Tamarind

Booklet No. 471 Condiments and Spices Production: CSPS - 24

Contents Preface I. Introduction II. Distribution III. Ecological Requirement IV. MoIphology and Phenology V. Propagation and Management VI. Vegetative Propagation VII. Uses VIII. Pests and Diseases IX. Marketing Preface Tamarind is a large, handsome, long living evergreen tree, which is widely cultivated for shade and fruit. In hot and dry localities it is briefly leafless. Because of its dense shade and broad spreading crown, it is mainly raised along field margin or at comers where four fields meet. This tree has got multiple uses and every part of it has got some specific usages. Dr. K. T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education I. Introduction Tamarind tree is much loved and cherished throughout the semi-arid regions for its deep, cool shade and for its valuable pungent fruits. Less well known are its excellent leaf fodder and high quality timber. It can be grown on a wide range of soils including slightly saline or alkaline. It has a deep tap root and drought hardy. It is one of the most extensively planted and highly valued tree in India and it is intimately associated with the common man. It is indigenous to tropical Africa and probably to South India. It is the commonest tree planted along the roadsides. Belonging to the family leguminoseae, it is known as Tamarindus indica botanically. II. Distribution It is not essentially a forest tree but extensively cultivated throughout India, exclusing the Himalaya and arid zones. It is considered indigenous in tropical Africa. It thrives best on deep alluvium soils in warm climates and can tolerate drought but not frost. It is planted on roadsides for shade in the plains of northern India and sub-Himalayan tracts, particularly in the south. It is found scattered in dry deciduous forests, mostly in flat or undulating grounds or on gentle slopes from sea levels to about 1000 m. III. Ecological Requirements A tree of tropical climate, hot dry summer with mild winter. Rainfall. In its natural range of distribution, the rainfall varies from 500-1000 mm, received during the monsoon season. Temperature: the maximum temperatures in its natural range of distribution touches above 40C in Southern India, and the minimum in northern India drops to OC. Soils: it is not exacting in soil requirements and can grow on a variety of soils ranging from gravely derived from granitic

rocks 10 deep alluivium. It thrives best on deep loamy soils with adequate moisture supply. It tolerates water logging but grows well with only 350 mm annual rainfall if watered for establishment. IV. Morphology and Phenology Tamarind is a moderate -sized to large, evergreen tree, grows up to 24 m in hight and 7 m in girth. Its bark is brownish or dark grey, longitudinally and horizontally fissured. Leaves are paripinnate up to 5 cm long leaflets generally 10-20 pairs, sub-sessile, oblong, 8-30 x 5 -10 mm. Flowers are borne in small terminal drooping racemes on the current season's growth. The flowers are irregular, zygomorphic with two reddish boat shaped, deciduous bracteoles. Flowers have 4 sepals, reflexed, ovate, cream coloured, and 3 petals which are unequal and borne on the top of thalamus. Pods are 7.5 -20 cm long, 2.5 cm broad and 1 cm thick, more or less constricted between the seeds, slightly curved, brownish-ash coloured, scurly. There are 3-12 seeds in each pod, which are obovate oblong and compressed. They are smooth dark brown and shining. The seeds are contained in loculi, enveloped by a tough, leathery membrane, the so-called, endocarp. Outside the endocarp is the light brownish, red sweetish acidic, edible pulp, traversed by a number of branched, ligneous strands. The out-most covering of the pod is fragile and easily separable. The genus Tamarindus is a monotypic genus and belongs to the subfamily Caeslpinioideae of the family Leguminoseae (Fabaceae). The chromosome number of the species (2n) is 24. The tree has usually a short and thick trunk, which is seldom straight. If grown in a shady environment, the height of the trunk may increase for want of light. It has a handsome, dense and spreading crown of feathery foliage and is an ornamental tree. The old trees are shed during April-May while the new : leaves appear during MarchApril. Flowering take place in April-June and the pods ripen from Feb-April of the following i year. It is an evergreen tree except in very dry localities where it is leafless for a short duration. V. Propagation and Management This can be studied under following subheadings. A. Natural reproduction It occurs from self-seeding when protected. Monkey eat the fruits and scatter the seeds, germinant survive under protection of bushes. It coppices fairly well and produces root suckers. B. Artificial propagation It is by direct sowing, seedlings, stump planting, and vegetatively by branch cuttings and layering for superior trees. This aspect is dealt in the next heading i.e. Vegetative propagation. For seeds, ripe pods are collected off the trees in March- April by shaking the branches, and are dried in the sun. The outer shell is removed by hand by beating with a mallet, and the seed is separated from the edible pulp by hand kneading and washing in water. Washed seeds are dried in shade and stored in gunny bags in a dry cool place. It retains viability for about 6 months. Seed weight is 1500 to 2500/kg

