Fluid Mechanic

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Fluid Dynamics
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Objectives
Dr P A Sleigh: P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes: C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
1.Identify differences between:
x steady/unsteady
January 2008
x uniform/non-uniform
Module web site: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 x compressible/incompressible flow
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics 3 lectures
Flow 2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity 3.Introduce the Continuity principle
Unit 2: Statics 3 lectures
Hydrostatic pressure 4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
Manometry / Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

5.Use the continuity equations to predict pressure
The continuity equation. and velocity in flowing fluids
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation. 6.Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow 4 lectures
Laminar and turbulent flow 7.Demonstrate use of the momentum equation to
Boundary layer theory
An Intro to Dimensional analysis predict forces induced by flowing fluids
Similarity
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 98 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 99
Fluid dynamics: Flow Classification

Fluid flow may be
The analysis of fluid in motion classified under the following headings
Fluid motion can be predicted in the _______________:

same way as the motion of solids Flow conditions (velocity, pressure, cross-section or
depth) are the same at every point in the fluid.
By use of the fundamental laws of physics and the ________________:
physical properties of the fluid Flow conditions are not the same at every point.
Some fluid flow is very complex: ________________:

e.g. Flow conditions may differ from point to point but
x _____________________ DO NOT change with time.
x _____________________
x _____________________ ________________:
Flow conditions change with time at any point.
x _____________________
Fluid flowing under normal circumstances

All can be analysed
- a river for example -
with varying degrees of success conditions vary from point to point
(in some cases hardly at all!). we have non-uniform flow.
There are many common situations If the conditions at one point vary as time passes
which analysis gives very accurate predictions then we have unsteady flow.
Combining these four gives. Compressible or Incompressible Flow?
______________________. All fluids are compressible - even water.

Conditions do not change with position
in the stream or with time. Density will change as pressure changes.
E.g. flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity. Under ___________ conditions
- provided that changes in pressure are small - we
_________________________ usually say the fluid is incompressible
Conditions change from point to point in the stream but - it has _____________ density.
do not change with time.
E.g. Flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the
inlet. Three-dimensional flow
In general fluid flow is three-dimensional.
_________________________
At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are Pressures and velocities change in all directions.
the same, but will change with time.
E.g. A pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump
pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off. In many cases the greatest changes only occur in
two directions or even only in one.
__________________________
Every condition of the flow may change from point to Changes in the other direction can be effectively
point and with time at every point. ignored making analysis much more simple.
E.g. Waves in a channel.
This course is restricted to Steady uniform flow

- the most simple of the four.
One dimensional flow: Two-dimensional flow
Conditions vary only _______________________ Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in
not across the cross-section. ___________________ at right angles to this.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown
varying in time but not across the cross-section. by curved lines on a plane.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
Below shows flow pattern over a weir.
But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall
- yet non-zero in the centre -
there is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
Pipe Ideal flow Real flow
In this course we will be considering:

Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow?
x ____________
Possibly - but it is only necessary if very high
accuracy is required. x _______________
x ___________________________
Streamlines Some points about streamlines:
It is useful to visualise the flow pattern. x Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are
Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity ______________ to that boundary
contours - can be drawn.
x The direction of the streamline is the ________ of
the fluid velocity
These lines are know as __________________.
x Fluid can not _______ a streamline
Here are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section of
an aircraft wing shaped body:
x Streamlines can not cross ______________
x Any particles starting on one streamline will stay

on that same streamline
x In __________ flow streamlines can change

position with time
Fluid flowing past a solid boundary does not flow
into or out of the solid surface. x In _______ flow, the position of streamlines does
not change.
Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction

must be along the boundary.
Streamtubes Some points about streamtubes
A circle of points in a flowing fluid each x The “walls” of a streamtube are ___________
has a streamline passing through it.
x Fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
These streamlines make a tube-like shape known _______ _______ a streamtube “wall”.
as a streamtube
x A streamtube is not like a pipe.
Its “walls” move with the fluid.
x In __________ flow streamtubes can change

position with time
x In ________ flow, the position of streamtubes

does not change.
In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat (in

the plane of the paper):
Flow rate Discharge and mean velocity
Mass flow rate Cross sectional area of a pipe is A

