Analysis of wood diaphragms and trusses.

Part I: Diaphragms'
RICARDO FOSCHI 0.
We.ttertl Fore51 Prot/iii~l.s Lo/~orciIor.!.,Cotrtrt/ititl Forc.cl,:\. Scrl,ic,e,Dt~~~tirlttrort c<f'Fi.\lrrr.ie.s trtrr/ I / IG ~ ~ . i r o t ~ t , ~ o r ~ . ~ Vot1c.orr1.c,t.,B.C., Ctitroclo V6T 1x2 Received January 3, I977 Accepted May 17. 1977 is An 21nkrlysis for wood diaphtx~ms presented taking into account the deformation of the connections. The lokrcldeformat~oncha~xcteristicsfor the conncctol-s are ass~~mecl be nonto 1ine;rr. A numerical example is presented and comparisons itre made with experiment;~l results on a 20-ft by 60-ft (6-m by 18-m) plywood and decking roofdiaphrkrgrn. The agreement between the test results and the predictions of the analysis is shown to be good. L'a~~teur analyse Lln cadre en bois avec diaphragrnes tenant compte de la nun-linearite des connexions. Un exemple n~lrne~.iq~lecompare h Llne expel-ience e f f e c t ~ ~ sur un catlre de bois est ee couvelt tle contreplaq~~emesurant 20 pi x 60 pi (6 m x 18 m). La correlation entre les r i s ~ ~ l t a t s et theoriques et exp6riment;rux est adeqll;rte.
Can. .I.Civ. Eng., 1,315(1977)

Introduction Structural components act as diaphragms when they withstand loads in their own plane (Fig. 1 ) i s in the case of roof or wall systems loaded by the action of the wind or by the forces generated during earthquakes. The structura! analysis of diaphragms is not a simple problem, as the system is highly indeterminate and, as in thc case of wood diaphragms, the deformation of connectors must be taken into account. Design guidelines for wood diaphragms are mostly based on cxperience and testing, and a com~rehensive literature survev has recentlv been' published (Carney 1975). Most of thk diaphragms tested have been rectangular and without openings, and it is difficult to extrapolate from thesc tests conclusions applicable to other shapes, other loadings, or other construction configurations. T h e objective of this paper is to present the formulation fcr the structural analvsis of wood diaphragms implemented in the computer program SADT recently developed at the Western Forest Products L a b o r a t o r y . V o u r different and basic structural elements are considered in the analysis: the cover, the frame, the connec'Presented to the meeting of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations, Wood Engineering Group, Aalborg, Denmark, June 17-18, 1976. 'Available upon request from the Western Forest Products Laboratory, 6620 NW Marine Dr., Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1x2.

tions between frame members, and the coverframe connections. Each of these ekments will now be discussed.
The Cover The cover may consist or* plywood sheets, lumber decking, or combinations of both. T h e two-dimensional state of stress is considered to be one of plane stress and a cubic isoparametric finite element, as shown in Fig. 2, is used for the analysis. T h e displacements u and v in the x and y directions, respectively, are expressed in terms of the nodal displaccments u i and vi according to

where the shape functions Ni are given by Zienkiewicz (1971). The material of t h e cover is assumed to b e elastic and orthotropic, with principal axes of elastic symmetry s and y' ' (Fig. 2 ) . The derivation of the stiffness matrix [K],,corresponding to the element is shown by Zienkiewicz ( 197 1) . T h e components o this f matrix may be obtained by numerical intcgration and, in the cxarnple presented in this paper, a 4 x 4 Gaussian quadrature scheme was used. The higher-order cubic finite elements allow the representation of the cover with few such elements, a s will be shown in a numerical example.

CAN. J . CIV. E N G . VOL. 4, 1977

FIG. 2. C o v e r finite elenlent. FIG. 1. W o o d diaphragm.

