INTRODUCTION Woven fabrics are classified as to weave or structure according to the manner in which warp and weft cross

each other. The three fundamental weaves, of which others are variations, are the plain, twill, and satin. In plain weave, also known as calico, tabby, taffeta, or homespun weaves, the weft passes over alternate warp threads, requiring two harnesses only. The relatively simple construction suits it to cheap fabrics, heavy yarns, and printed designs. Variations are produced by the use of groups of yarns, as in basket weave and monk's cloth, or by alternating fine and coarse yarns to make ribbed and corded fabrics, as the warp-ribbed Bedford cord, piqu, and dimity and the weftribbed poplin, rep, and grosgrain. The second primary weave, twill, shows a diagonal design made by causing weft threads to interlace two to four warp threads, moving a step to right or left on each pick and capable of variations, such as herringbone and corkscrew designs. Noted for their firm, close weave, twill fabrics include gabardine, serge, drill, and denim. Satin weave has floating or overshot warp threads on the surface which reflect light, giving a characteristic luster. When the uncrossed threads are in the weft, the weave is called sateen. Pile fabrics have an additional set of yarns drawn over wires to form loops, and may be cut or uncut. Warp-pile fabrics include terry and plush; weft-pile, velveteen and corduroy. In double-cloth weave two cloths are woven at once, each with its warp and filling threads, and combined by interlacing some yarns or by adding a fifth set. The cloth may be made for extra warmth or strength, to permit use of a cheaper back, or to produce a different pattern or weave on each surface, e.g., steamer rugs, heavy overcoating, and machine belting. Velvet is commonly woven as a double cloth. In swivel weaving, extra shuttles with a circular motion insert filling yarns to form simple decorations, such as the dots on swiss muslin. Figure weaves are made by causing warp and weft to intersect in varied groups. Simple geometric designs may be woven on machine looms by using a cam or a dobby attachment to operate the harnesses. For curves and large figures each heddle must be separately governed. The Jacquard loom attachment permits machine weaving of the most complicated designs. (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed.) Types of Weaves: Plain Weave: Most simple and most common type of construction Inexpensive to produce, durable, Flat, tight surface is conducive to printing and other finishes. The simplest of all patterns is the plain weave. Each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes alternately over and under each weft yarn. Some examples of plain weave fabrics are crepe, taffeta, organdy and muslin. The plain weave may also have variations including the following: y y y Rib weave: the filling yarns are larger in diameter than the warp yarns. A rib weave produces fabrics in which fewer yarns per square centimeter are visible on the surface. Matt Weave or Basket weave: here, two or more yarns are used in both the warp and filling direction. These groups of yarns are woven as one, producing a basket effect. Method of Construction: Each filling yarn goes alternately under and over the warp yarns

Household Uses: Draperies, tablecloths, upholstery.Different types of Fabric Come under this Category; o Chiffon: A very soft and filling plain woven Silk texture consisting of the Finest Singles which are hard twisted and woven in the gum condition. The cloth is afterward degummed. o Georgette: A cotton Crepe fabric made in imitation of silk georgette, with hard twisted warp and weft yarn. A good Cloth is woven plain with right and left twist thread arranged in 2 and 2 order in warp and weft. o Shantung: Coarse Silk fabric with Slubs. Mostly Tussah Silk but can be Polyester, nylon and viscose. o Seersucker: It is created by holding some warp yarns at tight tension, some at slack tension. Those at Slack Tension puff up to form a sort of Blis-ter-effect, often slack and tight yarn of different colour.

Basket Weave: A variation of the plain weave usually basket or checkerboard pattern Contrasting colors are often used Inexpensive, less durable than plain weave. Basket weave is the amplification in height and width of plain weave. Two or more yarns have to be lifted or lowered over or under two or more picks for each plain weave point. When the groups of yarns are equal, the basket weave is termed regular, otherwise it is termed irregular. There two types of weave come under this category i.e. regular and irregular weave. a) Regular basket weave: This is commonly used for edges in drapery, or as a bottom in very small weave repeats, because the texture is too loose-fitting for big weave repeats; moreover, yarns of different groups can slip, group and overlap, spoiling the appearance. This is why only basket weaves 2-2, 3-3 and 4-4 exist. b) Irregular basket weave: This is generally a combination of irregular warp and weft ribs. Method of Construction: Two or more warps simultaneously interlaced with one or more fillings. Household Uses: Wall hangings, pillows. Example of Basket weave: y y Monks cloth: Heavy cotton Cloth in a coarse basket weave, chiefly used for draperies. Oxford: Oxford weave fabric consists of two, thin warp yarns woven to very soft, thicker yarn in the filling direction. The unbalanced construction of the fabric causes the thin yarns to break and leave tiny holes. The primary use of oxford weave fabric is in cotton shirting. It is also used in other forms of apparel.

