Early Sumerian Cities y Time periods o Ubaid period: 5000-3500 BC o Protoliterate (Uruk) period: 3500-2900 BC o Early Dynastic period:

2900-2350 BC (divided into 3 parts: I, II, III) Inhabited southern Mesopotamia from the fourth into the early second millennium BC Language has now known relatives and architecture and artifacts do not indicate ethnic ties with culture of other regions Had independent self governing cities ; ruled by a mortal king Each Sumerian city nominally belonged to a god or goddess; temple was the focus of both ritual and economic activity regional administrative center Rivalries b/t cities in Early Dynastic period cause of agricultural land warfare people migrated to cities from countryside Tigris and Euphrates Rivers fertile soil deposited + fresh water but fluctuates depending on seasons Also had marshes (fishing + hunting), steppe land (useful for grazing) and mountains and seas (long distance trade, raw materials such as wood, stone and metals) Irrigation channels brought salts but did not flush them away problem as far back as the end of the 3rd millennium no remedy Sumerian city was divided into different neighborhoods, residential, administrative, industrial and a cemetery Neighborhoods were divided by streets, walls and water channels canals flowed through and alongside through cities gave rise to separate markets, commercial centers and harbors Uruk (Protoliterate period Levels IV and III) o Dominant city of early Sumer o Temples dominated main god or goddess considered ruler of all; over divinities celebrated in smaller temples o New temples provided with its own mountain: ziggurats- key form of Mesopotamian architecture o Temple quarter was off center or at the edge; set apart from the secular o Contained two main temple areas:  White temple- dedicated to Anu, sky god  Eanna Precinct- dedicated to Inanna, goddess of fertility, love and war. house of heaven o White Temple is example of High Temple. Sits on terrace. Mud brick walls covered with plaster and were buttressed; considered a characteristic Mesopotamian way of incorporating 3 dimensional decoration o Inanna adopted by other cultures with different name: Astarte/Ishtar by Akkadians/Babylonians and shares features with Anatolian Kubaba and Greek goddess Artemis

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Temples of Eanna precinct were ground levels Uruk vase- gives knowledge of Sumerian religion in the Protoliterate period. Sculptered scenes of ritual activity, homage to the goddess Inanna. Made 3000 BC. 5 layers: Top has Inanna herself receiving gifts; priests offer food and drink; world of animals; plants; river o Limestone head of a woman, 20cm high. o Cylinder seal- stone cylinders carved with designs; used to indicate ownership. Pushed onto clay o Mesopotamians intersred in seeing gods, humans and animals in actions not secular subjects like war or hunting The development of writing o Cuneiform developed in the late 4th to early 3rd millennia BC as a tool for bureaucratic recording would become principal writing tool for the cultures of the Near East for 3,000 years. o Eventually cuneiform gave out the Phoenician alphabet and its derivatives during 1st mil. o Tablets contained info about economy, society and history; backbone of our knowledge on ancient near east. o Cuneiform developed from a pictographic system moved towards syllabary Habuba Kabira o Sumerians extended influence north most likely to secure raw materials o Tell Qannas, higher area of city, contained the major temples; the north contained residential quarter. o City lasted 150 years at the end of the 4th mil BC. o Town has some paved streets and an impressive sewerage and water conduit system. o Houses were large; from a courtyard that contained irregularly shaped workrooms and the kitchen one entered the house proper o No large houses were indentified with wealthy or powerful people or administrative services o Absence of open market areas Early Dynastic Period: Historical Summary o Written evidence about the history of ED city states is very sketchy until 2500-2400 BC when king lists become credible and objects inscribed with kings names become prevalent o Uruk lost preeminent position in ED II. o Warfare between city states was unremitting. Ex: Lagash vs Umma o Stele of the Vultures shows triumph of king and god pictorial imagery in the official, royal art of the ancient near east, Egypt and later the roman empire o ED period and the first era of Sumerian supremacy came to an end with the victory of Sargon the Great conquest of the entire region Early Dynastic Period Religious Life: The Temple Oval at Khafajeh o Construction of huge palaces began in ED III shows increasing power of rulers o Temple Oval- high temple; oval contour of outer walls o o

o Votives- statues that are gifts offered by worshippers to the deities: people praying Ur: The Royal Tombs o Sir Leonard Woolley excavated in 1922-34 o Ur inhabited from fifth into the first millennium BC. o Burial involved elaborate mortuary ritual that included sacrifice o Lyre- discovered in the tomb of King Meskalamdug; decorated with a bull s head. o Chambers were vaulted . o Corbelled arch- each of the two sides each successive block projects further inward until finally the two sides touch at the top. o True arch- stones are cut in wedge shapes to fit into continuous curve o Barrel vault and corbelled arch- 3d Mesopotamian Cities in the late third and second millennia BC

Time Period o The Akkadians: 2350-2150 BC o The Gutians: 2150-2000 BC o Sumerians ( second period of domination)  Neo-Sumerian Period: 2125-2000BC y Gudea of Lagash y Ur III: 2100-2000 BC  Isin-Larsa period: 2000-1530 BC o Old Babylonian period: 2000-1530  First dynasty of Bablyon: 1750-1530 BC y Hammurabi of Babylon: 1736-1694 BC o The Kassites: 1530-1150 BC The Akkadians o King Sargon put an end to independent city states when he conquered the entire region in 2350 BC considered first empire in south west Asia o Empire was in the region of Babylon (modern day Baghdad) and capital city was Agade o Sargon expanded empire east to Elam (Iran)and then north up to Tigris and west up the Euphrates into central Anatolia o Sargon was Semite, not Sumerian; despite different speech, they shared the same cultural and religious beliefs o Stele of Naram-Sin: parabola shaped slab of pink sandstone decorated with relief sculpture of Akkadian victory grandson of Sargon, Naram-Sin shown. Victory won b/c gods favored it, king portrayed as a god. o Akkadian dynasty over extended and weakened brought to an end by the Gutians : mountain people from western Iraq Neo-Sumerian Revival: Historical Summary

Gutians controlled Mesopotamia for less than a century Domination ended by UrNammu, king of Ur Ur-Nammu and 4 successors ruled over united central and southern Mesopotamia o This period is known as Ur III period: third dynasty o Administration was centralized from taxation and weights and measures to religious and military matters. Gudea of Lagash o Gudea and his son Ur-Ningirsu statues which survived o King serves his city not as a warrior but as a devouted servant of Gods o Statues had characteristic headdress and clasps hand in front of his chest Ur in the Ur III and Isin-Larsa Periods o Ur reached peak in the late third and early 2nd mil, first at the seat of the kingdom of UrNammu and his successors o After demise of Ur III kingdom following invasion of Elamites, city rebounded during the succeeding Isin-Larsa period, enjoying economic prosperity and continuing as a prestigious religious center o Population of city proper may have been 12,000. o The extant city walls were built in the 6th century BC by Neo-Babylonian monarchs o City surrounded by water on 3 sides and approachable by land only be south. Lower part consisted of a steeply sloping mud brick rampart or glacis. o Temenos, or sacred area, lay in the north west believed to have the healthiest air o Only foundations preserved, precinct contained temples, courtyards, and rooms for religious figures o Best known building of the temenos is the ziggurat: tower built of successively smaller platforms one on top of the other, with a small shrine on the summit o Stele of Ur-Nammu- Stele stresses the king s adoration of the gods rather than his considerable military achievements o Curving streets and massing of houses contrasts with the regular layout of Protoliterate Habuba Kabira of some 1,200 years before no attempt to place straight streets o Houses were more luxurious than their counterparts at Habuba Kabira two storeys of rooms around arranged around an open air court Hammurabi of Babylon and the Old Babylonian Period o Second period of Summerian domination in southern Mesopotamia came to an end with the conquest of Hammurabi, king of Babylon, in the late 18th cent. BC. o Brought north and south Mesopotamia and revamped the administrative system of the country Stele of Hammurabi: laws inscribed on it o Old Babylonian period: era in Mesopotamian history that centers on Hammurabi and his dynasty ascendancy of the Semitic Babylonians, Sumerian disappeared as a spoken language replaced by Akkadian (Sumerian did continue as a written language) Mari: The Palace of Zimri-Lim o Mari reached its height during the rule of Zimri-Lim a regional potentate 1715-1700 BC. o