L

The Frame Consider a frame member of length L between two nodes i and j (Fig. 3 ) . Three degrees of freedom are attached to each node: displacements u and v in the x and y directions, respectively; and rotation 6' (positive when counterclockwise). The deformation of the member is assumed to be represented by w, the lateral deflection, and li, the axial displacement. These two functions are taken, in terms of the local coordinate s, as follows: [2]
cll

Fl(s)wi

[31 where

+ F2(s)Oi + F3(s)wj + F4(s)Oj Ir = Hl(s)iii + H2(s)ij

=

F,(s)

1 - 3(s/L)l

+ ~(s/L)~

x
FIG.3. Framing member.

approximation to the deformation. The same applies to the axial displacement ii, here taken as a linear function of s. Connections between Frame Members Figure 4 shows a connector (idealized as a spring) linking nodes i and j, the latter belonging to member I. The load-deformation properties of the connector are assumed to be known for three different loading conditions: ( a ) for a load P,,., that produces a relative displacement Au between i and j along the member axis x f ; ( b ) for a load P , , that produces a relative displacement A v between i and j along the axis y f ; and ( c ) for a moment M that produces a relative rotation A6' between i and j. All three load-deformation relationships are

H2(s) = s/L The derivation of the stiffness matrix [KIf corresponding to the member is shown, for example, by Przemieniecki (1968). Since the lateral deflection w is taken as a cubic function of s, the deformation of the member will be only approximate if the length L has loads directly applied along it. For the case in which nodal loads as well as member loads are present, the length L may represent a segment of the actual member length, giving a better

FOSCHI. I

347

assumed to be nonlinear and to be represented as [51

Px, =

(mo,, + m,,,lAul)
x [I - exp (-k,,lAullmoll>l

Y'

[61 P,, [71

(moo (moo

+ m,,lAul)
x [I - exp (-k,lAulimo,>l
I

+ m1olAeI)
Load

The parameters kt,, k,, and ko correspond to the initial connector stiffness, the parameters ml to the stiffness for large relative displacements or rotations, and the mo to the intercepts of the asymptotes with slope m l (Fig. 4). T h e relative displacements Au and A V and the relative rotation A0 can be written as

tan-'

[lo] A0 = QOTticf where the vectors Q,,, Q,, Q,, and ti,, are given by cos 4/' -sin

Deformation FIG.4. Load-deformation property, frame connector.

-1

Let U,,, U,, and U, be, respectively, the work required to deform the connector from 0 to IAul, 0 to IAvl, and from 0 to IAel. Consider, for example, the work U,,. It can be determined from El21 that U,, = So'*"' Px.(z)dz Before introducing the vector SU,, into the global system, it is convenient to separate a linear from a nonlinear part. Thus, 6 U,, can be written as

[I31 au,,lalAul = P,,(lAul) The application of the principle of virtual work for the derivation of the global system of equations requires the derivatives of (Ut, + U, U,) with respect to each of the components of the vector ti,,. These derivatives can be assembled into a vector SUcf which, using [8], [9], and [lo], is given by

where the matrix [KIcfis given by

and the vector W,,, using [13], by

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C A N . J. C I V . ENG. VOL.. 4. 1977

Connections between Cover and Frame Members Figure 5 shows a cover finite element connected to a frame member with end nodes i and j. Let P and P be a pair of points with ' the same x-y coordinates, but such that P belongs to the cover and P to the frame. The ' relative displacement between points P and P ' is, therefore, the slip of the connection at the location of P. Consider Fig. 6. Let ~ i be the i relative displacement of P with respect to P' along the member axis x', and let AW be the relative displacement between the same pair of points along the axis y , normal to the member. ' Assume now that P has moved with respect to ' P an amount 11 in the direction making an 4 anglc a with the s axis. The force F required ' to produce this deformation will, in general, depend upon the angle a and will be nonlinearly related to la!.Let this relationship be

FIG. Cover-frame connection deformation. 6.

expressed as

with the parameters k, mo, and m l functions of a. These parameters may be determined in terms of those found from two basic tests: one for a = 0" (force applied along the member axis) and another for a = 90" (force applied perpendicular to the member axis). Assuming, for example, that the initial stiffness measured for a = 0 is k,, and for a = 90" is k,., then An analogous relationship can be used for the parameters mo and ml knowing the corresponding values moil,mop,rnl:,, and m ~ , . T h e relative displacements Aii and AW can b e calculated by using [I], [2], a n d [3]. Thus, from [I], the displacements of P a r e

