Czech-Slovak language contact: forms, results, attitudes

Mira Nblkov
Institute of Slavonic and East European Studies Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague mira.nabelkova@gmail.com

themes of the paper

- a quick overview of the current Czech-Slovak language contact situation - language contact of Czech and Slovak as closelyrelated West Slavic languages (in relation to Polish) - Czech-Slovak language systems comparison with respect to the contact phenomena - relations between literary languages and CzechSlovak dialectal continuum - leitmotif of the paper: multiple interdependence of language relatedness language contact mutual intelligibility ( receptive multilingualism) the contact impact on systems of respective languages

Czech and Slovak schematically

closely related West Slavic languages a high degree of similarity on each language system level - partly due to contact phenomena, especially in lexicon mutual intelligibility to a large extent possibility to use own language when communicating with a speaker of the other language receptive multilingualism / semicommunication

some remarks on current Czech-Slovak contact situation

New period after the split of Czechoslovakia (1993): Czech and Slovak changed from official to minority languages on the teritory of the other country. New official and legislative acts concerning language coexistance came into force. More striking developmental changes can be observed in the Czech environment. Previous communicative models and strategies continue to function, interlingual communication based on receptive multilingualism is widespread, but some restrictions of it appeared... A question of developing receptive bilingualism concerning young people newly appeared. Widespread thought: Czech children do not understand Slovak anymore... In fact for many young people contact with Slovak texts causes difficulties, at least discomfort. Old asymmetries (wider openness of the Slovaks to Czech) deepened (new great difference in amount of programmes in other language on TV, differences in opportunities of access to books in the other language in bookstores...) Current asymmetries in forms of contact prevailing indirect contact with Czech in Slovakia new massive contact with Slovak people in Czech republik (thousands of university students, employees...)

some remarks on current Czech-Slovak contact situation 2

New language situation features having positive impact to language contact and to the continuation of receptive multilingualism: Important new space of intensive language contact in this period Internet forums. Czech and Slovak websites are visited by people from both countries, they communicate with one another in their own languages, they negotiate forms of communication it is a great opportunity especially for young people to become more familiar with the other language (on Czech websites they sometimes declare communicative difficulties and objections against the presence of Slovak...). Latest innovation (which appeared in the last year) various mutual television programmes (Czech-Slovak Superstar, Czech-Slovak Talent, mutual Silvester, referred to as federal Silvester, TV series with Czech and Slovak actors)... Czech TV brings Slovak back to TV screens. New project Slovak to schools (2007) expression of the official intention to prevent the societal loose of receptive bilingualism in the Czech environment. Current language contact situation is not stable, it is developing with many new sometimes cotradictory features (continuation of the story... Nblkov, 2008).

Czech, Slovak and Polish - West Slavic languages

Ausbau languages
Peter Trudgill: Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe, 2004: Polish, Slovak and Czech are Ausbau languages which together form the West Slavic dialect continuum. They are mutually intelligible, especially Polish and Slovak, and Slovak and Czech, but they form three separate languages... - West Slavic dialect continuum Trudgill does not go into details in this direction and does not describe significant differences in Czech-Slovak and Czech/Slovak - Polish language relations, both on the system and language contact level. The differencies originate partly in far language history - development of Czecho-Slovak subgroup - Lechithic subgroup partly in different language contact history - the special CzechSlovak contacts during centures before the common state and during the existence of Czechoslovakia 1918-//-1993 - and in current language contact too In mutual comparison Czech and Slovak are more close to one another on their system level + their contact was and is much more intensive...

BUT!: new frequent reflection of current language relations (especially on Internet forums)
Pro mlad echy, na rozdl od jejich rodi, se sloventina stv cizm jazykem stejn jako poltina nebo rutina. http://www.asimilovani.estranky.cz/clanky/asi-narodnosti-v-cr/Slovaci For young Czechs, unlike their parents, Slovak becomes a foreign language just like Polish or Russian. The quotation shows some changes in perception of Slovak in the Czech environment after the split of Czechoslovakia: - it becomes = it had not been (for older generation...) - a foreign language = a new categorization not used before - just like Polish... (often only Polish is reffered to) ?? what does it mean ?? foreign 1. = not ours, without any special position, normal different language 2. not intelligible, hard to understand (like Polish)

what do we know about correspondences and differencies of West Slavic languages exactly
Czech Slovak comparison of lexicon: M. Sokolov (1991) compared 500 most frequent words: 230 (46 %) completely identical words (bivalent words) 154 (30,8 %) partially identical words 116 (23,2 %) different words Relatively small part of lexicons compared (in the whole lexicon the differencies could be greater) J. Zeman (2004) analyzed 15000 words in Czech and Slovak pairs of texts (the results are text-depended): 40 % semanticly and formally identical words (bivalent word) 53,5 % formally partially differentiated words 6,5 % different words We do not have (at least I do not know about) such data concerning comparison with Polish.

