CHARACTERISTICS OF STRONG-MOTION EARTHQUAKES* By GEORGE W .

HOUSNER
IN ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGYthe response of structures to strong-motion earthquakes is of particular interest. The amount of distortion that a structure undergoes during an earthquake and the magnitudes of the stresses that are developed have an important bearing on the safety of structures and their ability to survive an earthquake without suffering excessive damage. A study

~F_XNON, CNLI~ MN~,.IO, 1933

~o
~ o

.~ ~o
80 *

10O

"~IM Fm IN ~.COND~

Fig. 1.

of this problem leads to certain rather formidable difficulties.During an earthquake a structure is subjected to vibratory excitation by a ground motion which is to a high degree erratic and unpredictable. The inability to know beforehand what to expect in the way of ground motion is a serious handicap. Furthermore, the average structure, together with the ground upon which it stands, is an exceedingly complex system from the viewpoint of vibration theory. It is apparent that the problem divides itself into two parts; first, a determination of the characteristics of strong-motion earthquakes, and second, a determination of the characteristics of structures when subjected to earthquakes. A strong-motion earthquake record is shown in figure 1, from which it is evident that the ground acceleration is extremely irregular. The acceleration records of earthquakes differ from one another; the chief similarity between different records lies in the marked irregularity exhibited by all. It is desirable
* Manuscript received for publication April 20, 1946. [19]

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BULLETINOF THE SEISMOLOGICAL SOCIETYOF AMERICA

to analyze the records to discover a n y characteristic that is a common description of all strong-motion earthquakes. The pronounced irregularity of acceleration records suggests that this irregularity may itself be the best common description. Accordingly, the question is raised, What are the characteristics of random earthquakes?--the word " r a n d o m " being here used in the customary statistical sense. In an earthquake record, randomness can be introduced in three ways: by acceleration pulses random in direction, in magnitude, or in time. As will be shown later, it is not important, for the question at hand, just how the randomness occurs. Accordingly, a mathematical model of a random earthquake will be analyzed which will consist of a series of impulses that are random in time.

"--- ~ cos

Fig. 2. In a study of vibrating, undamped structures subjected to arbitrary ground motion, certain expressions are obtained for the displacement, velocity, and stress, all of which are made up of one or more terms of the general form:l A 0 T sin p ( T -- t)dt f where A is an amplitude factor, is the ground acceleration, p is 27r times the frequency of vibration, T is the time for which the expression is evaluated, and t is the time variable. The amplitude factor A expresses the influence of the physical characteristics of the structure. The rest of the expression introduces the effect of the ground motion. An evaluation of the integral (given above) over the range of significant frequencies will exhibit pertinent characteristics of the ground acceleration. More appropriately, by expanding the trigonometric term the integral can be written:
jo jo

1 See

Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Vol. 1,

p. 130.

CHARA.CTERISTLCS OF STRONG-NOTION :EARTHQUAKES

21

As is shown in figure 2, this expression can be interpreted as the sum of the projections upon an axis of two rotating vectors 90 out of phase.

VectorA "Txesptdt VectorB "Lsinptdt =S =S

The expression can also be interpreted as the projection upon the axis of the resultant vector: R = (A 2 + B~) It is m o s t pertinent for the present purpose to investigate the values of R , since it gives an upper bound for the original integral, which itself will always be equal to or less than R, according to the value of the phase factor. The values of R are computed graphically or mechanically for actual earthquake records. In the case of a random earthquake, that is, n random impulses each of magnitude r, the integrations are replaced b y summations, thus giving: R = r 1 This expression sums the n impulses where the i-th impulse occurs at time t~ and all of the t~ are random. The equation just given defines the probability distribution of R where the possible values of R lie between 0 and h r . The mean or mathematical expectation of R2is of particular interest. Since the t~ are random, all values between 0 and 2~r are equally likely for each p t , The probability that pt~ will fall within a certain interval pAt~ is, therefore, equal to p A t ~ / 2 ~ r . T h e mean value of R 2is thus given by: cos pt~
+ r

- rr
R~=

2,~

.] o .] o

.S

2~ R ~

p p dr1 ~ dr2

. . __ P dt~ ,2~r

JO

r"r
Jo

"

.S" r 2

cospt~

+
\ l

sinpti

dtldt2.