Mean velocity is um.
dm mass Q = Au m
m
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
We usually drop the “m” and imply mean velocity.
Volume flow rate - Discharge. Continuity Mass flow in

Control
volume
Mass flow out

Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase
More commonly we use volume flow rate
per unit time per unit time of mass in
Also know as discharge. control vol
per unit time
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within
the control volume, so
volume of fluid
discharge, Q For steady flow
time Mass entering = Mass leaving
per unit time per unit time
Q1 = Q2 = A1u1 = A2u2
Applying to a streamtube: In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the mean
velocity and write
Mass enters and leaves only through the two ends
(it cannot cross the streamtube wall). U1 A1um1
ρ2
u2
A2
For incompressible, fluid U1 = U2 = U

(dropping the m subscript)
ρ1
u1
A1
Mass entering = Mass leaving

per unit time per unit time
This is the continuity equation most often used.
U1GA1u1 U2GA2u2
Or for steady flow, This equation is a very powerful tool.

It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of this
U1GA1u1 course.
This is the continuity equation.
Some example applications of Continuity 3. Water flows in a circular pipe which increases in
diameter from 400mm at point A to 500mm at point
B. Then pipe then splits into two branches of
1. What is the outflow? diameters 0.3m and 0.2m discharging at C and D
respectively.
If the velocity at A is 1.0m/s and at D is 0.8m/s,
what are the discharges at C and D and the
velocities at B and C?
2. What is the inflow?
Restrictions in application
Lecture 9: The Bernoulli Equation of Bernoulli’s equation:
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
x Flow is _________
The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the
principle of conservation of energy along a x Density is __________ (incompressible)
streamline
x ____________ losses are __________
It can be written:
p1 u12 x It relates the states at two points along a single
z H = Constant
Ug 2 g 1 streamline, (not conditions on two different
streamlines)
These terms represent:

All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any
instant in time!
Pressure Kinetic Potential Total
energy per energy per energy per energy per Fortunately, for many real situations where the
unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight conditions are approximately satisfied, the equation
gives very good results.
These term all have units of length,
they are often referred to as the following:
pressure head = velocity head =
potential head = total head =
The derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation: m

Cross sectional area a distance AA’ =
B
B’
Ua
A work done = force u distance AA’
z A’
m pm
mg = pa u
Ua U
An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has potential
energy due to its height z above a datum and kinetic energy
p
work done per unit weight =
due to its velocity u. If the element has weight mg then Ug
potential energy = mgz This term is know as the pressure energy of the flowing stream.
potential energy per unit weight = z Summing all of these energy terms gives
1 2
kinetic energy = mu Pressure Kinetic
energy per energy per energy per
Potential Total
2 unit weight unit weight unit weight

energy per
unit weight
u2
kinetic energy per unit weight = or
2g
At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the fluid
p u2
z H
will flow, moving the cross-section, so work will be done. If the Ug 2 g
pressure at cross section AB is p and the area of the cross-
section is a then
force on AB = pa By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy in
the system does not change, thus the total head does not
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section AB change. So the Bernoulli equation can be written
will have moved to A’B’
mg m p u2
volume passing AB =
z H Constant
Ug U Ug 2 g
therefore
The Bernoulli equation is applied along Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation
_______________
like that joining points 1 and 2 below. The Bernoulli equation is often combined with the
2
continuity equation to find velocities and pressures
at points in the flow connected by a streamline.
Example:
1 Finding pressures and velocities within a
total head at 1 = total head at 2 contracting and expanding pipe.
or
p1 u12 p2 u22 u1 u2
z z
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
p1 p2
section 1
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction) or section 2
3
energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It can be A fluid, density U = 960 kg/m is flowing steadily through
expanded to include these simply, by adding the appropriate the above tube.
energy terms:
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
Total Total Loss Work done Energy
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2
energy per energy per unit per unit per unit supplied
unit weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight per unit weight The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2)
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z h wq
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2 What is the gauge pressure at section 2?
Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline joining We have used both the Bernoulli equation and the
section 1 with section 2. Continuity principle together to solve the problem.
p1 u12
z1
Ug 2 g Use of this combination is very common. We will be
seeing this again frequently throughout the rest of
p2 p1 the course.
Use the continuity equation to find u2

Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
A1u1
u2 The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many

situations not just the pipe flow.
m/ s Here we will see its application to flow

measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as in
So pressure at section 2
open channels.
p2
N / m2
kN / m2
Note how
the velocity has increased
the pressure has decreased
Applications of Bernoulli: Flow from Tanks Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the
Flow Through A Small Orifice surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice.
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure

Flow from a tank through a hole in the side. atmospheric (p1 = 0).
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so

1
Aactual again the pressure is atmospheric (p2 = 0).
h
If we take the datum line through the orifice
then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
2 Vena contractor
h
The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional losses by

minimising the contact between the hole and the liquid. u2
The streamlines at the orifice

This theoretical value of velocity is an overestimate as
contract reducing the area of flow.
friction losses have not been taken into account.
This contraction is called the ______ ____________

A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the theoretical
velocity,
The amount of contraction must
uactual
be known to calculate the ________
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they

usually lie in the range( 0.97 - 0.99)
Time for the tank to empty

The discharge through the orifice We have an expression for the discharge from the tank
is Q Cd Ao 2 gh
jet area u jet velocity
We can use this to calculate how long
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not it will take for level in the to fall
the area of the orifice.
As the tank empties the level of water falls.
We use a coefficient of contraction The discharge will also drop.
to get the area of the jet
Aactual
h1
h2
Giving discharge through the orifice:
Q Au
Qactual Aactual uactual The tank has a cross sectional area of A.
CcCv Aorificeutheoretical
In a time Gt the level falls by Gh
Cd Aorificeutheoretical
The flow out of the tank is
Q Au
Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Q A

Cd = Cc u Cv (-ve sign as Gh is falling)
This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so Submerged Orifice
What if the tank is feeding into another?
Area A1
Area A2
h1
A Gh h2
Gt
Cd Ao 2 g h
Orifice area Ao
Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the deeper

Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final level, h2, tank to point 2 at the centre of the orifice,
gives the time it takes to fall this height
p1 u12 p2 u22
z1 z2
Ug 2 g Ug 2 g
Gh 0 0 h1
A h2
t ³ h
Cd Ao 2 g h1
u2
> @
Cd Ao 2 g And the discharge is given by
Q Cd Aou
Cd Ao
> @
Cd Ao 2 g
So the discharge of the jet through the submerged orifice
depends on the difference in head across the orifice.
Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the

Lecture 10: Flow Measurement Devices pressure at this point.
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Along the central streamline at 1: velocity u1 , pressure p1
At the stagnation point (2): u2 = 0. (Also z1 = z2)
Pitot Tube p1 u2
1
The Pitot tube is a simple ________ ________ device. U 2
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has

streamlines similar to this:
p2
How can we use this?

1 2
The blunt body does not have to be a solid.

It could be a static column of fluid.
Some move to the left and some to the right.
The centre one hits the blunt body and stops. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube
within the pipe can be used as shown below to measure
At this point (2) velocity is ______ velocity of flow.
The fluid does not move at this one point.

