84 Chapter 6: Metacognition

Chapter 6: : METACOGNITION
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: Define what is metacognition Trace the proponents of metacognition Discuss the role of metacognition in learning Metacognition and the classroom Explain the relationship between metacognition and reading List some approaches in metacognitive training

CHAPTER OVERVIEW 6.1 What is Metacognition? 6.2 Metacognitive Processes 6.3 Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies 6.4 CASE STUDY 6.5 Metacognition in the Classroom 6.6 Metacognition and Reading 6.7 Metacognitive Training 6.8 Assessment of Metacognition Summary Key Terms References

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2: Behavioural Learning Theories Chapter 3: Early Cognitive Theories Chapter 4: Information Processing Model Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Chapter 6: Metacognition Chapter 7: Thinking and Learning Chapter 8: Understanding Individual Differences Chapter 9: Emotion and Learning Chapter 10: Learning and Handling Text

This chapter is devoted to discussion about metacogntion or simply put as thinking about thinking. Metacognitive ability has been identified as a significant factor influencing academic performance, especially in relation to reading. Learners with high metacognitive ability are able to employ more effective metacognitive strategies than learners with weak metacognitive ability. Metacomprehension is the process of extracting meaning from text and involves two processes: awareness and action. Metacognition can be trained and discusses are some techniques to enhance metacognitive ability. Also, metacognition can be assessed and discussed are some methods.

85 Chapter 6: Metacognition 6.1 WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

At first, the word metacogntion may sound something sophisticated or complex or even intimidating. Actually, we all engage in metacognitive activities everyday. Metacognition enables us to be successful learners, and has also been associated with intelligence (Sternberg, 1986). It is often referred to simply as thinking about thinking. Cognition refers to thinking while metacognition is the ability to look at your thinking. It is like getting out of your head and looking at the way you think (see Figure 6.1). Somewhat like an out of body experience. Metacognition is a critical aspect of effective learning and refers to higher order thinking that a person engages in and involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.

Metacognitiv e Knowledge Thinking about Thinking Metacognitiv e Control

Figure 6.1 Metacognition For example, you dislike a certain person and have been telling your friends what a horrible person he is. One fine day you sit back and reflect on your thoughts. You ask yourself why dislike that person. You realise that you formed an opinion of that person based on what your friend told you. You start asking yourself whether your friend was fair in his assessment of that person you dislike and whether he had a motive for demeaning him. You are actually engaging in metacognition. You are questioning the way you think! You are thinking about your thinking! There is still much debate over exactly what is metacognition resulting in several terms used to describe the same phenomena such as self-regulation, executive

86 Chapter 6: Metacognition control and metamemory. The term metacognition is most often associated with John Flavell, (1976) who stated that Metacognition refers to ones knowledge concerning ones own cognitive processes or anything related to them. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact (p. 232). 6.2 METACOGNTIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition is described as consisting of two processes: metacognitive knowledge (knowing about your thinking) and metacognitive experiences or regulation (controlling your thinking) (see Figure 6.1). The key words are knowledge and control. The learner who knows about his or her thinking processes is likely to be able to control these processes.

Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowing about your thinking METACOGNITION - knowledge of person variables - knowledge of task variables - knowledge of strategy variables

Metacognitive Control
Controlling your thinking

- ability to do something or take

action when you do not know

Figure 5.9 Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive Control (source: J. Flavell, 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist. 34. 907. WHAT IS METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE? Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about person variables, task variables and strategy variables. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about your learning processes. For example, you know that studying in a quiet library will be more productive than studying at home where there are many distractions.

87 Chapter 6: Metacognition Knowledge of task variables refers to knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands required. For example, you know that it will take you more time to read and comprehend a science text than it would for you to read and comprehend a novel. Knowledge about strategy variables refers to knowledge about the cognitive and metacognitive strategies appropriate for the task. For example, studying for an essay examination is different from studying for an examination with multiple-choice questions.

