY FACTS [2]

The following examples are taken from reference [2] to show the planning possibilities that can be obtained using FACTS devices described in Section 2.

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Series Capacitor 01 Phase Angle Regdator

switched series capacitors also provided 1200 MW of transfer capacity but with a payback period of only 0.7 years. The third altemative, retrofitting five existing power angle regulators with thyristor switched controls, provided an additional 500MW transfer capacity with a payback period of 1. I years.

5. CONCLUSION
A 2-volume report was published in 1990 by EPRI and contains more detailed discussions on the various study carried out on the effectiveness of "FACTS"[IO] The paper has provided a review of various FACTS devices. FACTS devices are shown to be rapid power flow control devices for application in a highly interconnected transmission network. Rapid control of the power flow on ac transmission lines to enhance the utilisation of the inherent capabilities of the network is a significant departure from the present mode of electric power transmission network operation. The successful application of this concept may significantly change the complexion of future planning and operation of electric transmission.

Fig 10 AC Power Flow in Parallel Paths with FACTS Devices

4. RESULTS OF COMPUTER STUDIES CARRIED OUT BY EPRI I USA [91 N

EPRI sponsored a project in 1988 to assess the benefits of the F A C B technology. The following was taken from reference [91 to describe the results obtained so far. The fmt result looked (Fig. 11) at maximising the power transfer on a 300 mile corridor using various combinations of "FACTS" -type devices. The figure shows increases of power transfer capability ranging from 1500 MW to 4000 MW at costs ranging from SI00 million to $750 million.

Although at present the initial cost of FACTS devices is generally much more than that of installing a new transmission line, it will become increasingly more difficult if not possible to acquire new transmission line easement, so that FACTS devices provide the only realistic option. The result of the computer studies carried out by EPRI. on the economic benefit of FA(JTS devices, suggests that if the measure, years-to-payback is used, installing FACTS devices is more favourable than installing new lines. Further, recent advances in high power semiconductor technology have resulted in lower cost and higher power GTO thyristors and other power semiconductor devices.
6. REFERENCES

Fig. 1 I Maximising Power Transfer A second study looked at a transient stability limited radial system and compared the alternatives of a new line versus thyristor switched series capacitors to achieve an increase of 1000 MW in transfer capability. Using the measure of years-to-payback. the . results show a 3 to 1 benefit in the series capacitors with a 0 3 year-to-payback versus 2.5 years-to-payback for the new line. A third result examined increasing the transfer capability on a transient stability limited complex system. Three alternatives wcrc considered. The first two provided an increase of transfer capacity of 1200MW. one, with the addition of two new lines. has a payback period of 3.2 years. The second, the addition of thyristor

R.M. Maliszewski, B.M. Pastemack, H.N. Scherer Jr., M. Chamia, H. Frank, L. Paullson. "Power Flow control in a Highly Interconnected Transmission Network, CIGRE Paper 37-303, 1990 Session, Paris. 2. N.G. Hingorani, "High Power Electronics and Flexible AC Transmission System", Joint APC/IEEE Luncheon Speech, April 1988 at the American Power Conference 50th Annual Meeting in Chicago. Printed in IEEE Power Engineering Review, July 1988. 3. N.G. Hingorani. "FACTS - Flexible AC Transmission System", IEE Publication No. 345: AC & DC Power Transmission, 1991,pp 1-7. 4. W.R. Lachs and D. Sutanto. "Battery Storage Plant Within Large Load Centers". IEEE Trans. on Power System, May 1992. Vol. 7. No. 2. pp. 762-769. 5. L. Gyugi, "A Unified power flow control concept for flexible AC Transmission Systems", IEE Publication No. 345: AC & DC Power Transmikion. 1991, pp. 19-26. 6. EPRI "Flexible AC TRansmission Systems (FACTS).". Boston, 18-20 Mav 1992. 7. Christl, N. et. al., "Advanced Series Compensation with variable Impedance", EPRI Workshop on FACTS, Cincinnati. Ohio, No. 1990. 8. Wood, P. Et. al., "Study of Improved Lo+, Tap Changing for Transformer and Phase angle Regulators, EPRI Report EL6079, Project 2763-1, 1988. 9. Iveson, R.H., "Brief Progress Report on the United States initiative - 'FACTS' - Flexible AC Transmission System". CIGRE, 1990. Group 37, p.29. 10. Ewart, D.N, et. al., "Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): Scoping Study, Volume 1 and 2". EPRI Report EL6943, Project 3022-1.1990. 11. Lachs. W.R. and Sutanto. D.. "Voltage Instability in Interconnected Power Systems: A Simulation Approach", IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 7, No. 2, May 1992. pp. 753761.
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