.dU

Performing the indicated integration gives a mean value of R 2 equal to n r 2 and a corresponding value of R equal to r%/~. The significant fact here is t h a t the result is independent of the frequency, and for all values of p the standard deviation of R is equal to r ~/~. This, then, provides a method for judging the randomness of strong-motion earthquakes; that is, does the mean of R ~ or of R for a sample of earthquakes approach a constant value? T h a t it does in fact approach a constant value is shown in figure 3, where the mean of R for ten different earthquake records is plotted over the significant range of frequencies. 2 Some idea of the rate at which the mean approaches a constant value 2 See Appendix for explanation of broken-line portion of figure 3.

22

B U L L E T I X OF T E E S E I S M O L O G I C A L S O C I E T Y OF A~M:ERICA

can be obtained b y c0mparing with figures 5-14. In computing the curve of figure 3 the scale of each spectrum (5-14) was transformed so as to have the same average ordinate. Although the mean of R 2 for a series of random impulses is a constant independent of the period, the computed values of R for a specific set of impulses are n o t independent of the period. Fluctuations about the mean can be expected. To illustrate these fluctuations, the values of R have been computed for a set of twenty-five random impulses. T h e impulses were distributed at random over an interval of seven seconds, the randomizing being obtained b y use of a table of random numbers. The results of the computations are shown in figure 4, where it is seen t h a t the values of R do fluctuate about the mean. When the value of R is computed for a given period, it is usually found that R passed through a maximum value at some time prior to the last impulse. In engineering seismology the chief interest is in this maximum value of R rather than in the final value. Accordingly, a spectrum of the maximum v~Iue of R is also shown in figure 4. The spectra of the maximum value of R as computed from ten different earthquake records are shown in figures 5-14. Comparing these with figure 4, one sees t h a t they exhibit the same characteristics as the random earthquake. There are the same fluctuations about the mean in the case of an actual earthquake as in the ease of the random impulses. It is worth noting that although the spectra in figures 4-14 have been drawn as straight-line segments~ actually, had the values of R been computed for a sufficiently large number of points, each spectrum would have been a smooth curve with a very large number of wavy oscillations. In practice, then, the local character of the spectrum curve is obscured because the computed points are separated by some distance. It will also be noted that some of the spectra have been plotted on the basis of a smaller number of computed points than was used for the rest. The matl~ematical model of a set of random impulses does not bear an especially close physical resemblance to the ground acceleration of an earthquake. A closer resemblance can be obtained by using pulses of a finite time duration, perhaps half-sine waves, and then randomizing the phasing and direction. However, in any case, the same significant result is obtained; that is, the mean is essentially independent of the period and the values of R fluctuate about the mean2 It does not seem desirable to carry the analogy any further than to say that the acceleration records of earthquakes exhibit the characteristics of randomness. That this should be so is not surprising when it is considered that a strong-motion earthquake is composed of a relatively large number of waves and that it would not be expected that a predetermined relationship could be found between the times of arrival of the waves. These relationships would logically depend upon the origin of the disturbance and upon the character of 3See Appendix.

CHAI~ACTEI~ISTICS

OF STRONG-MOTION I

EAI~TIcIQTUAKES l l I

23

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C~tARACTERISTICS OF STRONG-MOTION E A R T H Q U A K E S

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CHAI=~ACTERISTICS OF STRONG-lYIOTION EARTHQUAKES

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CttAI~ACTEI~ISTICS OF STRONG-MOTION

