WORKING KNOWLEDGE: AN EVIDENCE BASED DESIGN OF WORKPLACE LEARNING AT MAASTRICHT HOTEL MANAGEMENT SCHOOL IN THE NETHERLANDS Jos W.M.

Maas Zuyd University, Maastricht Hotel Management School Maastricht, the Netherlands e-mail: J.W.M.Maas@hszuyd.nl Jogien J.M.E.C. Wilms Zuyd University, Maastricht Hotel Management School Maastricht, the Netherlands e-mail: J.Wilms@hszuyd.nl

ABSTRACT Students are better prepared to anticipate to the changing labour market by gaining authentic experiences. Through dual learning environments learning at school and workplace learning are integrated. Determinant factors for effective workplace learning are the intensity and approach of interaction between student, school and workplace. Nowadays, schools have to provide a more realistic experience in the professional field for creating lifelong learners. Maastricht Hotel Management School started a pilot study on the effectiveness of workplace learning outside of school to enhance students competency development. The study is still in an initial phase and in 2011 the outcomes can be measured. Key Words: workplace learning, competencies, interaction, authentic learning INTRODUCTION In a knowledge economy, successfully completing an education nowadays is no longer a guarantee for job security. Students have to be well prepared to anticipate to the continuous changing demands of the labour market. Learning does not end at the day of graduation; students should become lifelong learners to be successful competitors on the market. In the so-called dual learning environments, school learning and workplace learning are integrated. The main idea of dualization is that learning takes place in a powerful learning environment where there is a possibility to experience skills in different settings, to make mistakes, to receive feedback and to reflect upon these experiences. Through a combination of dual learning, practices, projects and simulations, students can gain authentic experiences and develop professional skills. The development of these professional skills is an important asset for future success at the workplace. Nowadays these skills are described in terms of competencies. According to Toolsema (2003), work competencies can be divided in six different categories: general-social competencies, commercial-social competencies, management competencies, cognitive competencies, computer competencies, and physicaltechnical competencies. These competencies generally are needed for the execution of specific tasks within a diversity of professions. Apart from the above mentioned work competencies, the characteristics of dual learning environments also influence learning competencies (Kuijpers, 2003; Toolsema, 2003; Nijhof, 2001) which are needed for becoming a lifelong learner. Related to the contemporary demands of the labour market, Illeris (2003) also emphasizes the need for a new concept of learning where the development and acquisition of a variety of competencies is needed. According to his theory, students should experience three dimensions of learning related to the development of their basic knowledge and understanding, the improvement of their professional skills and the further development of their personal qualities. He classified these three dimensions as the cognitive dimension of knowledge and skills, the psychodynamic dimension of motivation and emotions, and the social dimension of communication and cooperation. According to Illeris all of these dimensions have to be embedded in a societal situated context and the workplace is considered as an ideal context for experiencing all three dimensions. This paper gives an overview of different researches related to factors that are determinant for effective workplace learning. The aim of this literature research is to introduce and support the model for workplace learning at Maastricht Hotel Management School in the Netherlands. The workplace learning model, which has been implemented since September 2007, already shows a first positive result of its effectiveness. LITERATURE REVIEW Over the past years the effectiveness of dual learning in higher professional education has been researched thoroughly. The workplace is estimated as an efficient and effective environment for the development of vocation, career and professional identity. According to Collins, Brown and Newman (1989), a

model for the design of learning environments consists of four dimensions: the content that has to be learned, the pedagogical approach, the order of learning activities and the sociology of learning. Their model has been embedded in a theory on learning by cognitive apprenticeship, based on the development of concepts through so-called authentic learning activities (Collins, Brown and Newman, 1989). On the basis of a review by Blokhuis (2006) the process of workplace learning is influenced by different factors, namely, the characteristics of the workplace itself, the characteristics of the student and the characteristics of the educational setting (Figure 1). By defining the variables that define these characteristics it appears that workplace learning is a diverse, influential, individual and social developmental process. It manifests itself by participation in work processes and the aim is to understand, manage and influence work situations. characteristics workplace participation support communication task information availability variation task autonomy task vagueness workload

characteristics student motive motivation previous knowledge experience belief in own strengths locus of control accuracy fear learning style workplace learning characteristics educational setting relevance order assessment preparation consistency