Inhabitants of Mari were Semites. Wrote in Akkadian language, but names and nonAkkadian words were found in Mari tablets place them in the North-west Semitic sphere together with such peoples as the Amorites o Mari grew rich due its advantageous location on the trading routes from the west and the Mediterranean to both the Assyrian area to the north east and Babylonia in 1700BC o The process of a ruler assuming more authority began in the ED period kingship becomes an umbrella that sheltered both the secular and the religious aspects of administration o Investiture Scene- best known wall painting from Mari. Message: king had blessing of the gods and the result is agricultural plenty The Kassites o After the destruction of Mari by Hammurabi, it never recovered and population decreased. o Empire of Hammurabi eroded Hittite King Murshili I captured and sacked Babylon 1530Bc; couldn t finish job Kassites moved in founded capital city at Dur Kurigalzu o Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization

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Time periods o The Indus Valley Civ.  The Harrappan or Mature phase 2600-1900BC Arose in the cast alluvial plain of two roughly parallel rivers, the Indus and the Sarawati Environment o Harappa lies in Punjab, well watered region o Each of the Harrappan sites would have controlled a large hinterland with its agricultural production and natural resources Mohenjo-Daro o Largest known city of the Indus Valley civilization o Important buildings placed in the north west o Lower town laid out on a rough grid plan with straight streets crossing at the right angles o Baked brick and sun dried mud bricks used baked bricks developed as protection against flooding o Had network of drains was very extensive and advanced o Citadel or city center built on artificial platform. o Great Bath large rectangle of baked brick and sawn bricks water supplied from well in adjacent well served dome ritual purpose o Town proper lies to the east of the citadel o Baked brick standard building material for walls o Houses had their own wells and bathrooms on first floor o In the final stage of the Harappan period, Mohenjo Daro experienced marked deterioration in town planning and in the quality of construction

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Lothal o Lies in the state of Gujarat o Citadel lay within town and unusually in the south east sector would have served for defense against floods, secure storage for food and showcase for the prestige of the rulers of the town Agriculture, Technology, Crafts and Arts o Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal have yielded cotton cloth and animals raised featured two varieties of domesticated cattle, one humped and the other humpless. o Best known surviving craft is the stamp seal, usually made of steatite animals were favorite subject o Lacking in Harappan representational art are clearly identifiable image of rulers and depictions of warfare. The End of Harappan Cities o Came to an end at the beginning of the 2nd mil BC o Unified urban civilization dissolved into local village based cultures lacking technological and architectural competence of their predecessors o Environmental changes also weakened the economy . o Possible other factors Egypt of the Pyramids Time periods: o Predynastic: 5000-3050BC o Early Dynastic (Archaic): 3050-2675BC  First and Second Dynasties o Old Kingdom: 2675-2190 BC  Third , Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Dynasties o First Intermediate period: 2190-2060 BC  Seventh to Tenth Dynasties and earlier Eleventh Dynasty Civic buildings, houses and even palaces used sun dried mud bricks was preferred Geography o Niles has cataracts: obstructions of granite rock formations; numbered north to south o Long narrow stretch from Aswan to Cairo and the short, broad delta marked two distinct regions in the ancient Egypt, Upper and Lower Egypt o Fertility of the land has depended on the Nile: river rises til mid Aug, recedes in Oct Early History o Egypt unified in 3050 ruled for nearly 3,000 years by a sequence o Each of the three periods was followed by weakness with the central gov disintegrated o Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt in 3050BC or Narmer o Narmer Palette- illustrate victory of Narmer; king towering over subjects Egyptian Writing o Egyptians wrote in three scripts  hieroglyphs- picture signs; used from 3050bc-394ad

hieratic- cursive version of hieroglyphs demotic- Late Egyptian cursive script used in secular documents: language called Coptic o Decipherment of the hieroglyphic script made possible by the Rosetta Stone Burials of the Archaic Period o The dry climate of Egypt surely influences the notions of the afterlife preserving body o In pre-dynastic Egypt, a body buried in a simple pit would preserved by hot desiccating sand tomb structures became more complex body placed in shaft or chambers removed of sand body decomposed rapidly elaborate mummification o Earliest evidence of classic mummification queen Hetep-heres, mother of Khufu o Canopic chest- contained organs : stomach, liver, intestines and the lungs o Archaic period burials become more elaborate mastaba: a low flat rectangular structure made of mud brick and a series of compartments covered by a single roof began with King Aha at Abydos o Shunet ez-Zebib: Best preserved enclosure ; late Second Dynasty king Khasekhemwy, contained a small building in one corner ; a low mound in the center; and outside the eastern wall, twelve wooden boats o The combination of mastaba tomb and funerary enclosure makes it probable that Abydos, not Saqara, was the location for most First and several Second Dynasty royal burials. Saqqara: The Step Pyramid o Old Kingdom lasted nearly 500 years. o Step Pyramid  First pyramid; stone structure  10,000 men??  Compound surrounded by wall  Columns in compound were first columns erected on the world  6 large steps o Seated statue of Djoser found inside the serdab intended to be residence of the ka, a person s self of life force. Transition to the True Pyramid o Transition to true pyramid occurred at the end of third and beginning of fourth dyanasties. o During New Kingdom, pyramids disappeared replaced by tombs cut out of rock in the remote locations on the west banks of Thebes. o After New Kingdom, placedment of royal burial changed again and were located in precincts of urban temples. Giza: A Fourth Dynasty Funerary Complex o Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure buried at Giza; also smaller pyramids built for queens, temples devoted to funerary cults and a large number of mastaba tombs.

 

Process of building pyramid: leveling rocky ground limestone platform step pyramid built, gaps filled in o 4,000 workers at a time o Khufu s pyramid the biggest, followed by Khafre and Menkaure o Khufu s pyramid 3 principle chambers 1st chamber but into bedrock 2nd chamber called Queen s chamber; unfinished 3rd; burial chamber is located higher up in the pyramid and lined with red granite slabs. o Causeway linked Valley Temple with the Mortuary Temple located at the east of each pyramid. Final rites took place in this temple. o Valley Temple- body was purified, embalmed and Opening of the Mouth took place here o Great Sphinx Khafre o Statue of Khafre benign expression, arms placed on his thighs, right fist clenched , left hand open palm down. Wears royal nemes headdress, now decorated with a uraeus or erect cobra and royal beard. Falcon behind him sign of Horus. o Statue of Menkaure and his wife- found in Valley Temple of Menkaure o Mortuary Temple of Old Kingdom: entrance hall, colonnaded court, statue chamber , magazines or storerooms and the sanctuary. The Sun Temple of Niuserre at Abu Gurab o Temple dedicated to the Sun God Re. Worship of sun god usually done in open air. o Temple consisted of an open air court, oriented east west in accordance of the path of the sun o Had obelisk made of limestone blocks set on a rectangular podium longer elongated version would become distinctive element of Egyptian architecture in the New Kingdom Video Menes (3000-2938 BC) o Built first dam around the world; around Memphis o United upper and lower Egypt o First pharaoh of Egypt s first dynasty Djoser (2667-2648 BC) o Built Step Pyramid in Saqqara o Second ruler of old kingdom period o First of Egypt s pharaohs to be deified o Tomb built from stone instead of mud brick o Pushed Egypt s boundaries to Aswan (first cataract) Imhotep o Architect of Step Pyramid o was chief architect, treasurer, high priest and vizier Snefru (2613-2589 BC) o 4th dynasty o Meidum pyramid unfinished?collapsed? o