WHAT IS METACOGNITIVE CONTROL? Metacognitive control refers to your ability to do I do not understand something or take remedial action when you do not what is eknow. It also involves the ability to monitor your commerce? progress of learning, correcting errors, analysing the Perhaps I should effectiveness of the learning strategies you have used re-read this section. and changing learning strategies when necessary (Ridley, Schutz, Glanz & Weinstein, 1992). You ensure that the mental activities you used to achieve a cognitive goal (e.g., understanding your science text) has been met. You are regulating and overseeing your learning which involves planning and monitoring the cognitive activities used, as well as checking the outcomes of those activities. For example, after reading a paragraph in a text about E-Commerce a learner may question herself about the concepts discussed in the paragraph (see Figure 6.3). Her cognitive goal is to understand the text. Self-questioning is a common metacognitive comprehension monitoring strategy. If she finds that she cannot answer her own questions, or that she does not understand the material discussed, she must then determine what needs to be done to ensure that she meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text. She may decide to go back and re-read the paragraph Figure 6.3 with the goal of SELF-CHECK 6.1 being able Learner is aware and doing something to answer the a) Explain what is meant by metacognition. to overcome her lack of understanding and questions she b) What is the difference between metacognitive knowledgeof ecommerce had generated. metacognitive control? If, after re-reading through the text she can now answer the questions, she may determine that she understands the material. Thus, the metacognitive strategy

of self-questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is met.

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6.3 COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

One major issue involves separating what is cognitive from what is metacognitive. What is the difference between a cognitive and a metacognitive strategy? For example, is the knowledge that you have difficulty understanding principles from chemistry cognitive or metacognitive knowledge? Flavell (1979) himself acknowledges that metacognitive knowledge may not be different from cognitive knowledge. The distinction lies in how the information is used. Recall that metacognition is referred to as "thinking about thinking" and involves overseeing whether a cognitive goal has been met. This should be the defining criterion for determining what is metacognitive. Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a particular goal (e.g., understanding a passage from a text) while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached (e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate one's understanding of that passage in the text). Metacognitive experiences usually follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail. The learner recognises that, he or she did not understand was just read. When confronted with such a situation, metacognitive processes are activated as the learner attempts to rectify the situation. Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap. For example, questioning could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy depending on what the purpose for using such a strategy. If you using self-questioning while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge it is a cognitive strategy. If you are using selfquestioning as a way of monitoring what you have read, it is a metacognitive strategy. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon each other. Some learners may know about their cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task without actively utilising this information to oversee learning or regulate their learning. Until, they do something about it, they have not used their metacognitive strategies. For example, a student may plan how to approach a mathematics exam: "I know that I (person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable)." When implemented, the student monitors to determine whether the strategy used led to the desired goal. If it did not, than the student will take steps to find out what went wrong and attempt to remedy the situation. This is a complete metacognitive activity. Knowledge is considered to be metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met.
6.1 ACTIVITY

Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a particular goal while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached. a) Discuss. b) Give specific examples.

89 Chapter 6: Metacognition 6.4 CASE STUDY: METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Imagine you are about to take a final examination. What are the metacognitive strategies you may employ? See Figure 6.4 which describes some of the mental strategies used by successful learner.

Figure 6.4 Using Metacognitive Strategies to Study for an Essay Exam [source: Julie Halter. Metacognition University of California, San Diego. http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/metacognition/start.htm]

METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE:

90 Chapter 6: Metacognition You begin by asking yourself what is your goal: To get an A in next weeks exam. You identify what you already know about the first 6 chapters of the textbook that is to be tested. You do not understand completely Chapter 3. You need to get to the library or access the internet. You consider the task requirements: The exam will consist of 4 essay questions and the time allotted is 2 hours. You plan the study time required to revise the 6 chapters. You plan to create graphic organisers for each of the chapters to show relationships between concepts and principles.

METACOGNITIVE CONTROL You monitor your own learning by self-questioning to determine whether you understand the material. If you do not understand and unable to recall some sections of the material, you will re-read and perhaps redraw the graphic organisers to enhance understanding. You remind yourself and control your thoughts not to wander away from the task at hand. Concentrate! Focus on the task!