Our measurements in the research project Distances between Slavonic Languages and Their Mutual Comprehensibility (M. Slobodas text analysis - compared with Skandinavian German languages, Ch. Gooskens, 2007)

sources of Czech and Slovak lexical closeness

common origin cognates continuations from Proto-Slavic, mainly in the basic lexicon (but there are many interlingual homonyms / false friends among them) parallel lexical borrowings from other languages during the whole history up to now (of course not all borowings are parallel) language contact in pre-codification era with direction from Czech to Slovak (Czech with more or less Slovak features served as a literary code for Slovaks from 14th century, in protestant sphere as a holy language up to 20th century) (mutual) language contact in the era of National Revival . trs codification of Slovak in 1846 represented delimitation to Czech mostly on others than on the lexical level in this time of standardization Slovak was deliberately enriched by many borrowings from Czech mutual language contact in the common state (1918-1939; 1945-1993); official language management supporting parallel development (especially in terminology); parallel neologisms; mutual natural borowings in direct or indirect contacts contact phenomena, contact synonyms

concept of bivalency (introduced by K. Woolard) useful in thinking about language contact

Bivalency - simultaneous membership of a given element in more than one linguistic system. A bivalent utterance or segment is one that could belong equally to two recognized codes... (Kathryn Woolard: Simultaneity and bivalency as strategies in bilingualism,1999; 2005) bivalency in closely related languages: e.g. dom (house), okno (window), mal (small) are Czech as well as Slovak; loans: (CZSL) veda (science), rozbor (analysis), nzor (opinion) (SLCZ) znak (sign), dovolenka (holiday)... possible result bivalent sentences: Star obraz vis pod hodinami, jedna kniha le zapren na polici. Sedm na chodnku za filozofickou fakultou a cel veer trhm a lepm spis o boji dobra a zla. In monolingual situation it is not important, whether certain expression is in other language(s) or not but it is of great importance in interlingual communication from mutual intelligibility point of view.

another bivalent sentences (a school play): Katka pe tento text do prachu cesty: Auto fi po ulici k jasnmu obzoru. Sirna hu na poplach. Jasn luna u vyla nad lesy. Zelen je trva, golf to je hra. Lys chlapi objednali ten zzran medikament s mnohmi voavmi bylinkami.

What had to be (more or less) systematically thrown away (1) different lexemes some forms of tenses infinitive many plural forms of verbs, nouns and adjectives with various different vowel and consonant alternations in the both languages...

What had to be (more or less) systematically thrown away (2)

Katka pe (x psala/psala, bude psa/pst), tento text (x tieto/tyto texty) do prachu cesty (x ciest/cest): Katka writes this text into the dust of the road. Auto (x aut/auta) fi (x fiia/fi) (x po uliciach/ ulicch) (x k jasnm obzorom/ obzorm): A car speeds along the street to the bright horizon. Lys chlapi (x boh/uboz, velk/velc, hluch/hlu chlapi): Bald men (x poor, big, deaf men).

sentences based on lexical differences

(a school play):
SL Prep, svokor, budem meka topnky!! CZ Promi, tchne, zpozdm se boty!! SL Svokra vykynoila prefkan korytnaky aj smdn avy. CZ Tchn vyhubila vychytral elvy i zniv velbloudy. SL Zabudol v krme olovrant, zloil si z chrbta taku. CZ Zapomnl v hospod svainu, sundal si ze zad kapsu. SL Robil murra, neskr stolra. CZ Dlal zednka, pozdji truhle. SL Pouli hovor vidieckych dievat. CZ Slyeli mluvu venkovskch holek. SL udn povedal strapat udk. CZ Divn ekl rozcuchan podivn. SL Ke mravala, ikala som ju a rozprvala jej rozprvky. CZ Kdy kourala, chlcholila jsem ji a vyprvla j pohdky.

