Fluid Mechanic

Unit 2 Unit 2
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Statics : Pressure
Unit 2: Statics
Dr P A Sleigh: P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes: C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
January 2008
Module web site: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

Hydrostatic Pressure:
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics
Flow
3 lectures linear change in pressure with depth
p2 p1 Ug z 2 z1
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Unit 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
3 lectures Measure depth, h, from free surface
Manometry / Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

p Ugh patmospheric
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Absolute pressure
pabsolute = U g h + patmospheric
Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow 4 lectures
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
An Intro to Dimensional analysis Gauge pressure
Similarity
pgauge = U g h
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 4 45 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 4 46
Unit 2 Unit 2
Pressure Head Examples of pressure head calculations:
What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2 in

The lower limit of any pressure is
head of water of density, U = 1000 kgm-3
the pressure in a __________________
Use p = Ugh,
Pressure measured above h=

a perfect vacuum (zero)
is known as _____________ pressure In head of Mercury density U = 13.6u103 kgm-3.
Pressure measured relative to h=

atmospheric pressure
is known as _____________ pressure In head of a fluid with relative density J = 8.7.
remember U = J u Uwater)
A gauge pressure can be given
using height of any fluid. h=
p Ugh
This height, h, is referred to as the _______
If pressure is quoted in head,

the ____________of the fluid ______ also be given.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Manometers for Measuring Pressure An Examples of a Piezometer.
1. What is the maximum gauge pressure of water

Manometers use the relationship between
that can be measured by a Piezometer of height
_____________and _______ to measure pressure
1.5m?
Piezometer Tube
A simple open tube attached to the top of a container
with liquid at pressure.
Liquid rises to
a height, h,
equal to the pA = Ugh
pressure in 2. If the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what
the container. would the maximum measurable gauge
pressure?
The pressure measured is relative to

__________ so it measures _________ pressure.
Problems with the Piezometer:

1.
2.
3.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Equality of Pressure At Consider these two tanks, one much larger than the
The Same Level In A Static Fluid other, and linked together by a thin tube:
Fluid density ρ
Area A
P Q
pl, A pr, A
Face L Face R
z z
weight, mg
Horizontal cylindrical element

cross sectional area = A L R
mass density = U
left end pressure = pl We have shown
right end pressure = pr pl = pr
For a vertical pressure change we have
For equilibrium the sum of the
pl
forces in the x direction is zero.
and
=
pr
so
=
pp pq
Pressure in the horizontal direction is ________
Pressure at the two equal levels are _______.

This true for any fluid.
Unit 2 Unit 2
An improved manometer: The “U”-Tube “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases
“U” is connected as shown and filled with to be measured
manometric fluid.
Fluid density ρ Important points:
1. “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and
D
gases to be measured
h2
A 2. The manometric fluid density should be ________
h1 ____ ____ _______ measured.
B C Uman > U
3. The two fluids should __________ _____ ___

Manometric fluid density ρ
man
they must be immiscible.
Using the fact that pressure at two levels are equal:
pressure atB = What if the fluid is a gas?
pB =
_________ changes.
For the left hand arm
pressure at B =
pB = The manometric fluid is liquid
For the right hand arm (usually mercury, oil or water)
pressure at C =
And Liquid density is much greater than gas,
pC =
pB = pC Uman >> U
pA =
Subtract patmospheric to give gauge pressure Ugh2 is negligible and pressure is given by
pA =
pA =
Unit 2 Unit 2
Pressure Difference Measurement

An example of the U-Tube manometer.
Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge
Using a “U”-Tube Manometer.
pressure of fluid density U = 700 kg/m3, and the
manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density The “U”-tube manometer can be connected
of 13.6. at both ends to measure pressure difference
What is the gauge pressure if: between these two points
a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
b) h1 = 0.4 and h2 = -0.1m?
B
Fluid density ρ
hb
E
ha
C D
Manometric fluid density ρman
Unit 2 Unit 2
pressure at C = An example using the u-tube for pressure

difference measuring
In the figure below two pipes containing the same
pC = fluid of density U = 990 kg/m3 are connected using a
u-tube manometer.
pC = a) What is the pressure between the two pipes if the
manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Fluid density ρ
pD =
Fluid density ρ
A
= B
ha = 1.5m
E
Giving the pressure difference hb = 0.75m

h = 0.5m
pA - pB =
C D
Manometric fluid density ρ

man = 13.6 ρ
Again if the fluid is a gas Uman >> U, then the terms
involving U can be neglected,
pA - pB =
Unit 2 Unit 2
Advances to the “U” tube manometer volume of liquid moved from

the left side to the right
Problem: Two reading are required. =
Solution:
The fall in level of the left side is

Result:
z1
p1 p2
z 2 Sd 2 / 4
2
SD / 4
diameter D 2
diameter d §d·
z2 ¨ ¸
z
2 ©D¹
Datum line
z1 Putting this in the equation,
2
ª d º
p1 p2 Ug « z 2 z 2 §¨ ·¸ »
¬ © ¹ D ¼
2
ª d º
If the manometer is measuring the pressure Ugz 2 «1 §¨ ·¸ »
difference of a gas of (p1 - p2) as shown, © ¹
¬ D ¼
we know
p1 - p2 = If D >> d then (d/D)2 is very small so
p1 p2
Unit 2 Unit 2
Inclined manometer Example of an inclined manometer.