EARTYIQUAKES

29

the material through which the waves travel. Hence, with respect to these it is only possible to say that there is a wide range of possible values, but that the specific values assumed by a given earthquake depend upon unpredictable conditions. The problem therefore is treated properly by statistical methods and the fact that earthquakes do exhibit characteristics of randomness is not unexpected. On the basis of random characteristics, the spectra of earthquakes can be expected to exhibit certain properties. The mean of a sample of earthquakes should converge toward a straight-line spectrum whose ordinate is a constant value independent of the period. It is to be understood that this applies only over a certain range of frequencies. As is shown in the Appendix, the spectrum drops off to zero at the high-frequency end. The spectrum for a given earthquake record should be composed of a series of fluctuations about the mean, and the fluctuations should have relatively sharp peaks and valieys. The spectrum of a specific earthquake may show a tendency to be high or low in certain regions instead of having rather symmetrical fluctuations about the mean. This, of course, is consistent with the hypothesis of randomness. There is, however, a probability distribution associated with these deviations; that is, the frequency of occurrence of excessively high or low regions in spectra should be small as compared with the frequency of occurrence of moderately high or low regions. The spectra of figures 5-14 exhibit certain interesting properties which were shown to be associated with randomness. There is no indication in these spectra of a so-called "dominant ground period." In the past, the theory has been advanced that a dominant period can be associated with a particular locality and that earthquakes will be especially destructive of structures whose period of vibration lies in the neighborhood of the dominant period. On the basis of the earthquakes the spectra of which are shown, it appears that this theory is untenable. An additional point of interest is the fact that the earthquakes which have been analyzed occurred in widely separated locations with extreme diversity of subsoil conditions. The spectra, however, do not reflect to any marked degree the variations in ground conditions. It thus appears that the spectra are not dependent to any great degree upon the subsoil conditions, at least within the range covered by figures 5-14. Since the displacement, velocity, and stress of an undamped structure are linear functions of the spectrum of the earthquake, the spectra provide a unique method of measuring strong-motion earthquake intensities. For engineering seismology it would be more informative to measure the intensity of an earthquake by the mean value of the spectrum than by an empirical scale. The Mercalli or Modified Merealli scale, even aside from its lack of precision, is unsatisfactory because it attempts to measure the intensity of an earthquake in terms of t h e damage to buildings. Since buildings differ widely in their

30

BULLETIN OF T~IE SEISMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA

ability to resist earthquakes, it would be preferable to measure intensities independently and not in terms of the physical characteristics of the buildings. Such computations of earthquake intensities have been made, and an investigation of different methods of computing spectra has also been m a d e ? I t was found that the spectra were rather sensitive to inaccuracies in the method of computation. In order to be satisfactory measures of intensity, the spectra should all be computed ir] a uniform manner and the method of computation should have a high degree of accuracy. The spectra o f the earthquakes shown in figures 5-14 were computed at the California Institute of Technology in a program of earthquake research under the direction of Professor R. R. Martel. The research program was sponsored b y the Los Angeles County D e p a r t m e n t of Building and Safety.
APPENDIX

The mean of R 2 depends in some degree upon the type of pulse. For the ease of random impulses, the mean of R 2, as was shown, is a constant over the complete range of frequencies. In the case of random pulses of half-sine wave form, the mean of R 2 is not constant. It is apparent that if the length of the pulse is small as compared with the period of vibration, the effect becomes that of an impulse. On the other hand, if the period of vibration is small as compared with the length of the pulse, the mean Of R 2 approaches zero as the period approaches zero. For intermediate conditions it is necessary to determine the mean of R ~from the following expression: . .
T~J

.
oJ o ~-i=a ~-~

~.

- cos k t sin
2

pt dt

+
where

($f
2

~r

o, +~ k_cos kt cos p t

dt

Jo,-~

)]

dO~d02 dO.

rk - - cos k t = typical pulse rk cos k t

2
dt = r

0i = midpoint of the i-th pulse In particular, when n pulses of this type occur at random during the time T ( T = multiple of 2~p) and the length of the pulse is equal to one-half the
4 " A n Investigation of the Effects of Earthquakes on Buildings," unpublished doctoral dissertation, California Institute of Technology, 1941.

CH~-~AOT~amTICS OF S~rRONG-~OTXONEARtHquAKES

31

period of vibration, the mean of R 2 is equal to (~r/~)2nr 2. The corresponding value of R is ~r/4 r~v/n = 0 . 7 8 r ~ F o r earthquakes inwhich the length of a pulse is 1/12 sec., the mean of R should be approximately constant for periods of vibration down to about 0.3 sec., approximately 20 per cent smaller at a period of 1/6 sec., and zero at a period of zero see. This is indicated by the dotted line in figure 3. The spectrum of the mean of R for a sample of earthquakes would appear to be fairly well represented by an expression of the form C(1 - e-3~P), where P is the period of vibration. We may also note that, in the spectrum of a given earthquake, as the frequency of vibration approaches zero the ordinate of the spectrum approaches the maximum ground velocity. Hence, at this end of the frequency range the mean of R ~ does not drop off, but continues at a constant value all the way to zero frequency.