asymmetry in the influence direction

- regardless of the predominant direction of influence borrowings contribute to common (bivalent) lexicon - BUT in Czech-Slovak mutual relations Czech has been more influential all the time - with more serious impact on Slovak than in opposite direction some loans from Czech represents the only possibility to name something, some are just alternative means of expression (contact synonyms) in Slovak dictionaries they are treated differently some of them being considered literary ones, while many others are not codified as literary - but they are often used in everyday communication their status often becomes an issue of discussions /polemics among linguists and among language users too different approaches of language management compete

some contact synonyms not codified as literary in Slovak, but so common that they are - with special comments incorporated into dictionaries CZ + SL/B krb (SL kozub) fireplace CZ + SL/B zvada (SL chyba, porucha) fault CZ + SL/B kojenec (SL doja) suckling ankle CZ + SL/B kotnk (SL lenok) CZ + SL/B kud (SL pokoj) calm KSSJ krb subt. kozub (subt = substandard) KSSJ zvada sprv. chyba, porucha, kaz, nedostatok (sprv. = correctly) KSSJ kojenec sprv. doja KSSJ zrovna vhodnejie prve, priam (vhodnejie = more appropriate)

interpretation of borrowing based on interlingual analogy

Lexical borrowing in natural interlingual contact between closely related languages (e.i. from Czech to Slovak) could be seen as conditioned by three types of interlingual analogy (Dolnk, 2010): formal analogy, formal-semantic analogy, semantic-formal analogy:

1. formal analogy: based on regular, repeated interlingual fonological correspondences

Language users with the receptive competence are aware of the correspondences and sometimes extrapolate them to more new cases CZ louka : SL lka, CZ moudr : SL mdry CZ klika : SL kuka, CZ kl : SL k than (why not?) CZ pouh : SL/B phy, CZ spousta : SL/B spsta, CZ klid : SL/B kud and so on... if CZ zmek : SL zmok than CZ sek : SL/B sok/sik CZ zbytek : SL/B zbytok if

formal-semantic analogy
2. formal-semantic analogy: based on lexical polysemy in one language, that is supposed to be (and than it can appear) in the second language too ( balancing semantic asymmetries)
CZ podtrhnout : SL podtrhn 1. podrazi (to trip up) CZ podtrhnout : SL/B podtrhn 2. podiarknu (on the analogy with Czech) (to underline)

CZ pojednvat : SL pojednva CZ pojednvat : SL/B pojednva 1. vies pojednvanie 2. zaobera sa (to discuss) (to deal with)

semantic-formal analogy
3. semantic-formal analogy: based on interlingual word formation similarities in this case word formation rules of the target language are sometimes broken
CZ dret : SL dra CZ obdret : SL/B obdra (SL dosta + CZ) (to hold) (to get) CZ dl : SL diel (a part/volume) CZ dl : SL/B diel (SL iastkov) (partial)

CZ pst : SL psa CZ dopis : SL/B dopis (SL list + CZ) (to write) (a letter)

specific interplay between literary language dialects contact language

Besides these types of interlingual analogy another important supporting power for contact phenomena can be distinguished: Czech-Slovak dialectal continuum.
Some remarks (wider historical context): In the interwar period the idea of Czechoslovak - considered as continuum of Czech and Slovak dialects - was in power. In that times some dialects in Moravia (current Czech republic) were regarded Slovak (according to their features on all levels) (Vn, 1934). These dialects are considered and felt to be Czech now. On the other side in Slovak dialects there are many correspondences with Czech.

interplay between literary language dialects contact language Another important fact literary Slovak was codified on the base of the Central Slovak cultural code (in . trs codification, 1846) characterised by the most signifficant differences in comparison with Czech. The West Slovak dialects are naturaly more close to Czech and in some features the East Slovak dialects too. Due to this many words of literary Slovak originate in Central Slovak dialects. In other cases there are literary synonyms having their origin in different macrodialects, mainly in Central and West dialects. But the correspondences with Czech in West Slovakian dialects can be sometimes found among those words that are considered borrowings from Czech and in Slovak not codified as literary ones. Nevertheless, they live to some extent in everyday communication and it is important - can contribute to the intelligibility of Czech. The special interplay between literary language (SL) dialects (SLD) contact language (CZ) has not been given sufficient attention by now.

example: CZ boty LSL topnky SLWD boty (shoes)

One example from my own language experience :)