Twill Weave: Creates a diagonal, chevron, hounds tooth, corkscrew, or other design. The design is enhanced with colored yarn is strong and may develop a shine. Twill weave is characterized by diagonal ridges formed by the yarns, which are exposed on the surface. These may vary in angle from a low slope to a very steep slope. Twill weaves are more closely woven, heavier and stronger than weaves of comparable fiber and yarn size. They can be produced in fancy designs. Method of Construction: Three or more shafts; warp or filling floats over two or more counterpart yarns in progressive steps right or left Household Uses: Upholstery, comforters, pillows. Types of Fabrics: y Denim: A Strong Warp Face Cotton Cloth used for overall, Jeans skirts etc. Largely made in 3/1 twill weave. Generally warp yarn is dyed brown or blue and crossed with white weft. Gabardine: A Warp Face cloth mostly woven 2/2 twill, 27/2 tex warp, 20/2 tex cotton weft. Here cotton weft is yarn dyed but the wool warp may be dyed in piece.

Satin: Properties of satin : y y y Smooth, soft luster Excellent drapability Floats snag easily

Method of Construction: Floats one warp yarn over four or more weft yarns, then tied down with one thread, resulting in a smooth face Common Fabrics: Satin, satin-weave fabrics out of fabrics such as cotton & Charmeuse Household Uses: Draperies, quilts Examples of Fabric: y Satin: Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings etc, and originally was an all silk fabric with a fine rich glossy surface formed in a warp satin weave. The warp is much finer and more closely set than the weft, and the latter which only shows on the under side is frequently composed of cotton. Double faced Satins are made on the reversible warp backed principle, with one side differently colour from the other. Sateen: A cotton fabric is made in 5 thread weft face sateen, and woven like cotton. It is sold in bleached, mercerized or printed condition.

Charmeuse: It is a light weight fabric woven with a satin weave ,where the warp threads cross over three or more of the backing (weft) threads. The front side of the fabric has a satin finish-lustrous and reflective-whereas the back has a dull finish.

Jacquard: Jacquard patterns, when carefully analyzed, may be seen to contain combinations of plain, twill, and satin weaves, even in the same crosswise yarn. Many decorative fabrics are made by the jacquard technique. Yarns woven into unlimited designs, often intricate, multicolor effect. Expensive, but the design dont fade or wear out. Durability depends on the fiber used. The Jacquard loom was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard. Method of Construction: Warp is individually controlled with each pick passage creating intricate designs Household Uses: Upholstery, wall hangings Types of Jacquard fabric: y y Brocade: Originally a heavy rich silk fiber ornaments with raised figures formed by extra threads or by embroidery. Mostly used for upholstery fabrics and draperies. Damask: Fabric with a weft sateen figures on a warp satin, twist or plain grained, made of silk, cotton, rayon and linen yarns Damasks are reversible. Cotton and linen damasks are made either with four yarn float or a seven yarn float in the satin weave. The Longer floats are more lustrous, but the shorter floats are more durable.

Leno or Gauze: In leno or gauze weave pairs of warps are twisted over each other with each passing of filling yarn. The leno weave is the modern descendant of a technique called twining that was used thousands of years ago for making fabrics. In leno-weave fabrics, the warp yarns are paired. A special attachment, the doup or leno attachment, crosses or laps the paired warp yarns over each other, while the filling passes through the opening between the two warp yarns. Leno-weave fabrics are made in Open, gauzelike constructions. Method of Construction: A pair of warp threads is twisted over each other with each passing of filling yarn in a figure or an hourglass twist, creating a geometric pattern Household Uses: Thermal Blankets, curtains Pile Fabric: Extra sets of warps or fillings are woven over ground yarns of plain or twill weave to form loops. Pile fabrics have been defined as fabrics(s) with cut or uncut loops which stand up densely on the surface Pile fabrics may be created by weaving or through other construction techniques, such as tufting, knitting, or stitch through. To create the loops that appears on the surface of woven pile fabrics, the weaving process. Piled fabric are classified as Uncut pile and Cut Pile Fabric

Uncut Pile: Properties of Uncut Pile : y y y Loops are possible on both sides of fabric Soft and absorbent, relatively inexpensive Can snag if loops are caught

Method of Construction: Wire Method or double cloth Method Generally a plain or twill weaves with a third dimension--additional warp yarn or filling yarn is introduced into the basic structure and forms a loop at regular intervals. Common Fabrics: Frieze, terry cloth Household Uses: Upholstery, towels, carpet, area rugs Cut Pile: Properties of Cut Pile y y y Soft and warm, resilient, absorbent May have a nap that must be matched May be expensive and need professional cleaning