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 Transition from step pyramid to true pyramid Built another pyramid at Dashur Bent pyramid Built third pyramid, Red Pyramid.  First true pyramid ever built

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Khufu o Built Great Pyramid at Giza o Height of Old Kingdom Khafre o Built Pyramid of Khafra and the Great Sphinx Menkaure o Built third pyramid at Giza Sesostris III (1870-1831BC) o Ruled during Middle Kingdom o Had army pushed boundries south into Nubia o Built Fort at Buhen  Monumental ; layers of walls for defense  Holes for archers  Could house 1,000 soldiers at once Hyksos conquers North Eqypt Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC) o Seized political power- coregent o Built the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut: Deir el-Bahri o Contributed to temple at Karnak Thutmose III o Stretched Egyptian boundaries Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) (1352-1336BC) o Built new religion worshipping Aten o Built new capital Tell el-Amarna  Road running parallel to Nile  4 palaces o Egypt s empire shrank as Akhenaten focused more on religion instead of state Tutankhamun o Restored old religion and moved capital back to Thebes Seti I (1294-1279 BC) o Built Hypostyle Hall o Launched military campaigns into the north east o Restored Egypt to former glory Ramses II (1279-1213BC) o Temple of Ramses at Abu Simbel o Fought the Hitties Egypt went into decline after Ramses II

Egyptian cities, temples, and tombs of the second millennium BC The Middle Kingdom o In this age renewed power of the ruler, Egyptian language reached peak and literature flourished and arts and crafts o Rulers of 12th dynasty shifted capital from Thebes to Memphis o Kahun  Built to house the builders of a nearby pyramid of king Senuset II  Straight streets cross at right angles  Houses include reception and residential rooms, gardens, and food storage.  Tom bureaucrats inhabited large houses and matined retinues of clients and servants who lived in small houses and controlled distribution of food o Buhen  Fortress in Nubia that is an example of Egyptian and Middle Kingdom stronghold  Built in early 20th century BC  Consisted of an inner citadel, open yard and a massive outer fortification wall of mud brick  Had garrison reception rooms, housing, storeroom and possible temple  Indentations in the architecture recall the Mesopotamian influenced design of the walls of tombs and towns in the ED Egypt The Second Intermediate Period o Breakdown of central authority Hyksos come in and set up capital at Avaris introduce horse and chariot, composite bow and vertical loom o Amosis defeated Hyksos and drove them away 18th dynasty begins as well as New Kingdom The New Kingdom and Thebes (Waset) o Consisted of 3 dynasties (18th-20th) o 18th dynasty established capital at Thebes; Memphis continued as regional capital of lower Egypt o Early rulers led campaigns against Hyksos in Palestine and Mitanni and Nubia past the Third Cataract, refurbishing MK forts o Deir el-Bahri- marked new trend the formal separateion of the mortuary from the actual burial place, hidden far from the temple o Hatshepsut ruled for 20 years mummy never found thutmode III regained power and became celebrated military leader. o Painted reliefs on the rear wall of the colonnade show the transport of the obelisks Hatshepsut had made for the temple of Amun in Karnak o Later Greeks were indeed greatly influenced by Egyptian stone working tradition in architecture The Temple of Amun at Luxor o Main god of Thebes was Amun, worshipped as Amun-re a fusion with the sun god, Re.

Temple oriented north-south; entrance pylon, open air courtyards: colonnaded halls; and a sanctuary surrounded by small cult rooms. Sanctuary built on highest level The Temple of Amun at Karnak o Temple had its origins in Middle Kingdom but largely the work of the New Kingdom o Not conceived as a unified plan; but rather a pharaoh would add a section to the existing complex o Major part of temple was east-west. o Hypostyle Hall- completed by Seti I and Ramses II. 12 columns along the central passage rising 21 m, the remaining 122 to the north and south rising 13m. A line of windows are only source of illumination for this room o Third pylon built by Amenhotep III, the patron of the Temple of Amun at Luxor marks beginning of the earlier 18th dynasty section of the temple. o Central Court two pairs of obelisks stood here as gifts of Thutmose I. o By new kingdom, obelisks had become tall, slender poles, square in section with a pyramidal top Akhenaten and Tell El-Amarna o Became passionate devotee of Aten, life force depicted as sun disk changed capital to Akhetaten or Amarna. o City was not walled; Royal Road paralleled the river; north south axis. Huge palace occupied the central zone o Palace was built quickly, with the rest of the city, of mud brick with wood or stone for columns and such details as doorsills o Great Temple-great walled area. Main entrance lay on the west side. A narrow building consisting of a hypostyle hall called Per Hai of Housing of Rejoicing. Main temple lay in the east sector of the enclosure and was open air. o Typical house was on generally raised slightly on low performance. Square hall lay in the center of the house surrounded by bedrooms, toilets and storage rooms. After Akhenaten s death there was turbulence. Capital moved back to Thebes and Amun restored as main Gog The Valley of the Kings o Beginning with Thutmose I, most kings of the 18th to 20th dynasties were buried here. o Due to grave robbers, Kings no longer marked their graves as in the instance of pyramids. o Workmen who carved out tombs lived in Deir el-Medina o Only one tomb was found intact, which was of King tutankhamun. Discovered by Howard Carter. th The 19 Dynasty: Ramses II and Abu Simbel o Ramses II reigned for 67 years with administrative centers at Thebes and Per-Ramses. o Built some of the best surviving and largest Egyptian monuments, clashed with Hittites. o Built Abu-Simbel: 4 seated statues: Ramses II, RE-Harakhte, Amun and Ptah Aftermath o Egyptian kingdom prospered through early 20th century BC. o

Dynastic Egypt ended with brief occupation of Persians and then Alexander the Great. Aegean Bronze Age towns and Cities Time periods o Minoan Crete  Old Palace (Protopalatial) period: 1930-1700BC  New Palace (Neopalatial) period: 1700-1450BC y Most sites destroyed in 1450BC except for Knossos and Khania  Late Minoan II: 1450-1400BC y Probable Mycenaean occupation at Knossos and Khania  Post Palatial: 1425-105-BC) y Major destruction at Knossos 1375 BC and probably 1200BC o Thera (Santorini): Volcano erupts 1520BC o Mycenaean Greece  Middle Helladic and Late Helladic: 1650-1500BC y Shaft Graves at Mycenae  Late Helladic II:1500-1400 BC  Late Helladic IIIA: 1400-1340BC  Late Helladic IIIB: 1340-1185BC y Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae; Citadels at Mycenae and Tiryns; Palace at Pylos  Late Helladic IIIC: 1185-1050BC Aegean Civilization and Cities o Aegean refers to the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of the land that borders the Aegean Sea and the Aegean islands, land that now belongs to modern Greece and Turkey o Culture on Crete dubbed Minoan by Arthur Evans, the excavator of Knossos, after Minos, the legendary king of the island. o On mainland Greece, the Late Bronze Age culture flourished in its southern and central sections is called Mycenaean after the city Mycenae o Written documents surviving from the Bronze Age Aegean record a limited range of subjects Crete: Knossos and the Minoans o The Cretan landscape combines rugged mountains with pockets of fertilize agricultural landscape, while its Mediterranean climate features rainy, chilly winters and long hot dry summers o New Palace period peak of Minoans controlled southern Aegean w/ coast of south east Greece and south west Anatolia (Turkey) 1450 BC Destruction Mycenaeans took control of Minoan territories in southern Aegean imposed their oen language and writing system ( Linear B) o