SL topnky (shoes, boots) is a literary equivalent for CZ boty. But the lexem boty lives in SLWD too. In my childhood I heard boty in my mixed Czech-Slovak family in Bansk Bystrica (Central Slovakia) it was clear bohemism there. Later on when living in Trnava (West Slovakia) I could hear boty everywhere in common talk on the base of its dialectal status there. Lexeme boty was codified in Rules of Slovak orthography (1931) an example of the tendencies to get literary languages more closer (it was removed from dictionaries later). Later on a new word of Czech origin had appeared botnk (shoe cabinet), not codified as literary, but (due to being widespread) incorporated - as incorrect - into new SSSJ (2006): *botnk, sprv. skrinka na topnky What I want to stress is that the newer borrowing of botnk could be considered as strengthened by the dialectal status of the word boty.

irregularities in onomasiological chains as a result of language contact

Some other phenomena related to this can be observed. In the case of boty/botnk non of them has been institutionalised as literary word. In other similar cases the situation can differ with an interesting result - irregularities in onomasiological chains. example: nemocnica (hospital)

CZ regular/straight derivative chain nemoc nemocn nemocnice nemocnin (illness/diseas ill hospital noun - adjective) SL choroba chor / nemocnica nemocnin KSSJ nemoc vhodnejie choroba vhodnejie = more appropriate nemocn vhodnejie chor though they are in SLWD BUT comletely neutral nemocnica nemocnin hospital

some examples from Atlas of Slovak language (1984)

Atlas of Slovak language contains maps, where we can see some different cases interesting in literary language dialects contact language respect: dialectal heteronyms that were codified as literary synonyms - one of them being common with Czech (bivalent) dialectal heteronyms that were codified as literary synonyms - none of them being common with Czech (the bivalent one not being codifed as literary) dialectal heteronyms without correspondences in Czech one or more of them codified as literary other possibilities....

LSL synonyms dbn krah DSL heteronyms + dbanek kanov korov (hung.)... CZ dbn (jug)

CZ huspenina LSL synonyms huspenina studeno (aspic)

LSL synonyms ihava phava DSL + pokriva kopriva CZ kopiva (nettle)

CZ ledviny SL dialectal heteronyms adviny obliky pokrutky LSL obliky + later adviny too (kidneys)

synonymic groups and interlingual communication

dialects are just one source of synonymic groups synonymic groups (of various origin) containg bivalent words can be utilized in multilingual communication as the source of strategic bivalency without code swiching they offer a possibility of choice of the word more appropriate / understable for the adresse it helps to avoid semicommunicative misunderstandings

strategic bivalency in communication

people are consiously using bivalent elements in direct bilingual Czech-Slovak communication, on TV when adressing both societies and so on... users ability to utilize an existence of bivalent (instead of different) means of expression a communicative skill based on bilingual competence a conscious strategy, a form of accomodation to addressee this competence between receptive and productive bilingual competence, nearer to the productive one example: a Slovak speaker may use the SL word dbn for CZ dbn jug rather than the SL synonym krah which may be incomprehensible to his Czech partner in communication; or okno rather than oblok window...

special evidence of Czech-Slovak closeness: contemporary use of parallel texts on product packages parallel texts in both languages as a norm (a manifestation of a specific kind of common market as a reality in Czech-Slovak social and economic relations) bivalent, parallel, different means of expression various/different special uses of bivalent elements bivalency the source and the tool for creating Czech-Slovak simultaneous texts (sometimes with a special play creating new bivalent graphemes)

parallel texts ARVIT (hair tonic)

Visegrad package (cleansing and moisturizing milk)

Visegrad package (60 nights without mosquitos)

parallel texts a space of language contact

Czechs an Slovaks are imposed to parallel texts showing similarities and differencies of the languages. It is interesting, what the customer behavior against the longer parallel instructions is whether he/she looks for the own one frequently they declare that they are reading the first one... But it can be different (or can change) among young generation. The version of the parallel text is often influenced by the original one in the choice of means of expresion. Contact phenomena often occur... Sometimes they are proper mistakes, sometimes more interesting cases of contact variants. Their occurrence can be considered the form of the evidence of their existance and the form of their support as well.