C. Direct sowing Tamarind can be raised by direct sowing in lines behind the plough or in patches 45 cm2, dug 30 cm deep; depth of sowing should be about 1.5 cm. In line sowing, seeds are dibbled about 5 cm apart in lines, which are 4-5 m apart; in patch sowing, 8-10 seeds are sown in each patch. Approximately 20 kg of seed will suffice for one hectare of plantation. D. Seed germinability and seedling growth Germinative capacity is 60 to 75%. No pre-treatment of seed is necessary. Germination is epigeous. The stem is erect with a long primary root, fibrous lateral roots are distributed down the entire length of the main root. The seedlings exhibit moderate growth rate, attaining 0.5 to 1.2 m height by the end of the first and second year of growth. Root development is also fairly fast. E. Nursery technique Seed is sown in large size polybags in March-April. Germination starts within a week and takes about a month to complete. Seedlings attain plantable size 30 cm and above in the following rains when 14 months old. They need to be protected against frost during winter and drought in summer. If growth is poor, seedlings are kept in the nursery for another year and planted out in the second year, however, it is difficult to handle such plants as their tap roots go very deep, and they require careful pruning and tranport. F. Planting Tamarind is raised in canal bank plantations, in village groves and as single trees on field margins at a linear spacing of 10-15 m. Seedlings are planted out in July-August when the soil is well soaked by rains. Individual plants are protected from frost by thatch covering and are watered during summer also fenced against cattle damage. Regular weeding is essential for good growth. G. Silvicultural practices These are as follows. (i) Training and pruning: Permit clear high head and uniform branching in all directions for the natural growth of the tree. No priming is required. (ii) Intercropping: This is a slow growing tree and would take about 15 years to occupy allotted space 12 m x 12 m. Under these conditions during rainy season green manure crops of appropriate vegetable can be taken to economize early years of orcharding. Choice of the crop will be determined by the climate of region. (iii) Orchard soil management: Basins should be kept clean to permit accumulation of water in rainy season and interspace could be covered with appropriate vegetation to avoid soil erosion. In summer, mulching would help to avoid water loss through evaporation. However, these standards will have to be investigated. (iv) Tending: Regular weeding and loosening of the soil, both in the nursery and the field, stimulate growth. As tamarind is grown mainly for its fruit and not for timber, it is not removed in thinning in mixed crops. (v) Nutrition: Being a leguminous tree, it may not require nitrogenous fertilizer, but permission of rotting of leaves which shed regularly in the drip shall be beneficial in enriching the soil and improving its physical state. Phosphorus application at pit filling will be advantageous. (vi) Irrigation: Once the plant has established, it hardly needs any irrigation. However water harvesting in rhizosphere during the rainy season would be advantageous. In heavy rainfall areas proper drainage would be essential. (vii) Rate of growth: Tamarind is a slow growing species.

H. Seed storage Seeds can be stored well for one year, but the seeds are subjected to insect attack, hence it should be well dried and protected from the insect attacks. The storage trials carried out at Jabalpur are furnished below in table 1. Sl.No 1 2 Table 1: Tamarind seed storage and germination Place of Method of Age of seed collection storage at time of testing Jabalpur Polythene bags Fresh One year Jabalpur -doFresh One year Germination capacity 85% 45% 78% 44%