Knossos: hallmark of Minoan architecture. Site is unfortified political harmony. Served many functions: royal residence, seat of administrations, treasury, depot for agricultural and manufactured products and cult center. Only basement survives today o Large public rooms lay upstairs covering a cluster of basement rooms. Palace entrances are modest. Rectangular Central Court is standard of all Minoan palaces. Oriented North-South pointing towards Mount Juktas revered mountain peaks. o Basement rooms along the west side of the Central Court were devoted to cult. Lustral Basin: a gypsum-linked space sunk below the floors of the main room and accessible by two flights of stairs, was a common feature in Minoan palaces o Houses were often two-storied, with rooms for animals and storage on the ground floor and living quarters for the owners on the upper floor Thera: Akrotiri o Thera, or Santorini, is a cluster of islets in the southern Aegean that once formed part of a single irregularly shaped volcanic island. o Streets were not even, but turn, widen and narrow with irregularity o The inhabitant of Akrotiri were aware of impending disaster thus escaping with their precious belongings The Mycenaeans: Mycenae and Pylos o Developed extensive contacts with Egypt, Levant and Europe and the lands of the western Mediterranean. o Speakers of the earliest know form of Greek and wrote in Linear B script, derived from Minoan Linear A o Mycenae  First explored by Heinrich Schliemann, great pioneer of Aegean prehistory  Shaft Graves: stone lined rectangular trench placed at the bottom of a shaft dug out of bedrock or accumulated earth and lined with rubble walls. Occur in two clusters, first group dates to 1650-1550 BC and known as Grave Circle B and the second dates 1600-1500BC, is known as Circle A  Tombs were often reused.  Circle B contained 14 true shaft graves and one later tomb built of masonry and Circle A contained 6 shaft graves. Goods found in Circle A were more lavish then the ones in B ( Golden funeral mask, silver rhyton: drinking cup)  Minoans recognized as providers of finest in design and craftsmanship  By 15th century, choice of burial changed to tholos tomb: round beehive shaped tombs built of fieldstones or well cut stone masonry, laid in the corbelling technique. Dating is hard. Dromos, or entrance way leads to round tomb chamber  Fortified citadels are characteristics of the Mycenaean centers, especially in the coastal regions of the eastern mainland of Greece. Bulk of the population lived outside of the walls  Had extensive system of roads and other civil engineering projects such as securing of water supplies, large-scale drainage and dams o

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Main entrance was called Lion Gate and was erected in 13th century BC. Relieving triangle above gate has relief structure of two lions.  Cyclopean masonry- huge blocks crudely fitted with tiny stones filling the interstices; and a rusticated limestone polygonal masonry, employed much later in Hellenistic times; also seen in Hattusha, Hittite capital o Pylos: the Palace of Nestor  Palace did not have fortification wall due to no rival in the vicinity  Had megaron used in Homer to denote great hall. Mycenaean megaron is a unit of normally 3 rectangular spaces arranged along a sinlge axis: a porch, vestibule and a much larger main room  Megaron surrounded by rooms devoted to important economic activities of the palace. The End of the Mycenaean Civilization o Palace of Nestor destroyed 1200 BC people responsible are unknown o The Aegean basin reverted to a village based economy with little external trade and few luxuries Anatolian Bronze Age cities Time Periods o Troy:  Troy I: 2900-2400BC  Troy II: 2400-2100BC  Troy III-V: 2100-1800BC  Troy VI:1800-1300BC  Troy VIIa:1300-1260BC  Troy VIIb 1:1260-1190BC  Troy VIIb 2: 1190-1100BC o The Hittites:  Old Hittite Kingdom: 1575-1400BC  Middle Kingdom: 1400-1350BC  Hittite Empire: 1350-1200BC Anatolia divided into two geographical zones: the coast and the interior Troy o War is supposedly fought here between Trojans and the Mycenaeans occupied a preeminent place in the consciousness of the ancient Greeks, with the works of countless writers, sculptors and painters bearing witness to the pull of this dramatic conflicts but no contemporary accounts o Troy is a hoyuk, an artificial mount consisting of the remains of successive layers of human habitation. o Schliemann and Dorpfeld divided Troy into 9 difference cities that date from the Early Bronze Age to Greek and Roman periods o Troy II 

Major level of Bronze Age, walls enclose a roughly circular area ; built of stone with foundations with sun dried mud brick superstructure.  Main buildings inside of Troy II are megarons and are freestanding and not embedded insider a larger palace complex. o Troy VI and VIIa  Encompasses a larger area but still roughly a circle  Center of Troy VI destroyed by later Classical builders and by early excavations  Buildings are generally free standing on stone foundations o Archaeology and the Trojan War  Inhabitant of Troy VIIa rebuilt walls of VI and settlement shows signs of a siege.  The destruction of Troy VI has been attributed to people or to an Earthwuake  Trojans left no written documents, but Mycenaeans did write but left no testimony about such a conflict and the Hittite reports do not mention it Hattusha and The Hittites o Hittites are the earliest attested speakers of an Indo-European language group of languages related in grammar and vocab that stretches eastwards across Europe from Ireland to western Asia and northern India o Hittite language was first written in the early 16th century BC, in a cuneiform adapted from the Old Babylonian scripts used in northern Syria and later in a hieroglyphic script. Predates Greek Linear B by 200 years. o Kanesh become a symbolically important ancestral home for the Hittites o Under Hattushili, Hittites expanded territory south east into modern Syria; successor, Murshiki I, pushed even further, sacking Babylon and ending Old Babylonian dynasty founded by Hammurabi Babylon too distant, south east frontier remained at Syria o Despite prosperity for much of the 13th century BC, empire weakened swiftly at the end of the century city was captured and destroyed in 1200BC o Hattusha  Located in cetral Anatolia and was brought to public notice by Charles Texier  Waller area served as royal and sacred enclosure contained palaces and numerous temples  Hittites combined natural topographical features with wall with stone foundations.  Three gates on southern section are impressive ceremonial purpose y King s Gate (south east) and Lion s Gate (south west) are similar both named after their respective reliefs y Sphinx (south center)- stands at highest point of the city on the southern part. Stands on top of glacis, a sloping earthwork covered with paving stones  Great Temple- Temple I: largest temple at Hattusha and the cult center for the lower town; preserved only in its foundations. y Gods worshipped here were the storm/weather god and sun goddess

Town proper surrounded by a paved street; main gate was on south east side  The Citadel: Buyukkale y Hilltop is fortified on north and east by a gorge and on the west and south walls were added. y Seat of government, site of ruler s palace and his residence and official quarters  Yazilikaya y Lies north east of the city was built during the 13th centry BC y Consists of 3 open air chambers formed by natural rock y Reliefs on walls depict Teshub, weather god and Arinna, the sun goddess. Names are Hurrian not Hittite. y Tudhaliya VI depicted on same relief shown larger then deities The End of the Bronze Age in Anatolia o Destruction of the late 13th and 12th centuries BC hit coastal and interior Anatolia Hattusha attacked and Hittite Empire destroyed o By 8th century BC, mid Iron Age new peoples had established themselves in west Anatolia: Greeks along Aegean coast, Lydians, Carians and Lycians inland. On central plateau the Hittite lands were controlled by Phrygians Near Eastern cities in the Iron Age Time periods: o Iron Age in the Near East: 10th century BC -330sBC o Mespotamia:  Neo-Assyrian Empire: 1000-612 BC  Neo-Babylonian Empire: 612-539 BC o Anatolia  Phrygians: 11th to 4th century BC  Urartians: 9th to 7th century BC o The Levant: Phoenicians and Hewbrews  Phoenicians: flourished 1000-700BC y Major cities: Tyre, Sidon, Byblos  Hewbrews: y David: ruled 1000-965 BC y Solomon: ruled 965-931 BC o Jerusalem: First temple y Conquest of Nebuchadrezzar II: 586 BC o Destruction of First Temple o Babylonian Captivity to 539 BC o The Persians  Medes: 8th century-550BC (capital: Ecbatana)  Achaemenids:550-330BC (capitals: Persepolis and Susa) y