contact phenomena SL/B ukuduje instead of SL upokojuje; preposition pre instead of na (cleansing milk... calms... for normal and dry skin)

special arrangements of texts: BV originl puding okolda PAR CZ pchu / SL prchu (chocolate flavour) BV v prku (in powder)

sham/pretended bivalency

SL harmnia / CZ harmonie BV chuti (harmony of taste)

BV modr SL z neba / CZ z nebe (blue from the sky)

SL hviezdiky / CZ hvzdiky (stars)

references
Atlas slovenskho jazyka IV. [Atlas of Slovak language] (1984) Bratislava: Veda. BERGER, Tilman (2003) Slovaks in Czechia Czechs in Slovakia. In: J. Nekvapil S. mejrkov (eds.): Languages and Language Communities in the Czech Republic. (= International Journal of the Sociology of Language 162). Berlin New York: Max de Gruyter Verlag, 1939. BUDOVIOV, Viera (1986) Literary languages in contact (A sociolinguistic approach to the relation between Slovak and Czech today). In J. Chloupek and J. Nekvapil (eds.) Reader in Czech Sociolinguistics). Praha: Academia 156175. BUDOVIOV, Viera (1987) Semikomunikcia ako lingvistick problm [Semi-communication as a linguistic problem]. Studia Academica Slovaca 16, 5166. BUZSSYOV, Klra (1995) Aspekty kontaktov sloveniny a etiny [Aspects of the contact of Slovak and Czech]. In S. Ondrejovi and M. imkov (eds.) Sociolingvistick aspekty vskumu sasnej sloveniny, Bratislava: Veda, 163182. DICKINS, Thomas The Czechs and the Slovak language. http://www.cvvm.cas.cz/upl/nase_spolecnost/100092se_The%20Czechs%2 0and%20the%20Slovak%20language.pdf DOLNK, Juraj (1992) Der Einflu des Tschechischen auf das slowakische Sprachbewutsein. Zeitschrift fr Slawistik, 37, 242247.

references 2
DOLNK, Juraj (2002) Der slowakisch-tschechische Bilingualismus. In J. tefnik (ed.) Bilingvizmus. Minulos, prtomnos, budcnos. Bratislava: Academic Electronic Press, 3742. DOLNK, Juraj (2010) Teria spisovnho jazyka (so zreteom na spisovn sloveninu) [Theory of literary language with regard to the standard Slovak]. Bratislava: Veda. UROVI, ubomr (2007) esko-slovensk komunikan a kultrne kontinuum [Czech-Slovak communicative and cultural continuum]. In Orgoov, O. (ed.) Jazyk a komunikcia v svislostiach II. Bratislava: UK. http://www.fphil.uniba.sk/fileadmin/user_upload/editors/ksj/publikacie/zbornik.pdf GAZDKOV, Martina (2005) Die tschechischen Kontaktworter in der slovakischen Sprachpraxis und in der Rezeption der zeitgenossischen Slovakistik. Slavistische Beitrage, Band 440. Munchen: Otto Sagner. GIGER, Markus (2006) Die Sprachsituation in der Slovakei: Diglossie in der Vergangenheit und ihre Spuren in der Gegenwart. In: Entwicklung slawischer Literatursprachen, Diglossie und Gender. In J. van Leeuwen-Turnovcov (ed.) Entwicklung slawischer Literatursprachen, Diglossie und Gender. Specimina Philologiae Slavicae 143. Mnchen: Verlag Otto Sagner, 91-125. GOOSKENS, Charlotte (2007) The contribution of linguistic factors to the intelligibility of closely related languages. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 28, 6, 445467. http://www.let.rug.nl/gooskens/pdf/publ_JMMD_2007.pdf HORECK, Jn (1979) Vchodisk k terii spisovnho jazyka [Towards the theory of literary language]. In: J. Ruika (ed.) Z terie spisovnho jazyka. Bratislava: Veda, 1322.