This point is known as the ____________ point.
Pitot Static Tube

h1 h2 The necessity of two piezometers makes this
arrangement awkward.
1
2 The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they
can then be easily connected to a manometer.
We have the equation for p2 ,

1
p2 2
1
X
Ugh2 h
A B
u
[Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its diameter
is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are considered to
We now have an expression for velocity from two be at the same level]
pressure measurements and the application of the
Bernoulli equation.
The holes on the side connect to one side of a

manometer, while the central hole connects to the other
side of the manometer
Using the theory of the manometer, Pitot-Static Tube Example

pA
A pitot-static tube is used to measure the air flow at
the centre of a 400mm diameter building ventilation
pB duct.
If the height measured on the attached manometer is
10 mm and the density of the manometer fluid is 1000
pA kg/m3, determine the volume flow rate in the duct.
Assume that the density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.
p2 UgX
1
We know that p2 p1 Uu12 , giving
2
p1 hg Uman U
u1
The Pitot/Pitot-static is:
x Simple to use (and analyse)
x Gives velocities (not discharge)
x May block easily as the holes are small.
Venturi Meter Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
_____________ in a pipe.
By continuity
Q u1 A1 u2 A2
It is a rapidly converging section which ________ the
velocity of flow and hence __________ the pressure. u1 A1
u2
A2
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section.
Substituting and rearranging gives
about 6°
p1 p2 ª§ · º
z1 z2 «¬¨© ¸ »¼
about 20°
Ug ¹
2 ª º
«¬ »¼
1
z2
z1
h u1
datum
The theoretical (ideal) discharge is uuA. Venturimeter design:
Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to friction, x The diffuser assures a gradual and steady _____________
we include a coefficient of discharge (Cd |0.9) after the throat. So that ________ rises to something near
Qideal u1 A1 that before the meter.
Qactual Cd Qideal Cd u1 A1
x The angle of the diffuser is usually between ___ and ____
ª p p2 º degrees.
2g« 1 z1 z2 »
Qactual Cd A1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼ x Wider and the flow might separate from the walls increasing
2 2 energy loss.
A1 A2
x If the angle is less the meter becomes very long and pressure
In terms of the manometer readings losses again become significant.
p1 Ugz1 p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h)
x The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to
p1 p2 § · the original is rarely greater than ______%.
z1 z2 ¨ ¸
Ug © ¹
x Care must be taken when connecting the manometer so that
Giving no burrs are present.
Qactual Cd A1 A2
This expression does not include any

elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
When used with a manometer

The Venturimeter can be used without knowing its angle.
Venturimeter Example
Lecture 11: Notches and Weirs
A venturimeter is used to measure the flow of water Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
in a 150 mm diameter pipe. The throat diameter of the
venturimeter is 60 mm and the discharge coefficient
is 0.9. If the pressure difference measured by a
x A _______ is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir.
manometer is 10 cm mercury, what is the average
velocity in the pipe?
Assume water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 and x It is a device for measuring ___________.
mercury has a relative density of 13.6.
x A ____ is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in rivers.
x It is used as both a discharge measuring device and a device

to raise water levels.
x There are many different designs of weir.

x We will look at sharp crested weirs.
Weir Assumptions
x velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is _____ so we
can ignore ________ _________.
x The velocity in the flow depends only on the _____ below the
free surface. u 2 gh
These assumptions are fine for tanks with notches or reservoirs

with weirs, in rivers with high velocity approaching the weir is
substantial the kinetic energy must be taken into account
A General Weir Equation Rectangular Weir
Consider a horizontal strip of The width does not change with depth so
width b, depth h below the free surface
b constant B
b h
H
δh B
velocity through the strip, u

discharge through the strip, GQ Au
Substituting this into the general weir equation gives
H
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest,
Qtheoretical B 2 g ³ h 3/ 2 dh
h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge
0
Qtheoretical
To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of
discharge, Cd, to account for
This is different for every differently losses at the edges of the weir
shaped weir or notch. and contractions in the area of flow,
We need an expression relating the width of flow across Qactual Cd

the weir to the depth below the free surface.
Rectangular Weir Example ‘V’ Notch Weir

The relationship between width and depth is dependent
Water enters the Millwood flood storage area via a on the angle of the “V”.
rectangular weir when the river height exceeds the
weir crest. For design purposes a flow rate of 162
litres/s over the weir can be assumed b h
H
θ
1. Assuming a height over the crest of 20cm and

