AP Psychology Chapter 1 Outline Did we know about hindsight bias all along?

Hindsight bias- It is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. It is also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. I do this sometimes. What are the effects of overconfidence? Point to remember: Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to overestimate our intuition. But scientific inquiry, fed by curious skepticism and by humility, can help us sift reality from illusions. What is the scientific attitude? Critical thinking- It is thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. What is the scientific method? Theory- It is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Hypothesis- It is a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Operational definition- It is a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. I took an IQ test once. Replication- Repeating is the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. Practice makes perfect. What is the case study? Case study- It is an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Point to remember: Individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas. Whats true of all of us can be glimpsed in any one of us. But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other methods. What is the survey? Survey- It is a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them. Ive done quite a few at RGNS. Word Effects: Even subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have major effects on the results. Tricky False consensus effect- It is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. Population- It is all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a countrys whole population.)

Random Sample- It is a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. What is naturalistic observation? Naturalistic observation- It is observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. I think Steve Irwin did that. What is correlation? Correlation- It is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1. I still dont understand how to determine range solely from looking at the graph. Scatterplot- It is a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). Point to remember: A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate. What is the connection between correlation and causation? Correlation does not prove causationas Lynsi said so wisely. Point to remember: Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation. Knowing that two events are correlated need not tell us anything about causation. Remember this principle and will be wiser as you read and hear of news of scientific studies. What are illusory correlations? Illusory Correlation- It is the perception of a relationship where none exists. Point to remember: When we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated. Thus, we can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what is not there. Humans have a tendency to want to find a pattern in everything; does that relate to this? How can cause and effect be explored? Experiment- It is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Point to remember: Unlike correlational studies, which uncover naturally occurring relationships, an experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect. How does one evaluate therapies? Double blind procedure- It is an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research

participants have received the treatment or a placebo. This is commonly used in drugevaluation studies. Placebo effect- They are experimental results caused by expectations alone; it is any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent. Sugar pills! Experimental condition- It is the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Control condition- It is the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Random assignment- It is when particles are assigned to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. What are independent and dependent variables? Independent variable- It is the experimental factor that is manipulated; it is the variable whose effect is being studied. This reminds me of Mrs. Andersons class. Dependent variable- It is the outcome factor; it is the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. I really dont like math. Research Method Descriptive Basic Purpose How Conducted To observe & Do case record studies, behavior surveys, or naturalistic observations To detect Compute naturally statistical association, sometimes among survey responses To explore Manipulate cause and one or more effect factors; use random assignment What is Manipulated Nothing Weaknesses No control of variables; single cases may be misleading Does not specify cause and effect

Correlational

Nothing

Experimental

The independent variable(s)

Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables

What is statistical reasoning?

Point to remember: Doubt big, round, undocumented numbers. Rather than swallow topof-the-head estimates, focus on thinking smarter by applying simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning. May common sense prevail How is data described? Point to remember: Think smart. When reviewing figures in magazines and on television, read the scale labels and note their range. Mode- It is the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. Mean- It is the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by dividing the number of scores. Median- It is the middle score in a distribution; half the scores above it, and half the scores are below it. This is Algebra I all over again. Point to remember: Always note which measure of central tendency is reported. Then, if it is a mean, consider whether a few atypical scores could be distorting it. Range- It is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard deviation- It is a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. That is quite the oxymoron. Point to remember: Dont be overly impressed by a few anecdotes. Generalizations based on a few unprecedented cases are unreliable. When is a difference significant? Statistical significance- It is a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Point to remember: Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. It does not indicate the importance of the result. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? Point to remember: As psychologists, our concerns lie less with particular behaviors than with the general principles that help explain many behaviors. Does behavior depend on ones culture? Culture- They are the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people, and they are transmitted from generation to the next. From personal experience, I completely believe this. Why do psychologists study animals? Key Points: Humans arent like animals, they are animals. Thus, it is important to treat animals just as humanely as humans are treated. Also, animals are unable to give consent, which violates ethics. Overall, this chapter was quite extensive with a lot of basic information that will be very useful in later chapters. The section on statistics was a bit confusing, but generally, it was very similar to basic math once the concepts and terms are comprehended. The section on ethics was particularly useful, since it outlined the restrictions and guidelines of a researcher. Generally speaking, I feel that this chapter gave me the basic tools and terms needed to continue with thorough comprehension later in the book.