Studies carried out by the Genetics Division of the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Coimbatore on seeds of T. indicus is presented. 1. Time taken for initial germination 7 days 2. Germination capacity 3. Time taken for germinative capacity 4. Germinative energy 5. Purity percent 6. Moisture percent 7. Plant percentage 8. Number of seeds per kg 9. Number of seedlings per kg 10. Viability , 11. Pre treatment VI. Vegetative Propagation Tamarind is almost propagated by seed. To reduce the heterogeneity in the population, vegetative propagation methods like rooting of cuttings and bud grafting can be followed to get true-to-type planting material. A. Macro propagation Following techniques are utilized for macro propagation 1. Grafting Various techniques of vegetative propagation have been tried for Tamarind with varying degree of success the most commonly used technique is approach grafting. In this method, an year old root stock plant raised in a poly bag or a pot is carried next to an identified plus tree and a healthy and vigorous growing branch of this tree is grafted to the root stock plant matching in diameter. The percentage of success using approach grafting is 74% compared to only 25% success using ordinary grafting. 2. Cutting The method of rooting of terminal cuttings is standardized. In this method, the terminal cuttings of the tree were prepared from current year shoots which are soft The cuttings with their new flush of leaves are collected early in the morning when they are fully turgid. The cuttings 60% 25 days 45% 100%..~ 10% 50% 300 650 1 year Not required

are then made into two batches. One batch treated with 1000 ppm Indol-butyric acid (IBA) in 50% Isopropyl alcohol as dip quick, another without any treatment (control). The cuttings were transferred to poly propylene tubes having rot trainers, filled with horticultural grade verminculite, perlite mixture is 1:1 ratio. The tubes with cuttings were placed in mist chamber and subjected to intermittent misting. Care must be taken to maintain 70% -80% humidity. IBA at 1000 ppm concentration accelerated the rooting in terminal cuttings of Tamarindus indica (table 2). Rooting occurred early in IBA treated cuttings compared to control. Similarly there is also marked increase in percentage of rooting over that of control in cuttings treated with IBA. The result reported are in complete contrast to the normal behavioural response that in many trees species, cuttings taken from lower part of the crown respond better to rooting compared to that taken from terminal portion. Table 2: Percentage of rooting in T. Indica Sl.No 1 2 Treatment Control IBA (1000 ppm) No. of cuttings treated 108 108 No. of cuttings rooted 27 102 % of rooting 25 94 No. of days taken for rooting 40-50 0-15

3. Gootee or Air layering Propagation by means of gootee is also followed "Grotte" is another term used for air layering. In this method, roots form as the acturial part of the plant where the stem has been girdled on slit at an upward angle. The injured portion is enclosed at the point of injury with a rooting medium which is maintained continuously moist. By using used IBA 4000 ppm as rooting hormone, 37% of rooting was achieved The percentage of rooting was high when the concentration of hormone (IBA, IBA +NAA) was 7500 ppm. Girdling and etiolation of shoots a month before air layering results in greater accumulation of reducing sugar, non reducing sugars, total sugars, soluble nitrogen, and total nitrogen but there is reduction of starch content. B. Micro-propogation Apart from the above mentioned methods, micropropogation techniques can also be followed for large scale production of Tamarind. Because the conventional methods of propogation like seedling cuttings, grafting etc. have many limitations such as inadequate availability of planting material. The tree is sensitive to frost and required protection when young. It is slow growing and late to 0.8 m in height per year and takes 10-12 years to mature and yield fruit. Seed borne progeny undoubtedly show considerable variation in the size and quality of their fruit. This accounts for the different varieties which have been noted by many workers. None of the vegetative methods of propogation (gootee, grafting etc.) have been totally successful because of the factors like graft incompatibility, differences in growth rate of scion and stock resulting in abnormal growth pattern and low percent of success in gootee. The micropropogation work on Tamarind was carried out by National Chemical Laboratory, Pune. The tissue culture protocol was developed, which is outlined here as follows;