Method of Construction: Similar to uncut pile, but loops have been cut Household uses: Upholstery, stage draperies. Different types of Cut pile Fabric: y Corduroy: Corded velveteen Structures in which a weft pile forms longitudinal lines or chords, strong heavy clothes being used for trouser-rings, smoking jackets and lighter fabrics for dress materials. Velvet: A cut warp pile fabric with a short, soft, dense pile. Velveteen: A Short heavily wefted cotton fabric uniformly covered with a short dense pile of fibers which formed after the cloth has been woven by cutting certain picks of weft that float somewhat loosely on the surface. (Rahul Garg)

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Leno Leno weave improves the stability in open fabrics which have a low fibre count. A form of plain weave in which adjacent warp fibres are twisted around consecutive weft fibres to form a spiral pair, effectively locking each weft in place. Fabrics in leno weave are normally used in con-junction with other weave styles because if used alone their openness could not produce an effective composite component. Mock Leno A version of plain weave in which occasional warp fibres, at regular intervals but usually several fibres apart, deviate from the alternate under-over interlacing and instead interlace every two or more fibres. This happens with similar frequency in the weft direction, and the overall effect is a fabric with increased thickness, rougher surface, and additional porosity.

Weave Styles : Comparison of Properties

(David Cripps) Fabric Parameters Woven fabric parameters There are four basic parameters that are essential for every woven fabric. 1. Ends per Inch and Picks per inch (EPI and PPI). 2. Yarn count 3. Crimp 4. Weave or Fabric Structure or Design Ends per Inch or Picks per Inch It is a measure of thread density. The normal method used to determine thread density is to use a pick glass. Yarn count EPI and PPI affects the compactness of the fabric. It is also known as thread count or cloth count. Thread counts range from as low as 20 threads per inch as used in tobacco cloth to as high as 350 threads per inch, found in type writer ribbon fabrics. Normally EPI and PPI of a fabric are described as EPIPPI. Thus a fabric of 7466 means 74 EPI66 PPI. Balanced construction A fabric is said to be well balanced if the number of warp yarns and weft yarns per inch are almost equal.

Crimp Crimp refers to the amount of bending that is done by thread as it interlaces with the threads that are lying in the opposite direction of the fabric. Crimp is defined as the ratio of difference of length of yarn (Ly) taken from length of fabric (Lf) to the length of fabric (Lf). Crimp = (Ly-Lf)/Lf Often it is more convenient and preferable to use percentage values. Thus we can define crimp percentage as: Crimp% = (Ly-Lf)/Lf A crimp will normally give values ranging from 0.01 to 0.14 ie. (1% to 14%). Crimp is related to many aspects of the fabric. It affects the cover, thickness, softness and hand of the fabric. When it is not balanced it also affects the wear behaviour and balance of the fabric, because the exposed portions tend to wear at a more rapid rate than the fabric. The crimp balance is affected by the tensions in the fabric during and after weaving. If the weft is kept at low tension while the tension in warp directions is high, then there will be considerable crimp in the weft and very little in the warp. Weave It refers to the arrangement of warp and weft in the fabric. OTHER FABRIC PROPERTIES 1. Fabric weight (W) It is the weight of the yarn per square meter in the woven fabric, which is the sum of the weight of the warp (W1) and weight of the weft (W2). Weight of the warp is calculated as (per square m): W1= [n1 x 100 (1+c1%)/100] x [N1/1000] g y y y y Where n1 = Ends per cm N1 = Warp count in Tex C1% = Warp crimp percentage.

Similarly weight of the weft is calculated as (per square m) W2= [n2 x 100 (1+c2%)/100] x [N2/1000] g Total weight per square meter = W1+W2 weight/piece = (W1+W2) piece length piece width in gram.

Example A fabric 120m long, 1.3 m wide and having 30 ends per cm of 12 tex warp and 24 picks per cm of 15 tex weft. The warp and weft crimp percentages are five percent and eight percent respectively. We describe these fabric particulars as 3024; 12 tex 15 tex; 5%8% Warp weight per square m = [30 x 100 x (1+5)/100] x [12/1000] = 37.8 gms Weft weight/square m = [24 x 100 x (1+8)/100] x [15/1000] = 38.8 gms Piece weight = total weight per m piece length piece width = 76.68 120 1.3 = 11962.08 gm or 11.96 kg. 2. Cover factor (K) it is defined as the area covered by the yarn when compared with the total area covered by the fabric.The warp cover factor can be found by using the formula. k1= n1 x sqrt(N1)/10 Where n1 = Ends/cm N1 = Count of warp in tex Similarly the weft cover factor can be found by the formula k2 = n2 x sqrt(N2) /10 So the total cover factor is K = K1 + K2 Thus with fabric (3024; 12 tex15 tex) the values are k1= (30 x sqrt12)/10 = 10.39 k2 = (24 x sqrt15)/10 = 9.30. Therefore, K = K1+K2 = 10.39+9.30 = 19.69 3. Fabric Thickness For a wide range of fabric, this parameter is not important, but it becomes critical for fabrics that are to be used as belts and felts. (Goyal, Mytextilenotes, 2009)