An inclined tube manometer consists of a vertical
Problem: Small changes difficult to see
cylinder 35mm diameter. At the bottom of this is
Incline the arm: same height change but bigger connected a tube 5mm in diameter inclined upward
movement. at an angle of 15q to the horizontal, the top of this
p1
p2 tube is connected to an air duct. The vertical cylinder
diameter d
is open to the air and the manometric fluid has
relative density 0.785.
diameter D x
ad
er a) Determine the pressure in the air duct if the
e
al eR z
manometric fluid moved 50mm along the inclined
Sc 2
Datum line
tube.
z1 a) What is the error if the movement of the fluid in the
vertical cylinder is ignored?
θ
The pressure difference is still given by the height

change of the manometric fluid.
p1 p2 Ugz2
but,
z2
p1 p2
The sensitivity to pressure change can be _________

further by a __________ inclination.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Choice Of Manometer
Lecture 5: Forces in Static Fluids
Take care when fixing the manometer to vessel Unit 2: Statics
Burrs cause local pressure variations.
Disadvantages: From earlier we know that:

x ______ response - only really useful for very slowly 1. A static fluid can have ______________ acting on it.
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures; 2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must
x For the “U” tube manometer ____ measurements _________________________________________.
must be taken _______________ to get the h value. F1
x It is often difficult to measure ______ variations in F2

R1
pressure. F
R2
x It cannot be used for ____ _____ pressures unless Fn
several manometers are connected in series;

R
x For very accurate work the _____________ and
relationship between temperature and U must be Rn
known; Pressure force normal to the boundary. True also for

x curved surfaces
Advantages of manometers: x any imaginary plane in the fluid
x They are very __________.
x No ______________ is required - the pressure can An element of fluid at rest is in equilibrium:
be calculated from first principles. 3. The sum of forces in any direction is _____
4. The sum of the moments of forces
about any point is ______
Unit 2 Unit 2
General submerged plane Horizontal submerged plane

F1=p1δA1
F2=p2δA2
The pressure, p, will be _______ at all points
Fn=pnδAn
of the surface.
The resultant force will be given by
R
The total or resultant force, R, on the R=
plane is the sum of the forces on the
small elements i.e. Curved submerged surface
R
and Each elemental force is a different
This ___________force will act through magnitude and in a different direction (but
the centre of _________. still normal to the surface.).
It is, in general, not easy to calculate the

For a plane surface all forces acting resultant force for a curved surface by
can be represented by one single combining all elemental forces.
___________ force,
acting at right-angles to the plane The sum of all the forces on each element
through the centre of ___________. will always be _____ than the sum of the
individual forces, ¦ pGA .
Unit 2 Unit 2
Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a

general plane surface in a liquid.
¦ zGA is known as
st
the 1 Moment of Area of the
O O
Fluid Q
θ plane PQ about the free surface.
z elemental
density ρ z area δA
s
Resultant
Force R D
G
x
area δA G
And it is known that ¦ zGA
area A d
C Sc
P
x
A is the area of the plane
z is the distance to the centre of _________
Take pressure as zero at the surface. (___________)
Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on

In terms of distance from point O
an element GA, depth z,
p=
¦ zGA
So force on element =
F= (as z x sin T )
Resultant force on plane The resultant force on a plane
R
R
(assuming U and g as constant).
R = Pressure at centre of gravity X Area
Unit 2 Unit 2
This resultant force acts at right angles Sum of moments =

through the centre of pressure, C, at a depth D.
Moment of R about O =
How do we find this position?
Equating
____________________________.
=
As the plane is in equilibrium:
The moment of R will be equal to ________ The position of the centre of ________ along
______ __________________ on all the elements the plane measure from the point O is:
GA about the same point.
Sc
¦ s GA 2
Ax
It is convenient to take moment about O
How do we work out the summation term?
The force on each elemental area:
Force on GA This term is known as the “Second Moment of
Area” , Io, of the plane (about an axis through O)
the moment of this force is:
Moment of Force on GA about O Ug s sin T GA u s 2nd moment of area about O Io ¦s 2
GA
2
Ug sin T GAs
U , g and T are the same for each element, giving the It can be easily calculated
total moment as for many common shapes.
Unit 2 Unit 2
nd
How do you calculate the 2 moment of
The position of the centre of pressure area?
along the plane measure from the point O is:
2nd moment of area is a geometric property.
2nd Moment of area about a line through O
Sc It can be found from tables -
2nd Moment of area about a line through O
BUT only for moments about
an axis through its centroid = IGG.
and
We need it for an axis through O
Depth to the centre of pressure is
Use the parallel axis theorem