FIG. Cover-frame connection. 5.

where the nondimensional coordinates 6 and 7 corrcsponding to point P can be obtained by, for example, using the x-y coordinates of points i and C (the centroid of t h e element) and the local coordinate s along the member axis x':

FOSCHI. I

349

[21I

t = (xi + s cos #
7) =

- +)/a

(yi

+ s sin # - y,)/b
+ Nkuksin #)
+ Nkukcos/J)

Therefore, with respect to the xl-y' axes,

ii, =

Using [ 2 ] and [ 3 ] for the displacements of P', the relative displacements ~ i = iip - iipj and i A W = wp - wp. can now be determined. These can be written in the form [23I Aii
=

k= 1
12
k= 1

[221 w,
=

x x
12

(Nkukcos#

Q2SCc

(- Nkuksin /J

AW = QcTSCc where the vectors Q,, Q,, and 6,, are given by F1 sin $
- F, cos

- H I cos y ~ ! - H I sin # 0 - H z cos # - H z sin I/J 0 N , cos # N 1 sin #

-F2 F, sin #

N12 cos N , , sin #

- N 1 2 sin N12 cos

Consider again Fig. 6 . Assume that for a variation in the Si component of the vector ticc, point P' undergoes a virtual displacement dz in the direction r77. The corresponding virtual work dUCcdone by the forces F is given, for the entire length of contact L, by

[27 I s u c c = [Klcc6cc - Wcc with the matrix [K],.,given by

Accordingly, from [26], the vector Wcc is

where p is the density of connectors (e.g. number of nails per unit length). Since, from Fig. 6, dz cos + = AM) and dz sin + = ~ ( A w ) , [ 2 5 ] may also be expressed as 1261

% J ;
aucc

Aii a(Aii) ~ ~ ( 1(TG1 ~ 1

The integrations required by [ 2 8 ] and [ 2 9 ] are performed numcrically, using for example a Gaussian quadrature scheme along the length L of the member.

This expression represents the contribution from the connection to the equation for the unknown S i in the global system. The derivatives [26] form a vector SUcc which, before assembly into the global system, is conveniently split into a linear and a nonlinear part. Thus, let

Global System of Equations and Solution Let 6 be the vector containing all the unknowns, i.e. the displacements and rotations for the frame joints plus the displacements for the cover finite element nodes. The individual stiffness matrices [ K ] , , [ K ] , , [K],,, and [ K ] , , are assembled into a global matrix [ K ] ; the vectors Wc, and Wcc are similarly assembled

C A N . J . CIV. ENG. VOL. 1. 1977

.
60 f t -

FIG. Diaphragm used for testir 7.

into a global vector W. If R is the vector of loads, and since W is a function of the deformation vector 6, the global system has the form This system may be solved by iterations according to with the initial 'elastic' approximation The matrix [K] is kept constant during the iterative process? making the procedure fall in the category of initial stress methods as discussed by Zienkicwicz ( 197 1) . The computer program SADT uses an acceleration technique as described by Irons and Tuck (1969) and Jennings ( 1971 ) . The stopping criterion used is given by the following ratio of vcctor norms [331 116i+l - ~ i 1 1 ~ / 1 1 ~ i 1 1E ~ where c is a certain tolerance, e.g. 0.001

Numerical Example Figure 7 shows a 20-ft by 60-ft (6-m by 18-m) diaphragm section sheathed with lumber decking ( 2 ) and overlaid plywood ( 1 ) . This diaphragm was built and tested at Oregon State University. A comprehensive test report is available (Johnson 1971). The decking consisted of nominal 3-in. by 12-in. (76-mm by 305-mm) laminated ponderosa pine boards, with actual thickness of 2.25 in. (57 m m ) . It was nailed to the frame with 30d common nails, with densities of 0.125 nails/in. (4.92