Figure 1 Selected variables influencing workplace learning (Blokhuis, 2006). To be able to design a theoretical framework for effective workplace learning, Blokhuis combined the selected variables with a contemporary theory on learning from Illeris (2002). According to Illeris all learning includes two essentially different types of processes, namely an external interaction process between the student and his or her social, cultural and material environment, and an internal interaction process of acquisition and elaboration in which new impulses are connected with the results of prior learning. Illeris states that the influence of the characteristics of the educational setting on both the external and internal interaction process is very limited; it might only have an indirect effect on both processes. Blokhuis came up with a new model which shows that the characteristics of both workplace and student are essential for the interaction process (figure 2). In line with the theory of Illeris, the characteristics of the educational setting have not been integrated in this model.

Workplace: participation support communication availability variation task autonomy task information task vagueness workload Student: motive motivation previous knowledge experience belief in own strengths locus of control accuracy fear learning style

Working process

Interaction: perception transmission experience imitation activity participation

cognitive structures

psychodynamic patterns competencies

assimilative and accommodative adaptation

Figure 2 Theoretical framework for effective workplace learning (Blokhuis, 2006). The model also shows that the process of interaction, which is crucial for acquiring and developing professional skills, consists of six different but interrelated categories that influence the learning process of the student. These categories are perception, transmission, experience, imitation, activity and participation. Through interaction the learning goals can be accomplished and the development of psychological structures and patterns will also be achieved. The result of this learning process is the acquisition of competencies needed to handle the core tasks at the workplace effectively. To complement the learning cycle, the competences in their turn form the input for the process of interaction. To create an effective learning environment for students at the workplace, the main focus should be on optimizing the learning situation and not on the restructuring of working processes and production concepts within companies. A good preparation on learning by working and a critical reflection should be the main points of interest for students to reach their learning goals. Different researches show that companies have difficulties in providing a balance between learning and working (Ellstrm, 2002). This problem seems hard to tackle. Although the companies are expected to invest in the learning potentials at the workplace the possibilities to do this seem very small. The focus of their priorities is often business related (IOOV, 2005). A first step in solving this problem is to give companies a good insight in the most effective way for students to learn at the workplace. Blokhuis (2003) made an analysis of the different types of competencies that have to be developed in relation to situations at the workplace that influence this development. A list of six competencies and how the workplace can have an influence on their development has been defined. 1. Social competencies: One of the characteristics of the learning environment that appears to have an influence on the development of social competencies is the amount of collaboration and fine tuning between the company and the educational institution. A rather paradoxical and remarkable conclusion is that an increase in collaboration and fine tuning has a negative effect on the development of social competencies. Also the instruction process has an influence on this competency development. When students have the possibility to learn and work through self-exploration, social competencies are better developed. 2. Participation competencies As with the social competencies, here also the amount of collaboration between the company and the educational institution is determinant for the development of participation competencies. It is also remarkable that the pre-definition of tasks related to the learning and working process has a positive effect on the development of participation competencies. Students identify that both the instruction process and the practice