The Neo-Assyrian Cities of Northern Mesopotamia o Area was between Euphrates and the Tigris within the Fertile Crescent, a region in which rainfall is adequate to sustain agriculture without recourse to irrigation o Cities developed 3rd millennium and prospered 3rd millennium o Neo-Assyrain is applied to the resurgent stat of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia during the early Iron Age o Opening 1st mil. BC exapansion of Assryian power under a series of absolute monarchs o Assurnasirlap II changed capital to Kalhu from Assur and led campaigns westward o Subsequent rulers enlarged Assyrian territory such as Sargon II (founded his capital at Dur-Sharrukin), Sennacherib and Assurbadnipal, last two had capital in Nineveh o Assyrian empire fell in 7th century BC to Medes of Persia Kalhu (Nimrud) o Capital of Assurnaspiral II, located on the east bank of the Tigris o 4 characteristics of northern Mesopotatmian cities in the Iron Age  City was laid out in a rough rectangle and enclosed by a mudbrick fortification wall  Palaces and temples together occupied a walled citadel, raised high on the mound containing the remains of an earlier smaller town  Second citadel, placed along city wall but at some distance from main citadel  Citadels placed high above the city; difference in sectors marked by differences in elevation o Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II  Provided housing for important officials, center for caravan trade, treasury and a granary  Divided into two sections, one public (north) and one private (south  Stone slabs or othostats placed upright against the lowest section of the walls  Lamassu- human headed winged bulls, magical protective creatures  Relief sculpture shows King Assurnasirpal being blessed by god Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) o Capital founded by Sargon II only used during the lifetime of the builder o Two sectors set off from town proper and protected by separate set of walls: the Citadel with the royal palace in the north west and the Imperial Arsenal in the south o Palace sits on elevated brick platform that rises to the height of the city walss o Palace not perpendicular to city walls Nineveh o Final capital of the neo-assyrians; Sennacherib chose old city as capital and enlarged and refurbished it o Built lavish palace, called Incomparable Palace lots of plants and gardens o Sennacherib sacked and destroyed rebellious Babylon was eventually murdered by son/s o One of the largest cities in Ancient Near East, only Babylon would surpass it.

West sections contains two mounds:  Kuyunjik- where palace of Sennacherib and last great kings of Assyria stood  Nebi Yunus- nerve center of Assyrain machine stood there; today Muslim shrine stands there. o Royal Palace at Kuyunjik many reliefs: King reclining in garden area with queen, dead enemy Anatolia and the Levant: Phrygian, Urartian, Phoenician and Hebrew Cities o Phrygians- migrants into Anatolia from the Balkans in the Early Iron Age settled in central Anatolia and established capital at Gordion o Urartians- in eastern Anatolia. Spoke language that descended from Hurrian and wrote it in cuneiform. Owed prosperity to copper and iron mines o Phoenicians- during iron age, the northern levant was heartland. Organized in independent city states ruled by kings o In souther Levant Philistines settled in the coastal plain while the Hebrews dominated hilly interior o Jerusalem and the Hebrew Temples  The Great Temple, home of the of Yahwek and the Ark of the covenant was built by Solomon on a hill  Was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC  Hezekiah s Tunnel- but to bring water into the city from the Gihon Spring outside the city walls  Second Temple built after Babylon fell to Persian King, Cyprus the Great destroyed by Romans in 70 AD.  Only Western wall survived, now called the Wailing Wall Babylon o Came to prominence during the reign of Hammurabi in the 18th century BC o During Iron Age, had turbulent relationship with the Assyrians to the north o Under Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar, the Neo-Babylonians restored their cities with emphasis on temples; revitalized trade, fought neighbor states. o Established as political, cultural, intellectual and religious center o Persians occupied Babylon by 539BC o Major excavations conducted by German archeologist Robert Koldewey from 1899-1917 o Has two fortified sections, one inside the other, with the Euphrates flowing north south through the city o City center- site of major monuments of the city: royal palace, cult centers and old residential quarter o Was laid out in a grid with straight streets oriented towards the river o Private houses follow traditional Mesopotamian types: two or three storeys with a courtyard in the center o Palaces were grand but it was the Temple of Marduk and Ziggurat that occupy center of the city o Processional way and Temple of Marduk o

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Processional way- began outside northern Ishtar Gate; images of gods carried along this route during the New Year Festival of March or April  Ishtar gate was protected by lions, bulls and dragons  Ziggurat would be known as the Tower of Babel of the Old Testament  Temple of Marduk, principle god of the city o Southern Palace of Nebuchadrezzar  Was constructed on a raised platform of baked brick; plan resembled Assyrian type  Unlike Assyrains, neo-babylonians did not line rooms with stone orthostats  Builders were foreign, skilled and unskilled brought to Babylon following victorious campaigns The Achaemenid Persians and Persepolis o Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great in 539BC dynasty lasted until 330BC when Alexander the Great came through o Persians founded new capitals to mark advent of new monarchs o Pasargadae- newly created capital of Cyrus the Great Darius I established Persepolis in Fars o Persepolis  Served as a major center until sacked and burned by Alexander  Citadel was meant to be a center for both government and ceremonials  Palace complex sits on large platform  Apadana, great audience hall begun by Darius I  In contrast with earlier Mesopotamian art, no god is present to affirm divine support o Royal Tombs  Cyrus the Great buried in a free standing building at Pasargadae a simple single room structure standing on its own stepped platform Early Greek city states of the Iron Age (11th 7th centuries BC) Cultural periods of ancient Greece o Sub-Mycenaean and Sub-Minoan:11th century BC o Protogeometric: 1000-900 BC o Geometric: 900-700 BC o Orientalizing (Early Archaic): 725-600BC o Archaic: 600-479 BC (end of Persian wars) o Classical: 479-323 BC (to the death of Alexander the Great) o Hellenistic: 323-31 BC (to the Battle of Actium) Greeks lived divided into a multitude of city states and ethnoi until the later 4th century BC City states, or polis became a characteristic unit of government during the 8th century BC Historical Background o Collapse of Bronze Age cultures of Greece in late 13th and 12th centuries BC Greek Dark Ages for 400 years

Two key migrations took place:  Dorian Invasion- Greece divided by regions speaking different dialects Dorian dialect speakers migrated southwards into Greece while fighting  Greeks from mainland migrated eastwards across the Aegean to the shores of Anatolia o Reasons for migrating: colonies, commercial interests, competition for land and political struggle o Two desinations for immigrations were South Italy and Sicily in the west Rise of the Polis o Greeks favored peninsulas because they could easily be defended o An example would be Kintet Hoyuk on the north east Mediterranean coast near modern Dortyol o Also valued were hilltops near the sea, which were also easily defended o Ex: Lefkanki, Zagora. o As dangers receded, towns that were well situated to profit from trade or agriculture survived while those built strictly for protection were abandoned o Early city states ruled by Kingss gradually power base widened Kings gave way to aristocrats, wealthy citizens and in some cases even citizenry at large o Political rights were restricted only to male citizens The Early Greek Town: Zagora o Protected from cliffs on three sides, land fortified by a stone wall o Water was not immediately available, but had to be carried from springs or collected from rain o Houses were single storey with flat roofs of thing pieces of schist covered with clay, laid on wooden roof beans supported by wooden columns o Small temple identified in the center of town, built in 6th century Bc after the town had been abandoned o Temple consisted of a porch and a main room Cemeteries at Lefkandi and Athens o Lefkandi: The Heroon  Elaborate burial from mid 10th century BC of a man, woman and 4 horses in two compartments in a shaft cut into the floor of a large building  Orienting east west, it was divided into several sections: east porch for entry, large central room, west corridor with a north and south room off it and an apsidal room on the west  Grave was a heroon:tomb or shrine commemorating a hero o Athens: the Kerameikos cemetery and pottery in the Geometric style  Greeks believed dead to be ritually polluting place outside city limits  Pot either amphoras or kraters had perforated bases or bottoms to allow liquid offerings and rainwater to trickle to the Earth below  Each head, leg and tail painted separately, no overlapping features o