Because metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important that students are proficient in such strategies. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent learners. Independence leads to ownership as students realise they can acquire information to enhance their intellectual capabilities. The task of educators is to acknowledge, cultivate, exploit and enhance the metacognitive capabilities of all learners.

6.5 METACOGNITION IN THE CLASSROOM Metcognitive ability plays an important role in differentiating successful students from their less successful peers. Current research in metacognition, have highlighted interesting differences between novice and expert learners. For example, Expert Learners: are purposeful and attention-directed practice self-questioning when studying . have a highly developed knowledge base which can be accessed more readily, have superior general strategies for problem solving. design new strategies for processing information when old strategies when old strategies prove inadequate are able to extract the main ideas more efficiently use prediction and inferencing skills when studying are selective when processing information

91 Chapter 6: Metacognition Metacognition and Learning How is lack of metacognitive ability linked to learning? Metacognitive knowledge of strategies and tasks, as well as self-knowledge, is linked to how students will learn and perform in the classroom. Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them. On the other hand, if students do not know of a strategy, they will not be able to use it. Sounds logical doesnt it! Generally, students who know their own strengths and weaknesses can adjust their own cognition or thinking to be more adaptive to diverse tasks and, thus, facilitate learning. If a student realises that she does not know very much about a particular topic, she might pay more attention to the topic while reading and use different strategies to make sure she understands the topic being studied. If a student is aware that she has difficulties on certain tests (e.g., mathematics versus history tests), then she can prepare for an upcoming mathematics test in an appropriate manner.

With regards to learning, metacognitive ability includes the ability to ask and answer the following questions:

What do I know about this subject, topic, issue? Do I know what do I need to know? Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge? How much time will I need to learn this? What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this? Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw? How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate? How can I spot an error if I make one? How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectations/satisfaction?

[source: Huitt, W. (1997). Metacognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [June,2008], from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/metacogn.html.

Students who lack knowledge of their own strengths and weaknesses will be less likely to adapt to different situations and regulate their own learning. If a student reads a text and thinks he understands it, but in reality does not, then he will be less likely to go back and re-read or review the text to make sure it is understood.

92 Chapter 6: Metacognition If a student who believes he understands the material thoroughly will not study for an upcoming test to the same extent as a student who knows he does not understand the material. If a student believes he understands the material when he does not will not do well on the test of that material because he did not study as well as the student who had an accurate perception of his lack of knowledge.

6.2 ACTIVITY

Lack of Metacognitive Ability among University Students

You would expect university students to have well established metacognitive ability. In their study among university students, Hofer, Yu, & Pintrich (1998) and McKeachie, & Lin (1987), were surprised at the number of students who come to college having very little metacognitive knowledge; knowledge about different strategies, different cognitive tasks, and, particularly, accurate knowledge about themselves. Given the fact that students who go on to college are more likely to be better students in general suggests that there is a need to explicitly teach metacognitive knowledge in primary and secondary school. Do you agree with the above finding about university or secondary school

students? Were you an efficient learner while you were in university or secondary school? Do you wish you were a more efficient learner?

6.6 METACOGNITION AND READING COMPREHENSION Metacognition is an integral part of effective reading. As you are reading this chapter, you may be thinking to yourself why metacognition is important to learning. When you first encountered the word metacognition it may have crossed your mind whether metacognition will be a difficult concept to understand. The fact that you are thinking about the concept and how you can use it to increase student learning is metacognitive thinking. The fact that you were asking yourself these types of questions is indicative that you are thinking about your own thinking. How is metacognition related to reading? In their famous study, Pressley and Afflerbach (1995), found that expert readers and highly skilled readers use specific metacognitive strategies before, during and after reading to aid their comprehension and understanding of the texts read. The behaviours that good readers use help them