have an influence on the development of these competencies. Students who can work in a self-exploring way and who are allowed to be active from the beginning on, show a better development of their participation competencies. 3. Cognitive competencies If the student experiences transparency through a set of specific final goals at the beginning of the training period, the cognitive competencies appear to develop in a more efficient way. Students also have a better cognitive development if they have the challenge of accomplishing more difficult tasks. Besides this, the experience of learning and working on the job has a positive effect on cognitive competency development. 4. Physical competencies Students that learn and work in a team display a better development of their physical competencies. Furthermore, if the responsibility for the outcome of the learning process is shared between the company, the educational institution and the student it seems that students improve their physical competencies. A contradictory conclusion is that if the student during his training deals with all the professional skills related to the career, this has a negative effect on the development of this competency. 5. Learning competencies No circumstances within the learning environment have an influence on the development of learning competencies. 6. Career competencies Career competencies improve chances to enter the labour market (Kuijpers, 2003). Students seem to better develop this competency if the process of learning and working is not only defined by the content and if the process of instruction is done through modelling. Also, the fewer students have to switch between workplaces, the better they develop their career competencies. As a result it can be stated that students better develop their competencies if from the beginning on they can also do more difficult tasks in teams while being guided by predefined tasks and final goals and if not all the characteristics of the specific career are presented. Furthermore it is important that the educational institution, the company and the student share the responsibility for the outcomes while at the same time the collaboration and fine tuning between the educational institution and the company is reduced to a minimum. Finally, it is important that the professional skills that students develop are not strictly guided by learning contents but more by the actual processes they experience and the best way of instruction is through modelling. Besides the above mentioned factors at the workplace that have an influence on competency development, it appears that also the division of the amount of time students spent at school and at the workplace has an effect on this development. Students develop better social and cognitive competencies if they have a traineeship of at least six months. For companies, this overview of the influence of workplace learning on the development of the competencies is a useful tool to define how and whether the competencies can be developed. A research of Blokhuis (2006) on evidence-based design of workplace learning shows that one of the bottlenecks is that there is not enough interaction between the student and the supervisor. Due to a lack of time and incompetent coaching there is often not enough focus on feedback, self-reflection and self-guidance. As mentioned before, in a perfect setting, learning should include both external and internal interaction. The external interaction takes place between the student and the social, cultural and material environment. The internal learning is the psychological process of acquisition and elaboration in which new impulses are connected with the results of prior learning. Both types of interaction are crucial and the direct input for effective learning. The skills of the supervisors and the tools they use are an important asset for the effectiveness of workplace learning. Earlier research by Blokhuis (2003) shows that the quality of competency development is strongly related to the facilities at the workplace and the intervention methods that the supervisors use. Blokhuis (2003) comes up with the following set of empirically proven factors that enhance effective workplace learning: 1. Participation should focus on the execution of realistic and meaningful tasks that give the perfect context for the competencies that have to be acquired; 2. Interaction should focus on the verbal expression of thinking and handling processes through collaboration with colleagues; 3. Variation should focus on embedding models, strategies, procedures and definitions and the use of competencies in different settings; 4. Complexity should focus on the gradual development of mental models and cognitive strategies necessary for fully completing all work related tasks; 5. Support should enhance and increase independence when completing tasks through supervision that is focused on cognitive and corrective feedback; 6. Preparation should focus on the creation of a clear image of the tasks through modelling examples;

7. Evaluation should focus on the definition of the necessary learning competencies; 8. Consistency should focus on the creation of common expectation patterns so the input of all parties will be based on the same perspective. These factors also show the importance of interaction as an internal and external process. Interaction provides direct input for learning and the supervisors play a crucial role in this process. For this reason the supervisors that interact on a regular basis with students are considered as an interesting group when it comes to fully benefiting the possibilities of interaction. For improving the acquisition of competencies by students, the supervisors should have the opportunity to be well prepared and be equipped with the necessary tools to optimize the learning process of their students. Based on the previously mentioned researches, and based on the experience of the supervisors themselves, they can best operate by having an instrument that guides them in the realization of high-quality interaction for the students so the development of competencies can be optimized. Such an instrument that has been designed by Blokhuis (2006) is based on the interaction between supervisor and student at the workplace. The instrument has to activate, support and perpetuate learning processes, meaning that it has to create a learning environment, which forms part of the daily working processes (Lowyck and Terwel, 2003). Such an environment should consist of an appropriate combination of challenge and guidance, empowerment and support, self-guidance and structure (Reigeluth, 1999). The design specifications for the instrument have been derived from the theoretical framework for effective workplace learning (Blokhuis, 2006). The specifications have been translated into guidelines for interaction. To maintain a structured and transparent instrument, four phases have been defined, each with a specific focus and with the possibility of harmonizing self-guidance and instruction. The phases that have been selected are orientation, preparation, execution and assessment (table 1). Every phase has a specific set of guidelines that are related to monitoring, controlling and diagnosing the learning process. By going through these different steps, all the elements of the complete learning cycle will be dealt with. Steps for guidance Phase 1: Task orientation 1. Select, together with the student, a task that he/she wants to improve. 2. Discuss, together with the student, the task that he/she wants to improve. 3. Define, together with the student and based on the task, what he/she already knows and can do. 4. Discuss, together with the student, how he/she wants to learn the task. Phase 2: Preparation for task execution 5. Prepare, together with the student, the execution of the task. 6. Make sure that everything necessary for completing the task is present. Phase 3: Monitoring task execution and assessment 7. Monitor the execution of the task. 8. Immediately after completion give feedback on the task execution to the student. 9. Define, together with the student, any necessary next steps that should be taken. Phase 4: Further development 10. Ask the student to execute the task at least two more times. Table 1. Instrument for interaction at the workplace (Blokhuis, 2006) Blokhuis also states that there are several other factors that can improve the interaction between students and supervisors. The experience in supervision, the work experience, the age and the preparation for the arrival of the student are all factors that have an impact on this interaction. The findings show that the students supervised by younger supervisors had a better development of competencies than students of older, more experienced supervisors. A possible explanation can be that supervisors with less experience might reflect more on their way of interacting with the student to make it more effective. Besides this younger supervisors have recently finished their studies which might give them a better idea of how to interact with students as they have recent experience with workplace learning themselves and up-todate knowledge on the subject area. This makes the social, emotional and cognitive distance between student and supervisor smaller. In terms of Number of guidelines 5 9 6 3 7 5 7 8 6 6