D= to give us what we want.
The parallel axis theorem can be written

Io
Unit 2 Unit 2
nd
We then get the following The 2 moment of area about a line
equation for the through the centroid of some common
position of the centre of pressure shapes.
Shape Area A 2nd moment of area, I GG ,

about
Sc an axis through the centroid
Rectangle
b
D § · bd bd 3
¨ ¸
© ¹
h 12
G G
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem

Triangle
and the I GG will be given)
G
h
G
bd bd 3
h/3
b
2 36
Circle
G
R
G SR 2 SR 4
4
Semicircle 2
SR
R4
R
G
(4R)/(3π)
2 01102
.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Example 1: Determine the resultant force due to the Example 2: Determine the resultant force due to the
water acting on the 1m by 2m rectangular area AB water acting on the 1.25m by 2.0m triangular area CD
shown in the diagram below. [43 560 N, 2.37m from O shown in the example above. The apex of the triangle
O P is at C. [23.8u103N, 2.821m from P]
1.22m 1.0m
45°
A C
2.0 m 2.0 m
B D
Unit 2 Unit 2
Example 3: Find the moment required to keep

this triangular gate closed on a tank which Lecture 6: Pressure Diagrams and
holds water. Forces on Curved Surfaces
Unit 2: Statics
1.2m
D
2.0m
Pressure diagrams
G 1.5m
C
For vertical walls of constant width
it is possible to find the resultant force and
centre of pressure graphically using a
pressure diagram.
We know the relationship between

pressure and depth:
p=
So we can draw the diagram below:
Unit 2 Unit 2
This is know as a pressure diagram. The force acts through the centroid of
Pressure increases from zero at the the pressure diagram.
surface linearly by p = , to a
maximum at the base of p = .
For a triangle the centroid is at its
height
The area of this triangle represents the
i.e. the resultant force acts
resultant force ___ ____ ____ on the horizontally through the point z = .
vertical wall,
For a vertical plane the
Units of this are _________ per metre. depth to the centre of pressure is given by
Area =
D=
=
Resultant force per unit width

R
Unit 2 Unit 2
Check this against The same technique can be used with combinations
the moment method: of liquids are held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
For example:
The resultant force is given by: oil ρo 0.8m

D
R=
water ρ 1.2m
R
=
= ρg0.8 ρg1.2
Find the position and magnitude of the resultant

and the depth to the centre of pressure by: force on this vertical wall of a tank which has oil
§ · floating on water as shown.
D ¨ ¸
© ¹
and by the parallel axis theorem (with width of 1)
Io I GG Ax 2
Depth to the centre of pressure
Unit 2 Unit 2
E D
Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
If the surface is curved the resultant force C

B
must be found by combining the elemental G
forces using some vectorial method. FAC O RH
Calculate the A
Rv R
___________ and ___________
components.
The fluid is at rest – in equilibrium.
Combine these to obtain the resultant

force and direction.
So ____ __________ of fluid
(Although this can be done for all three such as ABC is also in ____________.
dimensions we will only look at one vertical
plane)
In the diagram below liquid is resting on

top of a curved base.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Consider the Horizontal forces The resultant horizontal force of a fluid

above a curved surface is:
The sum of the horizontal forces is zero. RH =
C
___________________________
B
FAC RH We know
1. The force on a vertical plane must act
A horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane).
2. That RH must act through the same point.
No horizontal force on CB as there are
no shear forces in a static fluid So:
RH acts horizontally through the _______
Horizontal forces act only on the faces ______ ________ of the _____________ of
AC and AB as shown. the curved surface onto an vertical plane.
FAC, must be equal and opposite to RH. We have seen earlier how to calculate
resultant forces and point of action.
AC is the projection of the curved surface
AB onto a vertical plane. Hence we can calculate the resultant
horizontal force on a curved surface.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Consider the Vertical forces Resultant force