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Corinth: Orientalizing Pottery and Hoplite Warfare o First seen in 725 BC and adopted by Athens some 25 years later o Style breaks from geometric more internal details, expression by lines incised through black glaze to reveal light clay below o Hoplites: citizen infantrymen deployed in a plalanx formation protect comrade towards left The Greek Sanctuary The Heraion on Samos o Alter and the temple were the main components in compound marked off by a low wall o Entire holy area called sanctuary or temenos o Samian Heraion: sanctuary to the goddess Hera on Samos o Town of Samos and sanctuary linked by Sacred Way o Early temple of Hera was narrow structure made of mud brick walls on stone foundations. 3 wooden columns in antis marked the entrance o Exterior colonnade would become a hallmark of Greek temple architecture o Propylon- stone lined basin for the bathing of the cult image o Stoa- colonnaded porch with a roof and solid rear wall Votive Offerings, Foreign Contacts, Writing and Coinage o Example of votive gifts: bronze statuette from Thebes, dedicated to Apollo from a man named Mantiklos o Boustrophedon-lines of words written in alternating directions o Greeks adopted an alphabet from the Phoenicians in the mid 8th century BC, ending 4 centuries of illiteracy after linear B fell out of use o Literature was benefit of resurgence of writing IIiad and The Odyssey o Use of coins began in the late 7th BC in Lydia, non Greek kingdom in west Anatolia o Contacts with the Near East and Egypt were crucial in the development of Greek culture Archaic Greek cities II nd th By the 2 quarter of the 5 century BC power had concentrated in the hands of Sparta and Atehns Would eventually fight in Peloponnesian War draining conflict which would end with the defeat of Athens Sparta o Located in a fertile plain in the south east Peloponneus amassed large territory large amount of territory for a Greek city o Periokoi- citizens with less rights, autonomous in villages but with no say in state government but could serve in the army o Helots- tenant farmers or serfs without any rights o Men lived in barracks until age 30; even women trained o Individuality was discouraged , products of creativity such as fine arts was restricted. Money was regarded as corrupting. Coinage not issued, used iron bars o Government was oligarchy ; important decisions were made by smaller bodies, 5 ephors and a council of elders including two hereditary kings who had authority in war

Athens in the Archaic Period o Writers flourished o Democracy in which all its male citizens had an equal voice o By late 7th century Athens controlled entire region of Attica o Kleissthenes organized the citizenry into 10 artificial tribes each tribe sent 50 men into the council of 500 o City dominated by two hills:  Acropolis: turned into religious sanctuary for the goddess Athena: Parthenon, Temple to Athena Polias  Pnyx- popular assembly held meetings o Agora, civic center, took secular role o By the end of the 6th century, important civic building lined the foot of low hill on the west o Old Bouleuterion, square building with seating on three sides housed Council of 500 o Area contined as the civic center through the Roman Empire with many changes made to its architecture and monuments o Alter of the Twelve Gods marked center of the city from which distances were measured and served as a recognized haven for those seeking refuge o Panathencic Way- crossed Agora at a diagonal Archaic Art: Pottery and Sculpture o Leading producer of decorated pottery in the Archaic and Classical periods was Athens, replacing Corinth. o Athenian potters and painters used two main techniques: black figure and red figure o Mythical figures were always popular but by later 6th century BC daily life subjects became popular o Twisting position were depicted in vase painting and relief sculpture o Euthymides- red figure painter shows twisting on amphora o Influence of Egyptian sculpture on Greek artist was of crucial importance poses of Egyptian statuary o Beginning Greek sculpture featured free standing male and female statues known as kouros and kore o Kleobis and Biton: statues that are muscular, Egyptian pose with one foot advanced and fists clenched to the side by classical period evolution would result in more naturalistc depiction of the body o All Greek statues were painted in bright colors The Persian Wars o In 490 and 480-79 BC Persians attacked city states of mainland Greece in punishment for their part in Ionian Revolt o In 480BC Persians destroyed Athens while Athenians abandoned capital Greek Sanctuaries Delphi: The Sanctuary of Apollo

Contains two sanctuaries: larger and better one dedicated to Apollo other one for Athena Pronaia  The Temple of Apollo and the oracle y Sanctuary of Apollo- large rectangle crammed with buildings and monuments and is dominated by Temple of Apollo and Sacred Ways y Vehicle of Prophecy was a middle aged woman, the Pythia, through who Apollo spoke through y 3 versions of temple: first burned down in accidental fire replaced by a large Doric temple completed in 506 BC second temple destroyed in an earthquake third version built on same plan y Early years oracle took place only once a year in Feb formal consultations each once a month y Pythia (two or three)working in shifts to handle all the inquiries, would purify herself with water at the Castalian Spring and with the smoke of laurel leaves and barley meal y All had to purchase and offer on the alter an expensive sacred cake with states paying higher prices than did individuals. Sacrifice of a sheep or goat was then expected with much of the meat going to local townspeople y Pythia answered specific questions but did not predict the future in general  The Siphnian Treasury y Most famous is the Siphnian Treasury built 530-525BC by the inhabitants of the small Cycladic island of Siphnos wealthy from gold and silver mines y Caryatids- usual two columns in antis holding up the porch were carved in the shape of women y North frieze depicts battles of gods versus the giants, favorite allegory for ancient Greeks, with the gods representing the forces of order and civilization the giants chaos and barbarism  Commemorative monuments y City states rarely acted in concert; only exception was the struggle to repel the Persian invaders in the early 5th sandwich y Spoils seized from the Persians were set in public view at the Treasury of the Athenians y Serpent Column honoring victory at Plataea in 479BC; lower coils were inscribed with the names of the city states who joined together to defeat the Persians y Celebrations of Apollo included the Pythian Games; held every 2 years y Best votives was a life size bronze statue, the Charioteer of Delphi placed in the sanctuary to the north west of the Temple of

Apollo made by lost-wax casting process, a technique developed in the Iron Age for making small bronze figurines several pieces cast separately and later joined o Olympia: The Sanctuary of Zeus y Lies in flat, fertile, wooded plain in the north-west Peloponnesus some 12km from the sea y Distinctive landscape features conical Hill of Kronos and two rivers, the Kladeos and the Alpheios y Two famous temples dedicated to Hera and Zeus y Olympics games until Christian emperor Theodosius the Great ended the games in AD 393 y Sacred precinct marked off by low wall; ritual focused on two places: the tombs of Pelops, a legendary king of Olympia and the main alter, made not of stone but of ash from burnt offerings.  The Early Classical style in Greek sculpture y Aegine, located close to Athens in the Saronic Gulf, prospered during the Archaic period as a commercial center y Figure of wounded west warrior: stiff torso, manages to smile while pulling out arrow y East warrior- face conveys seriousness of wound, balances weight on the upright shield  The Temple of Zeus y Built in 470-457 BC during the classical period by the architect Libon y Purely Doric design y Colossal gold and ivory cult statue of Zeus y The statue was the work of the Athenian sculpture Pheidias in the 430s after the temple was completed  The Olympic Games and Greek athletics y Stadium one sees today built 350 BC and lies outside the sanctuary y Athletic training took place in the gymnasium and the palaestra y Prizes from victory were great , crown from branches of sacred olive tree presented at Olympia and prestige was great y Held every 4 years in the late summer only rarely did political disputes flare up enough to jeopardize the contest y First days dedicated to prayers and sacrifices and to the oath of fair play games lasts 3-5 days y By late classical period the religious authority of the games was diminishing Athens in the 5th century BC Time periods: o Early Classical period: 480-450 BC