93 Chapter 6: Metacognition to construct meaning while reading, make evaluations of text and make connections with prior knowledge and experiences. Metacognitive strategies increase a readers ability to construct meaning and to evaluate the text he or she is reading. The following is a list of metacognitive skills exhibited by a skilful reader: Automaticity performing a task without thinking or little attention. For example, students are able to decode text without hesitation when they encounter unknown words. Conscious Constructive Responses conscious processes are carried out to help increase comprehension. For example, good reading behaviours are exhibited consciously when used to extract meaning before, during and after reading. Comprehension Monitoring - adjusting ones reading processes to extract meaning from text. For example faced with an unknown word, rather than skipping the word and continuing reading, the reader will stop and try to discover the meaning of the unknown word. Self-Regulation setting realistic goals, employing strategies to achieve the goals, monitoring whether the goals have been attained, and evaluating ones thinking. For example, before reading a story, the reader will ask the question; What is the purpose of reading this story? Think-Aloud thought processes are verbalised. For example, when reading a text, the reader may stop and say aloud, This is connected to or say to himself or herself This reminds me of . My kids can't read their textbooks! But, every teacher is a teacher of reading! Both of those positions are the result of the dominant role the textbook plays in the secondary schools. Many teachers place the responsibility for learning on the textbook or on the students' inability to learn from the textbook. Thelen.1985. p. v.

The above statement may be prevalent in secondary schools or even institution of higher education and yet little has been done to address the problem. The poor comprehension of prose material refers to those found in the content areas such as in science and the social sciences. With each subject there are specific textbooks together with perhaps workbooks, worksheets and reference materials from which learners are expected to extract information. Many teachers assume that their students can comprehend what they read based upon their ability to communicate and sound out words. Furthermore, some teachers are of the opinion that reading skills should have been acquired in the primary school and that secondary school is for the mastery of content. Few would deny that `content is king' but the zeal with which teachers try to `get through the curriculum' often results in weak learners (or weak readers) being left on their own to resolve their learning problems. Success in the content areas or the school subject areas is very much dependent on the efficiency and effectiveness of learners' in comprehending their textbooks and related prose materials. The dominance of the textbook is most evident

94 Chapter 6: Metacognition in Malaysian secondary schools and the printed page continues to be the major source of information for students whether they are in the form of books, journals, magazines, pamphlets, or presented on a computer screen. Reading comprehension or understanding written content is the crux of the reading act. Students cannot learn unless they can comprehend reading material, and they cannot remember what they read unless they understand it. The poor reader may be summarised as one who is: Less able to take charge of his or her own cognitive processes while reading. They are not as flexible as good readers in adapting their processing to the demands of the task and to capitalise on the structure or contextual constraints inherent in texts. Less efficient in monitoring their understanding of the material read or are deficient in metacognitive skills.

Hence, when a teacher assigns reading in a history, geography, science or economics class, he or she "cannot expect all students to read more carefully', `figure things out for themselves,' `look it up', or `ask someone for help' when so often the student is unaware that something has `gone wrong' in the first place" (Langer, 1982, p.45). Brown (1980) identified reading strategies as instances of metacomprehension described as "any deliberate planful control of activities that give birth to comprehension" (p.456). Metacomprehension involves at least two separate components; that is awareness and action (see Figure 6.5). AWARENESS Purpose What one knows What one does not know What facilitates learning
METACOMPREHENSION

Figure 6.5: Components Metacomprehension

of

[Source: Brown, L (1982). Learning how to learn from reading. In J. Langer and M. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader Meets Author/Bridging the Gap: A sycholinguistic and Sciolinguistic Perspective. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association]

ACTION Checking Planning Evaluating Revising Remediating

Awareness of one's own cognitive behaviour during reading includes;

95 Chapter 6: Metacognition awareness of purpose of the reading assignment, awareness of what one knows about the reading task, awareness of what needs to be known, awareness of the strategies and skills which facilitate or impede learning from text.

Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms or cognitive monitoring to ensure the successful completion of the task such as: checking the outcome of any attempt to solve the problem, planning one's next move, evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted action, testing and revising one's strategies for learning, and remediating any difficulties encountered by using compensatory strategies

The successful reader is one who is able to monitor his or her understanding of what is being read and this metacognitive skill is apparently not developed in all students. Linked to reading, metacognition involves `knowing what you know', `knowing what you need to know' and `knowing the utility of active intervention' (Sanacore, 1984). In other words, to be an efficient and effective reader, the person should be able to monitor his or her degree of understanding, be aware of the knowledge possessed, be conscious of the task demanded and know the strategies that facilitates comprehension. However, Brown (1987) points out that though, .... it is tempting to conclude that ineffective monitoring of one's cognitive processes during reading is the cause of poor comprehension, we caution against such precipitous conclusion. The majority of studies have shown that ineffective monitoring is associated with poor comprehension, but not that it is the cause. It may be that poor comprehension reduces the ability to monitor one's ongoing activities; or perhaps a third factor such as impoverished background knowledge, responsible for both problems (p.44).

6.3 ACTIVITY

a) Briefly describe the components of metacomprehension b) Do you agree that the inability of students to effectively read material is attributed to weak comprehension? c) How would your relate poor academic performance to weak metacomprehension ability?

6.7 METACOGNITIVE TRAINING

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Can students be taught to enhance their metacognitive abilities? Research suggests that teaching students how to be more aware of their learning processes enhances their effectiveness as learners. Increasingly, research seems to indicate that there is a need to teach for metacognitive knowledge explicitly. Teachers may do this in some lessons, but in many cases the instruction is more implicit. It may be inaccurate to assume that all students will be able to acquire metacognitive knowledge on their own. Of course, some students do acquire metacognitive knowledge through experience and with age, but many more students fail to do so.
According to Flavell (1979), increasing the quantity and quality of childrens metacognitive knowledge and monitoring skills through systematic training may be feasible as well as desirable (p. 906).

However, there is debate as to how metacognitive strategies should be taught. Some researchers have argued that it should be taught as separate courses or separate units. Others have suggested that metacognitive knowledge be embedded within the usual content in different subject areas. General strategies for thinking and problem solving can be taught in English, mathematics, science, geography, history, economics, art, music, and even physical education courses. Science teachers can teach general scientific methods and procedures, but learning will likely be more effective when it is tied to specific science content, not taught in the abstract. Reading and writing lessons could focus on different general strategies for reading comprehension or writing.

Teachers are encouraged to plan for teaching metacognitive knowledge in their regular teaching and assess their use among students. For example, during any lesson, the teacher identifies, labels and discuses a particular metacognitive strategy when it comes up. This explicit labelling and discussion creates awareness of the strategies and hopefully encourages them to recognise such strategies when they appear in other situations. In addition, making the discussion of metacognitive knowledge and strategies part of everyday discussion in the classroom fosters the habit of students talking about their own cognition and learning. As they hear and see how their classmates approach a task, they can compare their own strategies with their classmates' and make judgments about the relative use of different strategies (see Figure 6.6). This type of discussion helps makes cognition and learning more explicit and rather than being something that happens mysteriously or that some students "get it" and learn while others struggle and do not learn. In addition to classroom discussion about metacognitive knowledge, another important instructional strategy is the modelling of strategies, accompanied by an explanation of them. For example, as the teacher is solving a problem for the class, he might talk aloud about his own cognitive processes as he works through the problem. This provides a model for students, showing them how they use strategies in solving real problems. In addition, the teacher also might discuss why he is using this

97 Chapter 6: Metacognition particular strategy for this specific problem, thereby also engaging students in issues concerning the conditional knowledge that governs when and why to use different strategies. As experts in their field, teachers have all kinds of implicit knowledge about strategies and when and why they are appropriate to use; however, students often lack the means to gain access to this knowledge. If the knowledge is never shared through discussion, modelling, or explicit instruction, it is difficult for students to learn.