1. Preparation of culture media 2. Germination of seeds 3. Callus initiation 4. Regeneration of shoots from seedling explants. 5. Rooting of invitro grow~ shoots and transfer to soil. 6. Transfer of plant-lets to field. 7. Field data of Tamarind trees VII. Uses Each and every part of the tree has some important usage. A. Small timber wood The timber is valuable; the wood is hard and heavy (1282 kg/cu.m.) and durable under cover. It is used for agricultural implements, tool handles, wheels, mallets, rice pounders, and oil mills, for turnery, printing blocks and tent pegs. Also for construction work and as a substitute for teak and sat for beams, raftes, purlines and trusses. It yields decorative planks of paneling and furniture. B. Fuel wood It is a good fuel wood, the calorific value of the sapwood is 4909 kcal per kg, the heartwood has a calorific vale of 4969 kcal. C. Leafy vegetable The tender leaves are eaten as vegetable and its analysis revealed moisture 70.05%, protein 5.8%, fat 2.1 %, fibre 1.9% other carbohydrates 18.2%, minerals 1.5%, The minerals and other constituents are calcium 101, magnesium 71, phosphorus 140, iron 5.2, riboflavifie 0.17, niacin 4.1 and vit C 3.0 mg per 100 gm. It is a good source of calcium. Its the infusion is cooling. D. Leaf fodder The leaves are good fodder. The chemical composition varies with the locality and the season of lopping. The variation shows no similarity in trend and the best period for lopping may thus differ with the locality. E. Apiary The nectar provides honey. F. Starch The powder of the kernel is used as sizing material in the textile and jute industry and as cattle feed. Starch constitutes about 70% of the seed by weight. The chemical composition on a dry matter basis is protein 17.1-20.1% , fat 6.0-7.4%, carbohydrates 65.1-72.2%, crude fibre 0.7-4.3%, ash 2.5- 3.2%. The nutrient value of kernel feed compares favourable with cereal protein and for cattle about one third of the total feed is recommended and can also replace concentrate mix to the extent of 50%. The total carbohydrate and mineral contents compare favourable wit that of oats and gram while the protein - content is much higher than that of barely, oats or maize.

G. Use of fruit pulp in culinary preparation Tamarind is valued mainly for its fruits; its acidic pulp is a favourite ingredient of culinary preparations like curries, chutney and sherbat. Seeds are extensively used in jam, jelly and confectionery industries and making condiments. H. Non-edible uses of seeds Its seeds (kernel powder) are used in textile and jute industries for sizing, and as a filler for adhesives in plywood industries. Its "seed testa contain 23% tannins, which when suitably blended with babul bark or myrabolans, is used for tanning leather. Seeds give an amber coloured oil, made into a varnish to paint idols. I. Medicinal properties Each part of the tree has medicinal properties which are being discussed here briefly. 1. Leaves and flower Tender leaves and flower which are eaten as a vegetable are cooling and antibilious. The leaf juice is given in bilious fever and scalding urine; their decoction is given to children as an anthelmintic (drug that kills intestinal worms). It is also useful in jaundice. A poultice of fresh leaves is locally applied over inflammatory swellings of ankles arid joints, sprains boils, sore eyes and scalries, a powder of the dried leaves is dusted over foul ulcers, wounds and sore eyes and is used as a gargle. 2. Bark The bark is astringent, tonic and febrifuge (agent used for reducing fever). The ash obtained by heating the bark with salt in an earthern vessel is given for colic and indigestion. A mixture of this ash with water is a gargle for sore throat and a mouth wash for aphthous sores. 3. Fruit pulp The pulp of the fruit is antiscorbetic (drugs which prevents or cures scrurvy), digestive, carminative (drug which relieves flatullence), laxative, astringent, febrifuge, retringerant and antiseptic is given in habitual costiveness, alcoholic intoxication, dhatoora poisoning, bilious vomiting, febrile disorders and dysentery. In sunstroke, an infusion of the pulp, prepared by macerating it in water is particularly useful in loss of appetite and disinclination for food. The efficacy of the strained infusion is increased by adding to it black pepper, sugar, cloves, cardamoms, and camphor to taste, as a refrigerant in fevers and pulp is given with milk. A hot poultice of the pulp is applied over inflammatory swellings, a paste of the pulp made with salt is used as a liniment in rheumatism. Tamarind water is a mouth wash and gargle for stomatitis and sore throat. 4. Seeds The seeds are astringent and discutient (drug which disperses or absorbs a tumor or any coagulated fruit in the body). The seed coat in doses of one grain with an equal quality of cumin and sugar is given in dysentery and diarrhoea two or three times a day. A poultice of the boiled seeds is applied over boils. VIII. Pests and Diseases Important pests and diseases of tamarind are also follows:

A. Pests More than 50 species of insect pests have been reported as the pest of this tree, and they include sap suckers like mealy bugs, scale insects and aphids, attacking tender shoots and leaves, the caterpillars and beetles attacking leaves, flowers and seeds. 1. Sap suckers The scale insects and mealy bugs are found to suck the sap of tender shoots and cause widespread damage. The thrips attacking tamarind are Scirtothrips dorsalis, Haptothrips ceylonicus. Tamarind is also attacked by membracid bugs or cow bugs and three species have been reported to cause sporadic and minor damage. 2. Defoliators Altogether eleven species of defoliators have been reported to attack tamarind in India. They include seven species of lepidopterans and four species of coleopterans (beetles). The lepidopteran pests are Chaliodes vitrea, Cryptothelia crameri, Euproctis scintillans etc. The weevils attacking the leaves are Myllocerus blandus, M.discolor, M. viridenus etc. 3. Flower fruit and seed feeders The important pest of flowers in south India is Eublemma angulifera. Cyclia palamedis bores into the tender flower buds and web them and also the open flowers, thus it causes widespread damage. Epidemic infestation of flowers by the castor semilooper, Achaea janata has been reponed from Tamil Nadu. The pests attacking fruit often make loose gallaries and eat the pulp content and sometimes even the seeds. The fruit feeders are represented by eight species of pests and they are Aphomia gularis, Araecerus suturalis, Assara albicostalis etc. 4. Seed feeders during storage The seed feeder of tamarind are represented by few species of bettles and some of them cause considerable damage during storage. B. Diseases Important diseases infecting tamarind are as follows: 1. Fungal diseases Fungal attack is a menace in nursery as well as in plantation. a. Nursery diseases Pre and post emergence rot of tamarind seedlings: Sclerotium rolfssi causes pre and post-emergence rot in tamarind seedlings. Affected seeds fail to germinate due to the infection. In germinated seeds the further growth of plumule and radical is arrested. Seedling defoliation: One year old seedlings raised at Shivalik Forest Division (U.P.) have been reponed to be severely attacked by Cercespora tamarindi. The disease causes severe defoliation and is host specific. Powdery mildew: Oidium species causes powdery mildew of tamarind in forest nurseries. Control measures in the form of chemical application, were tried. Among the chemicals tried, sulphur dust was most effective in controlling the disease, followed by Karathane (0.1 %) and Calixin (0.1 %).

b. Plantation diseases Pestalotia sp. has been reported to cause stony fruits in tamarind trees. The fruits turn hard, stony with fibrous structures. Seeds, fleshy mesocarp, fruit wall and stalks all are affected by the infection. Up to about 38% of the fruits are found affected in Karnataka. Ganoderma lucidum causes root rot in 20 years old plantations. Crowns of affected trees initially thin out, dry and the symptoms gradually spread later on to the basal region, causing total drying of the trees. Thick white layers of rhizomorphs can be detected in butt region of affected trees. The pathogen has also been known to cause wood rot in trees. In addition to the above fungal pathogens few more have also been reported. 2. Bacterial diseases Bacterial leaf spot of tamarind caused by Xanthomonas tamarindi is the wide spread disease. The bacteria is reported to be an obligate parasite causing small and rounded spots, at first pale brown with yellow margin later turning jet black, on the leaves of tamarind. 3. Angiosperm parasites Trees of tamarind have been noted as subject to infestation by angiosperm parasites probably belonging to Loranthaceae. IX. Marketing Tamarind pulp is also exported to Europe and America for preparing chutney and meat sauces. Under ordinary conditions, the pulp remains good for about a year provided it is kept in dry conditions. Due to high humidity it sweats. Pulp is also salted (10% salt) and trodden into mass made into balls for marketing. Local survey of the marketing of tamarind indicated that the traders make bulk purchases from Tamilnadu, Kamataka and Kerala. The buying rates during peak season varies from Rs 9 to 21 per kg depending upon the quality. The processed tamarind is stored in air conditioned room in order to retain the colour and thus preventing it from getting a black shade. The selling price varies from place to place and varies from Rs. 16 to Rs. 2S during peak season and 26 to Rs. 36 per kg during the off season. A 200 year old tree near Urigram, tamilnadu is reported to yield 2 tonnes of fruits per year. The average length of the fruit is 12 inches and width is 1 to 1.5 inches. %%%%%%%%%%%%