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o High Classical period: 450:400 BC Fifth century BC marked high point of Athens achievement in literature, architecture, and visual arts matched by political power and wealth Defeated by Spartans in 404 BC ended Athen s power and profits Historical Introduction o After Persians sacked Athens in 480BC Athenians came back and decided to fortify the city o Town and port were linked by the Long Walls, a corridor of parallel walls, third wall reaching eastwards to protect the secondary harbor at Phaleron o Delian League- formed in 478 B, coalition of states under the leadership of Athens that maintaining a large navy with states contributing either ships or money o Athens tightened its grip over member states, gradually transferring the League into Athenian empire treasury of the League moved from Delos to Athens o Perikles, leading statesman Athenians expressed their city s greatness in a major reconstruction of the sanctuary to Athena on Acropolis o Peloponnesian War Spartan victory and occupation of Athens and pulling down of walls o 394BC Athens free of Sparta rebuilt its walla under the leadership of Konon and regained a measure of former importance Athenian Acropolis o Acropolis/high city:a hill or mountain top easily fortified o Athenian acropolis natural broad topped hill rising 90 m above the city enclosed by mountains, Mt Hymettus, Mt Pentelikos, Mt Parnes and the Aigaleos ridge and the Aegean Sea. o Only in the Archaic period did the primary function change from fortress or religious sanctuary, with the worship of Athena predominating. During medival and early modern times Acropolis became fortified village, the ancient building adapted for new needs o The Parthenon: architecture  Doric temple that incorporates several Ionic features  Built by Iktinos and Kallilrates but sculptural decoration was work of Pheidias who served as overseer of the entire Acropolis building program  Ground plan of Pathenon departs from the typical in a few respects: y Colonnade consists of 8 columns on the short sides and 17 on the long side, expansion of usual Doric column count y Addition of sculpted frieze, an Ionic feature y Stylobate is not flat but curves from center to four corners y Thickening of corner column 1/14 more than normal  Windows on east wall; the cella and the cult statue were better lit than previously thought  Room in the west, called Parthenon, the chamber of the virgin, served as a treasury rather than as the home of a cult statue  Decorated with metopes on all four sides and sculpted pediments

Parthenon: Sculptural decoration and cult statue  No pictures of rulers or prominent citizens of Athens  Metopes were first component of sculptural decoration to be carved followed by the frieze and the cult statue and finally the pediment sculpture  The Metopes y Metopes illustrated the combats of Lapiths vs Centaurs, Gods vs Giants, Greeks vs Amazons, and probably Greeks vs Trojans, all allegories for the battles of Order vs Chaos, Civilization vs Barbarism  The Frieze y Records procession during the Panathenaic Festival that led through the city up to the Acropolis y Panathenaia- held mid-August to celebrate the birthday of Athena ; Every fourth year a grander version took place, Great Panathenaia y East side: presence of seated gods the poplos is displayed  The Pediments y Sculptors returned to mythology y Unlike metopes, with their allegorical treatment of recent Greek history, the pediments show episodes from distint mythical past of Athens y One over main entrance shows the birth of Athena y West pediment shows Athen s victory in her contest with Poseideon for the position of patron deity of the city  The cult statue y Collossal statue of Athenia built by Pheidias y Was reminder that Athena led the Greeks to triumph against the Persians The Propylaia  Propylaia consists of a main hall on the weat-east axis, which gives access to the Acropolis and flanking chambers on the north west and south west  Displays Doric order with a wider spacing for the central ramp, but 3 pairs of ionic columns, tall and slender, line the west portion of the central passageway  Parthenon screened off by low wall from its north side to the south east corner of the Propylaia Temple of Athena Nike  Built during the Peloponnesian War  Corner volutes turn out onto diagonal, thus offering solution to the problem of how a two dimensional Ionic volute capital might gracefully fir the corner position  Frieze show Nikai or Victories erecting trophies or bringing sacrificial animals in the presence of a seated Athena The Erechtheion  Ionic temple on the north edge of Acropolis built between 421-405 BC

Honors Erechtheus, a legendary king of Athens and the temple itself may stand on the site of the Mycenaean palace  Sheltered a variety of cults combined with irregular ground levels  Consisted of a main building oriented east west to which porches have been attached: north porch with 6 ionic columns and smaller south proch with 6 caryatid columns  Shrine of Athena Polias outfitted with an oil lamp makde of gold, always lit, a bronze palm tree above it that contained chimney The Theater of Dionysos and Chor egic Monuments o Dates back from the 4th century BC o Performances included dances and procession, music and chanting all taking place on a low flat ground, the orchestra with spectators seated on higher ground, the theatron o Performances were presented in competition, with well to do citizens, or choregoi, financing the productions o Lysikrates Monuments- consists of a cylindrical structure standing on a square base. Decorated with Corinthian capitals, Ionic frieze that show Dionysos chased by pirates o Corinthian capitals did not bring a new order of architecture to rival Doric and Ionic, but were instead grafted onto the Ionic order as an alternative to the standard Ionic volute capital The Lower Town: Houses and the Agora o Urban plan and houses  Athens in the 5th century BC was the largest of the Greek city states  Layout of streets was narrow, twisted of hard earth and gravel  Typical city house was irregular in outline and simple in planl small rooms without distinctive character arranged around a central court  Lighting was poor no windows so sunlight entered from doorways  Walls were mud brick on stone foundations and flooring was normally beaten Earth or exceptionally, pebble designs  Water was not piped to individual homes, but people relied on wells and stone lined pits werved as cesspools  Main hydraulic engineering project of Classical Athens was Great Drain established in 5th centurt BC o The Agora  Oath of Platea- can t rebuild religious buildings after Pesian war  Agora was lively with construction  Tholos- round structure served as the headquarters, dining hall and dormitory of the Prytany, 50 men from the larger Boule, or Council 500, that handled daily business of the city for a period of 35-6 days  Hephaisteion- dedicated to Hephaistos, god of forge and to Athena. Temple is Doric in plan and elevation: 18 metopes depicting deeds of Herakles and great Athenian hero Theseus ajd frieze of battle scenes  Strategeion- meeting hall for generals

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New Bouleuterion- rose adjacent to the Old for the council of 500 Stoa of Zeus- Doric building with two projecting wings serving cult of Zeus Eleutherios  South Stoa I- contained administrative offies and rooms where officials could dine  Agora was central market area Greek Cities and Sanctuaries in the Late Classical period Late Classical period: 400-323 BC Historical Summary o 371 BC Spartan army defeated by Thebes at Battle of Leuctra never recovered o Philip II- came to power in Macedonia in 359 BC strengthened Macedonia through military reform , eventually challenged southern city states including Athens and beat them at Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC o Alexander the Great- led army to Asia and defeated Persians in 3 key battles, Granicus, Issos and Gaugamela Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epiauros: A new direction in religious practice o Epidauros was cult center of healing god Asklepios o Main public festival took place in late April and Early may purification with washing, sacrifices, a formal banquet and athletic and music competitions o Santucary situated on flat ground principle structures inside are Temple of Asklepios, tholos (round building) and the abaton o Tholos: 6 concentric rings of thufawith doors in the inner rings creating maze o Theater  Could hold 14,000 people  Curved seating/cavea: cavea built against hillside  Horizontal diazoma- divides cavea into upper and lower halve, with upper steeper than lower  Base of cavea lies the orchestra, where the chorus performed  Skene: platform for the solo actors, had a backdrop  Parodio: separated skene from cavea Priene: A Small Greek City o Located in south west Turkey near the Aegian Sea; shows us an ancient Greek city in a comprehensive way that richer, much rebuilt centers such as Athens cannot o Founded by Greeks in iron age, town kept moving more inland as shoreline was moving economic prospects fading o Streets were at right angles in accordance with the principles of planning associated with the 5th century urbanist, Hippodamos of Miletus o Open air agora is defined by stoas on all four sides inside stoas, legal affairs, government offices, shops, perhaps shrines and simply meeting and chatting. o Stoas also served as architectural the harmonious appearance of the public square o Bouleuterion looks like a small indoor theater square with benches on three sides