nails/m) at the chords ( 7 ) , 0.250 nails/in. (9.84 nails/m) at the endposts (G), and 0.167 nails/in. (6.57 nails/m) at the inner posts ( 8 ) . The boards in the decking were of random length, with very limited slant nailing between rows. The overlaid plywood was #-in. (9.5-mm) C-D interior grade Douglas fir, with thc face grain oriented at 45' as shown in Fig. 7 ( 1 ). The plywood was nailed to the decking with 8d common nails, with a density large enough to effectively prevent plywood buckling during deformation. The frame consisted of nominal 2-in. by 10-in. (50-mm by 254-mm) Douglas-fir lumber, collstruction grade. The chords ( 3 ) contained only one board except at spliced sections; the endposts ( 4 ) were made from two boards nailed together; and the inner posts ( 5 ) consisted of four nailed boards. The end connections were made with 1Gd common nails ( 9 ) and four nails were used per post. Four equal loads Po were applied on the plane of the diaphragm and at the inner posts, with point of application on the frame and not on the decking. Deflections were monitored at points A and B of Fig. 7. The experimental results available for this diaphragm were used to test the structural analysis. As a simplification, the deckingplywood assembly was considered as a unit, disregarding the deformation of the nails used to kcep these two elements together. Furthermore, no consideration was given to the nailing between the boards making u p the posts. Finally, it was assumed that, because of the random length of the boards in the decking and the very limited slant nailing, the contribu-

HI. I

35 1

tion of the decking to the stiffness of the cover was negligible. The cover was therefore regarded as a 2.625-in. (66.7-mm) thick plate with elastic properties derived from the contribution of the plywood alone. Along the xi-yi axes oriented at 45", the following were the elastic parameters chosen:

board into the end grain of the posts. The initial stiffness k,: can be estimated by using the procedure described by Wilkinson ( 1972). The ultimate load mo, (assuming that ml,. = 0 ) can be obtained by following the method discusscd by Larsen (1 973 ) . Thus,

with E L ,and E,,l the moduli of elasticity, G,t,t the shear modulus, and IJ,O,I and v,,),, the Poisson ratios. The parameters [34] were derived by equating the extensional and shear stiffness of the 2.625-in. (66.7-mm) plate with that of the ;-in. (9.5-mm) plywood, assuming a veneer thickness of 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) for the faces, 1.5 x loGIb/in." 10.4 x lo6 kN/m2) for modulus of elasticity along the grain and 75 000 Ib/in."518 000 kN/m" for the shear modulus 'through thickness'. The framing lumber was assumed to have a modulus of elasticity E = 1.54 x 10" Ib/in." (10.6 x 10" kN/m2), corresponding to construction grade Douglas fir in accordance with the Canadian Standard CSA-086 (Canadian Standards Association 1976). Actual dimensions for the 2-in. by 10-in. lumber were 1.5 in. (38 mm) by 9.25 in. (235 mm). The connections 9 and 0 (Fig. 7 ) between frame members consisted of four 16d common nails driven into the end grain of the posts. Based on information obtained from the USDA Wood Handbook (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1974), for side-grain withdrawal and using a 5 0 % reduction factor for endgrain withdrawal, the following parameters were obtained:

, The rotational parameters m , , ~mlo, and ko can be derived by using the withdrawal data [35] and assuming that rotation takes place about the edge of the post. Therefore, according to the width of the post, a different set of parameters is obtained for connections 0 and 9:
117,~ =

2400 1b.in. (270 N.m) for 0;

moo = 1200 lb-in. (135 Nsm) for 9;

1371

ko = 360 000 lb.in./rad (40 700 N.m/rad) for 0 ; ko = 90 000 lb.in./rad (10 200 N.m/rad) for 9;

Finally, the parameters nz,,;,, m,:,, k:,, m,,,., m,,,, and k,, for the cover-frame ccnnections can be obtained by considering that, for example, a 30d common nail is deformed along the frame member parallel to the grain of Douglas fir when driven through 2.25 in. (57 mm) of poilderosa pine decking and deformed perpendicular to the grain of the decking. For a deformation perpendicular to the frame mcmber, the nail bends in the direction normal to thc Douglas-fir grain and parallel to that of the pine decking. Using Wilkinson's ( 1972) and Larsen's ( 1973 ) methods, the following parameters were derived:

mo, k,

= =

400 lb (1780 N) per nail 10 000 lb/in. (1750 kN/m) per nail

[35]

k,, = 40 000 lb/in. (7000 kN/m) moc = 600 lb (2670 N) per nail

The parameters mo,, ml,., and kc correspond to the lateral deformation of 16d common nails driven through a 1.5-in. (38-mm) Douglas-fir

kc

10 000 lb/in. (1750 kN/m) per nail

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C A N . J . CIV. ENG. VOL. 4. 1977