Cd=0.2, what is the necessary width, B, of the weir?
The width, b, a depth h from the free surface is
§T ·
b 2 H h tan¨ ¸
© 2¹
So the discharge is
H
§T ·
Qtheoretical 2 2 g tan¨ ¸ ³
© 2¹
0
H
2. What will be the velocity over the weir at this §T · ª º
2 2 g tan¨ ¸ « »¼
design? © 2¹ ¬ 0
8 §T ·
2 g tan¨ ¸
15 © 2¹
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a
coefficient of discharge
8 §T ·
Qactual Cd 2 g tan¨ ¸ H 5 / 2
15 © 2¹
‘V’ Notch Weir Example

Water is flowing over a 90o ‘V’ Notch weir into a tank Lecture 12: The Momentum Equation
with a cross-sectional area of 0.6m2. After 30s the Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
depth of the water in the tank is 1.5m.
If the discharge coefficient for the weir is 0.8, what is We have all seen moving
the height of the water above the weir?
fluids exerting forces.
x The lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the air

moving over the wing.
x A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on

whatever it hits.
The analysis of motion is as in solid mechanics: by

use of Newton’s laws of motion.
The Momentum equation

is a statement of _________ _____ ______
It relates the sum of the forces

to the acceleration or
rate of change of momentum.
From solid mechanics you will recognise In time Gt a volume of the fluid moves
F = ma from the inlet a distance u1Gt, so
What mass of moving fluid we should use? volume entering the stream tube = area u distance
=
We use a different form of the equation.
Consider a streamtube: The mass entering,

mass entering stream tube = volume u density
And assume________ _____________ flow =
A2 And momentum
A1
u2 momentum entering stream tube = mass u velocity
u1 ρ2
=
ρ1
u1 δt
Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:

momentum leaving stream tube =
nd
By Newton’s 2 Law. An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
Force = rate of change of momentum mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2
( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 ) we can write

F= dm
Gt rate of change of mass m
dt
U1 A1u1 U2 A2u2
We know from continuity that
The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is
Q A1u1 A2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
1
And if we have a fluid of constant density, The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is
i.e. U1 U2 U , then U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
F Thus the rate at which momentum changes across

the stream tube is
U2 A2 u2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
2 mu
1
So
Force = rate of change of momentum

F m ( u2 u1 )
The previous analysis assumed the inlet and outlet

So we have these two expressions, velocities in the same direction
either one is known as the momentum equation i.e. a one dimensional system.
What happens when this is not the case?

u2
F m ( u2 u1 )
θ2
F QU ( u2 u1)
θ1
The Momentum equation.
u1
This force acts on the fluid

in the direction of the flow of the fluid. We consider the forces by ____________ in the
directions of the co-ordinate axes.
The force in the x-direction

Fx m u2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
or
Fx UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
And the force in the y-direction In summary we can say:

Fy m u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
Total force rate of change of
on the fluid = momentum through
the control volume
or
Fy UQ u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1 F
or
The resultant force can be found by combining F
these components
Fy
FResultant
φ
Remember that we are working with vectors so F is
Fx
in the direction of the ____________.
Fresultant
And the angle of this force
I § ·
¨ ¸
© ¹
This force is made up of three components: Application of the Momentum Equation

FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body
touching the control volume Forces on a Bend
FB = Force exerted on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)

Consider a converging or diverging pipe bend lying
in the vertical or horizontal plane
FP = Force exerted on the fluid by fluid pressure
outside the control volume
turning through an angle of T.
So we say that the total force, FT, Here is a diagram of a diverging pipe bend.
is given by the sum of these forces: y p2 u
2 A2
FT = x
p1 1m
u1 45°
The force exerted
A1
by the fluid
on the solid body
touching the control volume is opposite to FR.
So the reaction force, R, is given by

R=
Why do we want to know the forces here? An Example of Forces on a Bend
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45q rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
As the fluid changes direction internal angle of 135q). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
a force will act ___ ___ ______. at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is 100kN/m2
and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe is 0.075m3.
[13.95kN at 67q 39’ to the horizontal]
This force can be very large in the case of water
supply pipes. The bend must be held in place
to prevent _________ at the ______. 1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis
We need to know how much force a support (thrust system
y p2 u
block) must withstand. 2 A2
Step in Analysis: p1 1m
u1 45°
1.Draw a control volume A1
2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system