 

Gymnasium- central hall served as schoolroom for boys Theater  Stage building consists of two parts: high rised platform in front, and even taller portion behind  Chorus lost much of its importance solo actors emphasized by placing them on top of proskene o Temple of Athena  Temple is Ionic, architect was Pytheos Olynthos: Houses o Olynthos flourished from 432 to 348 BC when it was destroyed by Philip II, abandoned in 316BC o Religious building are lacking and public buildings are few o Blocks of adjacent houses share walls and are neatly arranged along straight streets laid out in parallel lines o Normal shape of house was a square not rectangle o Pantas-intermediate space between the court and the small rooms behind o Andron- men s dining hall, decorated with floor mosaic. Man of household received guests here o Meals include bread, eggs, chese, soup, cooked cerals, fish, but rarely meat. Wine was a staple drink diluted with water o Floor mosaics  Characteristics of later greek and roman citites in both public and private building  Mosaics fall into two groups depending on material: pebbles and tesserae  For pebble mosaics, pebbles were used to make pictures, sometime with baked clay or lead strips  During early Hellenistic period, pebbles were replaced by tesserae, but pieces of stone, glass or terracotta of various colors shading could be controlled with greater precision Vergina and Halikarnassos: Royal Burials o After the early Iron Age with the spectacular burial at Lefkandi and the great funerary vases at the Dipylon cemetery in Athens, burials became relatively modest o Vergina  3 royal tombs dated to 350-300 BC  Tomb II- Philip II  Tombs were built of masonry and then hidden beneath a broad low tumulus o Halikarnassos  Mausoleum was visible public display of royal prestige  Region was known as Caria, administered for the Persians by the Hecatomnids, a non Greek Carian family o Mausoleum survived until the Middle Ages, when its final demolition took place at the hands of Knights of St.John o o

Stoof on the slope a short way above the harbor, in the north east part of a large terrace Combines both native Anatolian and Greek elements Had tall base rising in 3 tiers, second stage had temple like colonnafe of 36 ionic columns surrounding a cella. Third stage of 24 steps rises like a pyramid to a small platform with a statue of Mausolus and Artemisia and a shariot drawn by four horses Hellenistic Cities Time Periods o Death of Alexander the Great:323 BC o Attalos II bequeathes Pergamon to Rome:133 BC o Battle of Actium: 31 BC Historical Introduction o After Alexander the Great: empire divided by Generals: Ptolemy took Egypt, Seleukos ruled Levant, Syria and south east Anatolia and Lysimachos controlled Greece and western Asia Minor o Hellenistic refers to centuries of Greek ascendancy in eastern Mediterranean and Near East important advances in knowledge due to scientists, philosophers and compilers. o By the end of the Hellenistic perios, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean Didyma: Temple of Apollo o Temple of Apollo is best surviving example of the colossal Ionic temples of East Greece o Temple is principle building at Didyma also contained smaller sanctuary to Artemis o Didyma belonged to city of Miletus were connect by Sacred Way o First temple burned down by Persians under the patronage of Selekos, continued throughout Classical antiquity, a period of 600 years o Expected entrance to the cella thorugh the pronaos is blocked by impossibly high threshold without steps room above priests may have announced the oracular messages o At the far end of this adyton, or sacred area, stood a mini Ionic temple, the naiskos, which sheltered the bronze statue of god o Head of Medusa appeared here as she had for centuries protecting the temple against evil Pergamon: A City in the Athenian Tradition o Was one of leading cities of western Asia Minor during Hellenistic and Roman times o Fortified summit or acropolis contained the palace and certain key public and religious buildings o The Acropolis  Northernmost tip of the acropolis is naturally protected with the land dropping sharply. Here sttod an arsenal  Water brought to city in a triple pipeline of terracotta pipes from a mountain source  Water reached central reservoir on the citadel palaces houses and public fountains sewers: Romans would eventually adopt this system o o o

Temple of Athena Doric order. Formal boundry created in second century BC with construction of stoas in 2nd century BC on three sides. Stoas had two storeys: Doric on bottom and Ionic on top  In later kingdom in 3rd century, kingdom won important victories boosted power of cities  Library built by Eumenes II accommodated 20,000 scrolls would be destroyed in AD 642 by Arab conquerors of Byzantine Egypt  Main writing material was papyrus eventually vellum wsa made of skins were cut into sheets and bound together as pages  Theater of Athena: 10,000 could sit here terrace was dominated at north end by Temple of Dionysos, the god in whose honor performances were given  Upper Agora open court lined with Doric stoas on three sides; heroon- devoted to the cult of the rulers of Pergamon  Great Alter- dedicated to Zeus and Athena built by Eumenes II; set within a large walled compound entered from the East  To style reliefts on Great Alter, Baroque was used: emphasizes strong emotions, violent gestures in mid action and dramatic contrasts between light and dark o Down the Hill: Sanctuary of Demeter and the Gymnasium  Under Philetairos grid was not followed Eumenes II new grid followed a new orientation Romans changed grid and orientation oce afain integrated new building on the acropolis  Sanctuary of Demeter ionic temple and accompanying alter lie in a long rectangular court, enclosed on three sides by stairs and on the fourth by a entrance gateway  Cult of Asklepios was brought to Pergamon in the 4th century BC and thrived throughout Hellenistic and Roman antiquity  Pergamon cultivated role as cultural successor of Athens with sculpture and architecture visually reinforcing this theme  King promoted military triumphs with art and architecture  Attalid dynasty- came into rapid end with Attalos III left kingdom to Rome Alexandria: Capital of a Bicultural Kingdom o Alexandria lied on flat ground , Greeks and Egyptian cohabited without too much friction o Founded by Alexander the Great : two main streets crossed at the center of the plan; heptasadion or a causeway was built, to connect the small island of Pharos with the mainland and harbors lay on either side o Mouseion, a research center in the palace complex that included the great Library; the Sema: sheltered the tombs of Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies o The Pharos or lighthouse- stood into the middle ages: consisted of three sections: Square bottom, octagonal middle and circular top with beacon inside o Ptolemies followed some Egyptian tradtions: marrying siblings and respected Egyptain traditions and allowed them to go on

Serapis: Hellenistic God that was a combination of Egyptian apis bull and Greek divinites such as Hades but looked Greek: Egyptian did not worship but Greeks and Romans did Delos: A Commercial Center o Prospered in mid Hellenistic period as a commercial port specializing in slave trade o Run by and for merchants o Venerated as the place where Leto gave birth to her twins Apollo and Artemis o Was site of Delian League, continued to be independent city states until Rome rewarded island to Athens free port sacked by Mithridates VI and then pirates abandonment in 7th century AD o Depended on water from collection of rainfall in cisterns under courtyards o Commercial buildings consisted of warehouses and agoras o Large covered hall: architecture is unusual and puzzling but has been classified as a commercial building: solid walls on 3 sides other side had a ling of 15 doric columns; roof held up by 44 columsn, 24 outer are Doric, 20 inside are ionic; 8 central columns are form a square held up a lantern with a clerestory for illumination o Clerestory: section of a building that rises above adjacent parts; higher walls carry windows, bringing light into the interior: Egyptian houses and Hypostyle Hall o Largest of agora of Delos Agora of Italians lacking the religious features seen in other agoras must have served a different purpose o o