references 3
MARTI, Roland (1993) Slovakisch und echisch vs. echoslovakisch, Serbokroatisch vs. Kroatisch und Serbisch. In K. Gutschmidt, H. Keipert and Hans Rothe (eds.) Slavistische Studien zum XI. internationalen Slavistenkongre in Preburg/Bratislava., 289315. Kln, Weimar, Wien: Bhlau. NBLKOV, Mira (2007): Closely related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak". International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 183, 5373. NBLKOV, Mira (2008): Slovenina a etina v kontakte: Pokraovanie prbehu. [Slovak and Czech in Contact. A Continuation of the Story] Bratislava Praha: Veda, Jazykovedn stav . tra Filozofick fakulta Univerzity Karlovy v Praze. NBLKOV, Mira (2009) Slovenina a etina blzke cudzie jazyky? [Slovak and Czech close foreign languages?]. In J. Pekaroviov, M. Vojtech (eds.) Studia Academica Slovaca 38. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenskho, 2009, s s. 221238. NBLKOV, Mira PTKOV, Jana (eds.) (2006) esko-slovensk vztahy v aktulnch souvislostech. [Czech-Slovak relations in current context]. Praha: FF UK. NBLKOV, Mira SLOBODA, Marin (2008) esko-slovensk komunikcia: semikomunikcia, bivalentnos a reflexia vzjomnej zrozumitenosti sloveniny a etiny [Czech-Slovak communication: semicommunication, bivalency, and the perception of mutual comprehensibility of Czech and Slovak]. In A. J. Tth & A. Uhrinov (ed.) Slovenina v meninovom prostred. Bkesk aba: Vskumn stav Slovkov v Maarsku, 156165.

references 4
NEUSTUPN, Ji V. NEKVAPIL, Ji: Language management in the Czech Republic. Current Issues in Language Planning, 4, 2003, 34, 181366. NEKVAPIL, Ji SLOBODA, Marin WAGNER, Peter: Ethnic and Linguistic Communities in the Czech Republic: Their Situations and Language Problems. (2007). Pehledov zprva o R v rmci projektu DILING. http://www.sloboda.cz/marian/publikace/CZreport_Diling_def.pdf NOVK, udovit (1935) Jazykovedn glosy k eskoslovenskej otzke. [Linguistic comments to the Czechoslovak question]. Turiansky Svt Martin: Matica slovensk. SLOBODA, Marin (2004): Slovensko-esk (semi)komunikace a vzjemn (ne)srozumitelnost [The Slovak-Czech (semi)communication and mutual (un)intelligibility]. etina doma a ve svt 12 (34), 208220. SLOBODA, Marin (2006): Uvn etiny a sloventiny u Slovk v R a jazykov postoje majority (ve vsledcch dotaznkovho vzkumu) [The use of Czech and Slovak by Slovaks in the Czech Republic, and language attitudes of the Czech majority (results of a questionnaire survey)]. In: M. Nblkov and J. Ptkov (eds.) esko-slovensk vztahy v aktulnch souvislostech. Praha: FF UK. http://www.sloboda.cz/marian/publikace/sloboda_def.pdf SOKOLOV, Miloslava (1991) esk jazyk [Czech]. Koice: Univerzita P. J. afrika.

references 5
SOKOLOV, Miroslava (1995): esk kontaktov javy v slovenine [Czech contact phenomena in Slovak]. In S. Ondrejovi and M. imkov (eds.) Sociolingvistick aspekty vskumu sasnej sloveniny, 183206. Bratislava: Veda. TRUDGILL, Peter (2004) Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe. In Anna Duszak and Urszula Okulska (eds.) Speaking from the margin: global English from a European perspective. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 35 49. VN, Vclav (1934) Ne slovensk [Slovak dialects]. In: eskoslovensk vlastivda. Dl III . Jazyk. Praha: Sfinx. WOOLARD, Kathryn A. (1999) Simultaneity and Bivalency as Strategies in Bilingualism. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 8, 329. ZEMAN, Ji (1997) Czech Slovak. In H. Goebl, P. Nelde, Z. Star and W. Wlck (eds.) Kontaktlinguistik: ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenssischer Forschung, volume II. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 16501655 ZEMAN, Ji (2004) Ke konfrontanmu studiu slovn zsoby etiny a sloventiny [Towards the confrontative study of Czech and Slovak vocabulary]. Sbornk prac FF OU, 14, 214/2004. Ostrava: OU, 353356. ZEMAN, Ji (2007) K vzkumu vztahu etiny a sloventiny (pehled hlavnch tmat poslednch patncti let). [Towards the research of the relation between Czech and Slovak. Outline of the main themes of last 15 years]. Jazykovdn aktuality, XLIV. etina a sloventina: vzjemn vztahy, rok 2007 [Czech and Slovak: mutual relation, year 2007], s. 626. http://www.sloboda.cz/marian/publikace/zeman_cs-biblio.pdf.

Linguistic groups in Austria-Hungary

Nations in Austria-Hungary

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 1914