3.Calculate the total force
4.Calculate the pressure force p1 = 100 kN/m2,
5.Calculate the body force Q = 0.3 m3/s
6.Calculate the resultant force T = 45q
d1 = d2 =
A1 = A2 =
3 Calculate the total force 4 Calculate the pressure force.

in the x direction FP pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2
(T1 0, T2 T )
FT x
UQ u2 x u1x
FP x
by continuity A1u1 A2 u2 Q , so
FP y
We know pressure at the _______
0.3
u1 but not at the ________.

. 2 /4
S 015
0.3 we can use __________
u2 to calculate this unknown pressure.
0.0707
FT x 1000 u 0.3 p1 u12

z
Ug 2 g 1
where hf is the friction loss
and in the y-direction In the question it says this can be _______ ____
FT y
UQ u2 y u1 y The height of the pipe at the outlet
UQ is 1m above the inlet.
1000 u 0.3 Taking the inlet level as the datum:
z1 = z2 = 6 Calculate the resultant force
So the Bernoulli equation becomes: FT x FR x FP x FB x

100000 16.982 p2 4.24 2 FT y FR y FP y FB y
0 10
.
1000 u 9.81 2 u 9.81 1000 u 9.81 2 u 9.81
p2 FR x
4193.6 9496.37
FP x 100000 u 0.0177 2253614
. cos 45 u 0.0707
FR y
FP y 2253614
. sin 45 u 0.0707 899.44 11266.37 735.75
5 Calculate the body force

The only body force is the force due to gravity. That And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
is the weight acting in the -ve y direction. FRy
FResultant
FB y
φ
FRx
There are no body forces in the x direction, FR

FB x 0
5302.7 2 1290156
. 2
And the direction of application is Lecture 14: Momentum Equation Examples

I tan 1 §¨ ·
¸ Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
© ¹
tan 1 §¨ ·
¸ Impact of a Jet on a Plane
© ¹
A jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90q

The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction We want to find the reaction force of the plate.
i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay in
R the same position.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are

shown in the figure below.
y u2
Lecture 13: Design Study 2 x
u1
See Separate Handout
u2
3 Calculate the total force 6 Calculate the resultant force

In the x-direction
FT x FR x FP x FB x
FT x UQu2 x u1 x FR x FT x 0 0
Exerted on the fluid.

The system is symmetrical
the forces in the y-direction cancel. The force on the plane is the same magnitude but in
the opposite direction
R FR x
FT y
If the plane were at an angle

4 Calculate the pressure force.
the analysis is the same.
The pressures at both the inlet and the outlets
But it is usually most convenient to choose the axis
to the control volume are atmospheric. system ________ to the plate.
The pressure force is zero y
u2
FP x FP y 0 x
5 Calculate the body force

u1
As the control volume is small
θ
we can ignore the body force due to gravity.
FB x FB y 0 u3
Force on a curved vane 3 Calculate the total force

in the x direction
This case is similar to that of a pipe, but the
analysis is simpler. FT x
Pressures at ends are equal at _______________

Q
by continuity u1 u2 , so
A
Both the cross-section and velocities
(in the direction of flow) remain constant.
FT x
u2 and in the y-direction

y
x FT y UQu2 sin T 0
u1
4 Calculate the pressure force.