Each bay in Fig. 7 was considered a single finite element for a total of five. Each framing member was divided into four segments giving a total of 6 4 members for the analysis. Theoretical estimates for the deflection of the diaphragm were obtained in increments of Po = 2000 Ib (8.9 k N ) . Figure 8 shows a comparison between the predictions from the analysis and the measured deflections at points A and B of Fig. 7. Good agreement is obtained, reproducing the nonlinear behaviour observed in the test. The deflections measured at points A and B correspond to frame deflections and almost all of the observed nonlinearity is due to the nonlinear behaviour of the nailing between the cover and the framing. Although the parameters chosen for the analysis represent realistic estimates based on available literature, all could have been determined by carrying out simple tests on connections. A limited study was carried out to investigate the effect that variability in the connectors' properties has in the overall diaphragm deflections. It was found that this effect is relatively minor when compared with the effect of variability in the stiffness properties for the cover. I t is interesting to compare, finally, the
14.0-

forces in the chords obtained from the analysis and those determined from simple statics. At Po = 10 000 Ib (44.5 kN), the maximum tensile force in the bottom chord was found t o be 1 4 529 Ib (64.6 kN). I the bending mof ment is assumed to be transmitted solely by the chords, a simple calculation from statics gives a maximum chord force of 1 8 000 Ib (80.1 k N ) . The conservatism i n the latter is due to the contribution of the cover, but the difference is not excessive: about 2 4 % .

Conclusions

A structural analysis for wood diaphragms

has been discussed. It has been implemented in the computer program SADT a n d incorporates the basic features of wood structural assemblies: orthotropic plate action and nonlinear connection behavior. The analysis has been shown to give reliable estimates for diaphragm deformations and it is capable of providing approximations for ultimate loads based on connection yielding. The required conneetion load-deformation input data can be obtained from testing or may be obtained, approximately, from information already in the literature.

12.0-

10.0-

Point
A

Test(9): Theory
:

----

0.1

0.5

1.0

C A N A D I AST,\NDARDS N ASSOCIAI-ION. 1976. Canadian Stanclarcl CSA-086. C A R N E Y . M. 1975. Bibliography on woocl ancl plywood J. diaphragms. ASCE J. Struct. Div. 101 (STII), pp. 2423-2436. IRONS. M. and TUCK,R. C. 1969. A version of the B. Aitkenaccelelr~tor.forcomputeritelation. J. Numer. Int. Methocls Eng. 1, pp. 275-277. J E N N I N C A. 1971. Accelerating the convergence of mz~tS. rix iterative processes. J . Inst. Math. Its Appl. 8, pp. 99-1 10. JOHNSON. W. 197 1. Lateral test of a 20- by 60-foot roof J. section sheathed with plywoocl overlaid on decking. Report T-29, School of Forestry, Oregon State Univ., Corvz~llis, OR. W I L K I N S O N . L. 1972. Analysis of nailed joints with T. dissimilar members. ASCE J. Struct. Div. 98 (ST9). pp. 2005-20 13. U .S. DEPAR.ISMEN.S C I I I C U L ~ S U R E . Wood handOF A 1974. book. Handbook No. 72, p. 7-2. LARSEN, J. 1973. The yield load of bolted and nailed H. joints. Proc. Int. Union For. Res. Org., IUFRO5,South Africa, pp. 636-654. P H Z E M I E N I E C K S,. 1968. Theory of matrix str~~ctural J. I analysis. McGlaw-Hill Bookcompany, New York, NY. Z I E N K I E W I C Z ,1971. The finite element method in en0. gineering science. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Lonclon, Englancl.

D e f l e c t i o n ( in.)

FIG.8. Comparison between test and theory (1 kip

= 4450 N; 1 in. = 25.4 m m ) .