The sum of the vertical forces is zero.
E D
The overall resultant force is found by
combining the vertical and horizontal
C
B
components vectorialy,
G
Resultant force
A R
Rv
There are no shear force on the vertical edges,

so the vertical component can only be due to And acts through O at an angle of T.
the ___________ of the fluid.
The angle the resultant force makes to the
So we can say horizontal is
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a T=
curved surface is:
RV =
_____________________________.
It will act vertically down through the centre of The position of O is the point of intersection of
gravity of the mass of fluid. the horizontal line of action of R H and the
vertical line of action of RV .
Unit 2 Unit 2
A typical example application of this is the What are the forces if the fluid is below the
determination of the forces on dam walls or curved curved surface?
sluice gates. This situation may occur or a curved sluice gate.
Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force of water on a quadrant gate as C
B
shown below. G
Gate width 3.0m
FAC O RH
1.0m
3
Water ρ = 1000 kg/m A
Rv R
The force calculation is very similar to

when the fluid is above.
Unit 2 Unit 2
Horizontal force Vertical force

C
B
G
B
FAC O RH
A
A A’ Rv
What vertical force would

The two horizontal on the element are:
keep this in equilibrium?
The horizontal reaction force RH
The force on the vertical plane A’B.
If the region above the curve were all
The resultant horizontal force, RH acts as shown in water there would be equilibrium.
the diagram. Thus we can say:
Hence: the force exerted by this amount of fluid

must equal he resultant force.
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid below a
curved surface is:
The resultant vertical force of a fluid below a
RH =
curved surface is:
___________________________
Rv = Weight of the ____________ volume of fluid
___________ ________the curved surface.
Unit 2 Unit 2
The resultant force and direction of application Example 1:

are calculated in the same way as for fluids A 2m wide wall as shown in the figure below is fitted
above the surface: with a sluice gate at the base. Find the force on the
gate.
Resultant force
2.5m
R=
1m
And acts through O at an angle of T.
R
The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal
is 1m
T= Force on a submerged surface,

R = pressure at centroid u Area of surface
Unit 2 Unit 2
Exampel 2: What would be the force if the gate was

changed to a circular one arranged as below? Vertical force = weight of (real or imaginary) fluid
above the surface.
Rv = UguVolume above surface
2.5m Rv =

1m
Rv =
Rh 1m
R = (Rh2 + Rv2)1/2 =
Rv
Horizontal force on curved surface =
force on projection on to a vertical surface
i.e. equivalent to this figure:
2.5m
Rh 1m
Rh = UghA =
Rh =
Unit 2
Example 3: A curved sluice gate which experiences

force from fluid below.
A 1.5m long cylinder lies as shown in the figure,
holding back oil of relative density 0.8. If the cylinder
has a mass of 2250 kg find
a) the reaction at A b) the reaction at B
E
C
A
D
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 6 97

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Unit 2 Unit 2

CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Statics : Pressure

Module web site: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures

Pressure Head Examples of pressure head calculations:

What is a pressure of 500 kNm-2 in

Pressure measured above h=

Pressure measured relative to h=

This height, h, is referred to as the _______

If pressure is quoted in head,

Manometers for Measuring Pressure An Examples of a Piezometer.

1. What is the maximum gauge pressure of water

The pressure measured is relative to

Problems with the Piezometer:

Horizontal cylindrical element

Pressure at the two equal levels are _______.

3. The two fluids should __________ _____ ___

Pressure Difference Measurement

Manometric fluid density ρman

pressure at C = An example using the u-tube for pressure

Giving the pressure difference hb = 0.75m

Manometric fluid density ρ

Advances to the “U” tube manometer volume of liquid moved from

The fall in level of the left side is

Inclined manometer Example of an inclined manometer.

The pressure difference is still given by the height

The sensitivity to pressure change can be _________

Disadvantages: From earlier we know that:

x It is often difficult to measure ______ variations in F2

several manometers are connected in series;

known; Pressure force normal to the boundary. True also for

General submerged plane Horizontal submerged plane

It is, in general, not easy to calculate the

Resultant Force and Centre of Pressure on a

Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on

This resultant force acts at right angles Sum of moments =

Use the parallel axis theorem

The parallel axis theorem can be written

Shape Area A 2nd moment of area, I GG ,

(In the examination the parallel axis theorem

Example 3: Find the moment required to keep

We know the relationship between

So we can draw the diagram below:

Resultant force per unit width

The resultant force is given by: oil ρo 0.8m

Find the position and magnitude of the resultant

Depth to the centre of pressure

If the surface is curved the resultant force C

must be found by combining the elemental G

forces using some vectorial method. FAC O RH

Combine these to obtain the resultant

In the diagram below liquid is resting on

Consider the Horizontal forces The resultant horizontal force of a fluid

Consider the Vertical forces Resultant force

There are no shear force on the vertical edges,

The force calculation is very similar to

Horizontal force Vertical force

What vertical force would

Hence: the force exerted by this amount of fluid

The resultant force and direction of application Example 1:

T= Force on a submerged surface,

Exampel 2: What would be the force if the gate was

i.e. equivalent to this figure:

3. The two fluids should ________ _ _