Vygotsky (1978) the supervisor and the student are in the zone of proximal development which means that a higher level of potential development can be reached through problem solving in collaboration with more capable peers. The younger supervisor can act as a peer for the student. The older supervisors probably have more concentrated experience what might have a negative effect on their disposition and skills to learn and to apply new knowledge. Another finding is that the control was better in well prepared supervisors. METHOD At Maastricht Hotel Management School (MHMS) in the Netherlands, since the start of the program, which dates from 1950, the bachelor program is designed with a combination of both learning at school and workplace learning. Since 1995, students also learn through problem based learning, simulations, projects and real-life operations. The program is set up in such a way that workplace learning is both present within the school establishments as outside the school. The program offers workplace learning within its own college hotel which in 2008 is being restructured to operate as a fully functioning real-life hotel with all the corresponding departments. The hotel is integrated as a learning facility within different modules of the program. Besides the workplace learning experience during the traineeships in the third and fourth year, MHMS has started a pilot study in 2006 on the effectiveness of workplace learning outside of school during the first year of study. The goal of this pilot is to provide an even more realistic experience in the professional field. Collaboration has started with fifteen acknowledged 3 to 5 star hotels which operate as learning institutions for the students. The combination of a theoretical framework set up by the school and experienced by the students aims at creating lifelong learners that are well prepared for the labour market. This is done through problem based learning together with realistic workplace learning, both inside and outside of school. RESULTS Based on positive evaluations of the pilot project on workplace learning in 2006, MHMS has decided to fully implement the new model of workplace learning in the first year of study in 2007. In module 1 and 4 (table 2) a substantial part of the students will experience workplace learning outside of school. Students that will follow the modules inside school will have their experience in the college hotel. Within both module 1 and 4 over a period of 8 weeks, students will experience twice a week, the real life practice at the workplace based on common practice. Year 1st year 2nd year Module (each module equals 10 weeks) 1. Hotel Entre 2. Hotel Basic Management 5. Hotel Personnel 6. Hotel Operations and Organisation