SELF-CHECK 6.2 a) Do you agree metacognitive abilities can be enhanced.

b) Explain Figure 6.6 and show how it will help it improve Figure 6.6 A Student Sharing metacognitive ability of students. Thoughts with Others Metacognitive

His

98 Chapter 6: Metacognition 6.8 ASSESSMENT OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Assessment of metacognitive knowledge by teachers will be informal rather than formal. For example, if teachers are teaching and discussing metacognitive knowledge as part of their normal classroom teaching, they will need to talk to their students about metacognitive knowledge and, perhaps more importantly, actually listen to the students as they talk about their own cognition and learning. As a result of these conversations, teachers will become aware of the general level of metacognitive knowledge in their classrooms and will be able to judge the level and depth of students' metacognitive knowledge. In many respects, this is no different from what teachers do to assess the level of content knowledge their students bring to their classrooms. They start a discussion, ask some questions, listen to the answers, and talk with students. Based on interaction, they can quickly estimate the depth of students' prior knowledge. This type of informal assessment can be used to help students gain both content knowledge (whether it be factual, conceptual, or procedural) and metacognitive knowledge. From these informal "assessment conversations," teachers also may be able to make inferences about the level of metacognitive knowledge of individual students. Just as there is variance in the content knowledge that students bring to the classroom, it is likely there will be a wide distribution of metacognitive knowledge in a class of 20-30 students. This information about individual students can be used to adapt instruction to individual differences. Teachers can talk to students individually or in small groups to estimate levels of metacognitive knowledge. Another technique that can be used is self-assessment. Students are given the opportunity to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. Pintrich & Schunk (2002) suggest that this should be done privately. Students meet individually with their teachers to discuss their perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses, and teachers can provide them with feedback about these perceptions. Still another technique is to use portfolio assessment. It offers students the opportunity to reflect on their work as represented in the portfolio and this also provides self-assessment information to them.

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SUMMARY

Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning: Thinking about Thinking. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about person variables, task variables and strategy variables. Metacognitive control refers to your ability to do something or take remedial action when you do not know. Metacognitive knowledge of strategies and tasks, as well as selfknowledge, is linked to how students will learn and perform in the classroom Metcognitive ability plays an important role in differentiating successful students from their less successful peers. Metacomprehension involves at least two separate components; that is awareness and action. Research suggests that teaching students how to be more aware of their learning processes enhances their effectiveness as learners. Assessment of metacognitive knowledge by teachers will be informal rather than formal.

KEY TERMS Metacognition Metacognitive knowledge Metacognitive control Metacognitive training Modelling Think aloud Metacomprehension Automaticity Self-regulation Conscious constructive responses

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REFERENCES Brown, A. (1978). Knowing when, where and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in Instructional Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Assoc. Brown, L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R.Spiro, B. Bruce & W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension: Perspectives from Cognitive Psychology, Linguistics, Artificial Intelligence & Education, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brown, L (1982). Learning how to learn from reading. In J. Langer and M. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader Meets Author/Bridging the Gap: A Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspective. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association. Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). "Spontaneous" strategy use: Perspectives from metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61-75. Flavell, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem-solving. In L. Resnick (Ed.), The Nature of Intelligence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Assoc. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911. Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, Motivation and Understanding (pp. 21-29). Hillside, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hacker, D. J. (1998). Definitions and empirical foundations. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 1-23). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Huitt, W. (1997). Metacognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [June,2008], from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/metacogn.html.

101 Chapter 6: Metacognition Lunstrum, J & Taylor, B. (1978). Teaching Reading in the Social Studies. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association. Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ridley, D.S., Schutz, P.A., Glanz, R.S. & Weinstein, C.E. (1992). Selfregulated learning: the interactive influence of metacognitive awareness and goal-setting. Journal of Experimental Education 60 (4), 293-306. Sanacore, J. (1984). Metacognition and improvement of reading: Some important links, Journal of Reading, 707-713. Taylor, N.E (1983). Metacognitive ability: A curriculum priority, Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly, 4:269-278. Thelen, J (1985). Foreward. In J.W. Harker (Ed.), Classroom Strategies for Secondary Reading, Newark, Del.: International Reading Association. Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Inside intelligence. American Scientist, 74, 137-143.