The pressure at both the inlet and the outlets to the
control volume is atmospheric.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure above. FP x FP y 0
5 Calculate the body force And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
No body forces in the x-direction, FB x = 0. FR FR2 x FR2 y
In the y-direction the body force acting is the weight

of the fluid. And the direction of application is
If V is the volume of the fluid on the vane then,
FB x UgV § FR y ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© FR x ¹
(This is often small as the jet volume is small and exerted on the fluid.
sometimes ignored in analysis.)
The force on the vane is the same magnitude but in
6 Calculate the resultant force the opposite direction
FT x FR x FP x FB x R FR
FR x FT x
FT y FR y FP y FB y
FR y FT y
SUMMARY outside the control volume

We work with components of the force:
u2
The Momentum equation
θ2
is a statement of Newton’s Second Law
For a fluid of constant density,
Total force rate of change of θ1
on the fluid = momentum through u1
the control volume Fx UQu2 x u1x UQ

F
Fy
UQ u2 y u1 y UQ
This force acts ____ ____ _____
in the direction of the ________ of fluid. The resultant force can be found by combining
these components
Fy
FResultant
This is the total force FT where:
FT =
Fresultant
φ
FR = _______ force on the fluid from any solid body Fx
touching the control volume And the angle this force acts:
FB = ______ force on the fluid body (e.g. gravity)
§ ·
FP = ________ force on the fluid by fluid pressure I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© ¹
2. A 600mm diameter pipeline carries water under a head of

30m with a velocity of 3m/s. This water main is fitted with a
Lecture 15: Calculations horizontal bend which turns the axis of the pipeline through
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics 75q (i.e. the internal angle at the bend is 105q). Calculate
the resultant force on the bend and its angle to the
horizontal.
1. The figure below shows a smooth curved vane attached to

a rigid foundation. The jet of water, rectangular in section,
75mm wide and 25mm thick, strike the vane with a velocity
of 25m/s. Calculate the vertical and horizontal components
of the force exerted on the vane and indicate in which
direction these components act.
45q
25q
3. A 75mm diameter jet of water having a velocity of 25m/s

strikes a flat plate, the normal of which is inclined at 30q to 4. In an experiment a jet of water of diameter 20mm is fired
the jet. Find the force normal to the surface of the plate. vertically upwards at a sprung target that deflects the water
at an angle of 120° to the horizontal in all directions. If a
500g mass placed on the target balances the force of the
jet, was is the discharge of the jet in litres/s?
5. Water is being fired at 10 m/s from a hose of 50mm

diameter into the atmosphere. The water leaves the hose
through a nozzle with a diameter of 30mm at its exit. Find
the pressure just upstream of the nozzle and the force on
the nozzle.

Fluid Mechanic

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Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Fluid Dynamics

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Objectives

Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

Fluid dynamics: Flow Classification

Fluid motion can be predicted in the _______________:

Some fluid flow is very complex: ________________:

Fluid flowing under normal circumstances

Combining these four gives. Compressible or Incompressible Flow?

______________________. All fluids are compressible - even water.

This course is restricted to Steady uniform flow

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

One dimensional flow: Two-dimensional flow

Pipe Ideal flow Real flow

In this course we will be considering:

Streamlines Some points about streamlines:

x Any particles starting on one streamline will stay

x In __________ flow streamlines can change

Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

Streamtubes Some points about streamtubes

x In __________ flow streamtubes can change

x In ________ flow, the position of streamtubes

In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat (in

Flow rate Discharge and mean velocity

Mass flow rate Cross sectional area of a pipe is A

We usually drop the “m” and imply mean velocity.

Volume flow rate - Discharge. Continuity Mass flow in

Mass flow out

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

For incompressible, fluid U1 = U2 = U

Mass entering = Mass leaving

Or for steady flow, This equation is a very powerful tool.

This is the continuity equation.

2. What is the inflow?

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

These terms represent:

pressure head = velocity head =

potential head = total head =

The derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation: m

2 unit weight unit weight unit weight

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

Use the continuity equation to find u2

u2 The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many

m/ s Here we will see its application to flow

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure

At the orifice the jet is open to the air so

The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional losses by

The streamlines at the orifice

This contraction is called the ______ ____________

Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they

Time for the tank to empty

Giving discharge through the orifice:

Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Q A

Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics

Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the deeper

Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the

Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has

How can we use this?

The blunt body does not have to be a solid.

The fluid does not move at this one point.

This contraction is called the ______

Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Q A

( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 ) we can write

So the Bernoulli equation becomes: FT x FR x FP x FB x