3. Hotel International

7a. Hotel 7b. Facility Hotel Management Tourism 3rd year Practical Traineeship 9. Hotel Minors 10. Hotel Management 4th year Management Traineeship 11. Final (group)Projects Table 2 Four-year Bachelor program in Hospitality Management, Zuyd University 2007-2008 Module 1 (Hotel Entre) will be used as an example to illustrate this type of workplace learning. For the module Hotel Entre the relevant professions are: Floor Supervisor, Head Houseperson, Reservations Supervisor, Laundry Manager, Night Manager and Desk Manager. The final goal is not that the student learns the operational skills related to these professions but the idea is that the student becomes familiarised with the specific tasks related to the profession. The philosophy behind this is that future managers have to experience what they will be managing. In this module, besides learning in a real life setting (workplace learning), learning also takes place in the following settings: 1. Learning at school; at MHMS different types of learning are presented, such as lectures, self-study, team work in problem-based learning and case studies. 2. Skills training for reception related tasks, booking software etc. 3. Acting according to the so-called SOPs (Standards Of Performances) During the four year bachelor program students also learn how to plan their future. From the first module on they start designing their personal development plan (PDP). This tool gives them the opportunity to influence the direction of their future career. The design of this personal element of their study is not an easy task for first year students as they are not used to define learning goals for their personal development. Workplace learning is an important asset for creating their PDP. In the week before starting the module there is a meeting where students get an introduction on learning at the workplace outside of school. The students are told that they can apply for one or more learning places. To offer the students a good guidance in their choice op learning place(s), the school provides company

4. Hotel Food and Beverage 8. Hotel Operational Management

profiles. Students that show interest in this type of learning write an application letter and officially apply for the position with their CV and recommendation letters. The module coordination selects the applications that will be send to the company. For each function in a company only three students are selected for the application process. The company invites the three students for a job interview and informs students and school on their final choice. As seen in the literature review, to accomplish effective workplace learning the supervision has to be based on high-quality interaction. To realize this, MHMS has found companies that are willing to provide a rich and challenging learning environment and invest in the students learning potentials. This means that MHMS has selected companies that are willing to provide a balance between learning and working. The selected companies have assigned supervisors to support and perpetuate the learning processes of students. The supervisors have to create an interactive learning environment by using the instrument for interaction at the workplace as designed by Blokhuis (2006). As mentioned before, such an environment should consist of an appropriate combination of challenge and guidance, empowerment and support, self-guidance and structure. The selected companies provide an environment where the student works in different settings and in different teams. Students also have the possibility to learn and work through self-exploration by giving them more and more responsibilities over time. On a regular basis, the supervisor and school evaluate the students competency development. CONCLUSION At Maastricht Hotel Management School the structure of offering workplace learning both inside and outside of school gives the opportunity to make the educational process highly related to reality. Two times a week students that are placed outside of school work together with students that are placed at the college hotel in a problem based learning (PBL) setting. During these PBL sessions they discuss the module related theory and exchange their knowledge and experiences. This enables a maximum interaction between students functioning in a real life setting and students working at the college hotel. After the first year of implementing this structure already some conclusions can be drawn to further improve the process. The information for learning companies on planning, supervision and student expectations should be improved as supervisors often are not acquainted with the method. The reason for this is that the schools contact persons of the different companies are often managers and they are not the ones that operate as supervisors for the students. Furthermore, the company has to communicate internally about their motivation to engage in this project and give the necessary background information on the method to their staff. Another conclusion that can be drawn is that not all learning companies are appropriate for every module. For example 5 star hotels give students less opportunities to experience guest contact at the front office, an asset that is very necessary during the module Hotel Entre. These prestigious companies are more suitable for the module 4, Hotel Food and Beverage. Not all students have the suitable characteristics for workplace learning outside of school. The schools approach and execution of workplace learning often differs from that of real-life workplace settings. Also students have to realize that learning outside of school can only take place when the companies have a work placement offer. Sometimes the working hours as agreed with the company do not match the regular hours of the school schedule. The student has to be aware of these differences as it is important for his choice of company. Finally it can be concluded that the effectiveness of the interaction during PBL sessions can be optimized by creating supervisory meetings as they would take place in real life settings. This way the theoretical frameworks and problems can be integrated. In 2011 the first group of students that experienced workplace learning outside of school will be active on the labour market for one year. This will be the first moment when the effectiveness of this project can be measured. A comparison can be made between the competency acquisition of the different settings, either inside or outside of school. REFERENCES Blokhuis, F.T.J. (2006). Evidence-based design of workplace learning. Enschede: University of Twente. Blokhuis, F.T.J. and Nijhuis, W.J. (2006). Effecten van een evidence-based design voor werkplekleren. In: Pedagogische Studin vol. 83, nr. 5, pp. 354-365. Blokhuis, F.T.L. (2003). 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