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Effect of Fabric Structure on Fabric Properties Effect of Woven Fabric Structure on Fabric Properties 1. Tensile Strength: The more the crimp the less the strength. Other things being equal, plain weave fabrics which have the highest crimp have the lowest strength. 2. Extensibility: The more crimp there is in the yarn the more extensible is the fabric, therefor longer the floats, the less extensible is the fabric. 3. Surface Friction: Whether surface is smooth or rough. Long floats produce smooth fabrics with low crimp levels. 4. Tear Strength: In case of tensile loading, all the yarns in the direction of the loading share the load. In tear loading only one, two or at most few yarns share the load. In tight constructions, the movement of the yarn is restricted during loading and yarn will be presented to the load one by one; this results in a low tearing strength. Loose open constructions allow more freedom for the yarns to move and group together, thus presenting bundles of yarns to the tearing load, in consequence the tear strength is high. Designs which have group of yarns woven together such as rib or basket will have hight tear strength. 5. Abrasion Resistance: The most important factors are the crimp levels and the height of the crowns caused by the crimp. The greater the number of crowns/area or the greater the area of each crown, the less will be the stress concentration on the crowns and this leads to a high abrasion resistance. The longer the floats the larger the area of contact between the yarn and the abraidant and the higher the abrasion resistance. 6. Drape: Heavy fabrics from coarse yarns and dense constructions have poor drape characteristics. Fabrics with long floats in the weave permit the yarns to move freely; this reduces the bending and shear resistance of the fabric, leading to a better drape behaviour. 7. Crease Resistance: A plain woven fabric with a high fabric count puts a heavy strain on the fibres and limits the recovery of the fabric. The longer the floats, the higher will be the crease resistance of the fabric. (Goyal, 2008)

DEFECTS IN WOVEN FABRICS: Simulated defects in a plain weave. (a) Structure without defect, (b) hole, (c) stain, (d) float, (e),(f) weft and warp yarn defect, (g),(h) double pick, double end, (i) irregular weft density (insufficient), (j) irregular weft density (excessive), (k) broken pick, (l) broken end. (Maro Tunk)

Common Fabric Defects 1. Weft Streaks These are faint or sometimes prominant lines along the lenght of the fabric. Use of good quality reeds will largly reduce streaks due to uneven end spacing. Streaks can also be avoided through careful housekeeping and ensuring that different batches of yarns do not get mixed up. 2. Reediness This defect is characterised by a general grouping of warp ends drawn through individual dents of the reed with a fine crack showing up in between such groups. This is caused by - insufficient tension difference between the shed lnes during beat up. - excessive warp tension - late shedding

3. Irregular reppiness It is characterised by the prominance of alternate picks over small areas on one face of the fabric. The following precautions can help to minimise the occurrence of reppiness. y y y y Worn out tappets and tradle bowls should be replaced The back rest should be raised by about 4 cm with respect to the fell line. The emery rolles should be in good condition. An increase in warp tension within workable limits helps to reduce this defects.

4. Small weft loops ( phurkies) A phurki is a weft loom protruding from the cloth surface. Generally, the length of the yarn in the loop is not sufficient to permit snarling. These loops may protrude from both faces of the fabric. Early shedding, incresing warp tension within workable limits, use of good temples and adequate size pick of about 12% or higher - these measures can be used to prevent the occurrence of phurkies. 5. Curled and folded selvedges This defect is characterised by the appearance of curls and folds in the fabric selvedges. The following points merit attention: a. Denting order- the number of ends per reed dent in the selvedge should be 50 to 100% more than that in the body. b. Warp Tension- An increase in warp tension results in a tighter selvedge. c. Selvedge construction- The selvedge yarns should be preferably two ply and should be drawn one end per heald eye. 6.Missing Interlacement of weft at selvedges In this defect, a group of extreme warp ends in the selvedges do not interlace with the weft over a fabric length of 1 to 4 cm. The main cause of this defect is excessive tension in the weft yarn. 7. Weft snarls A weft snarl in a fabric is caused by a short length of three fold weft yarn of which two folds are intertwisted.The incidence of such snarls can be reduced by ensuring the process setting of twist and by minimising the possibility of severe rubbing of yarn between the shuttle and the box front plate. 8. Weft Bar A weft bar is dark or light band across the width of the fabric which shows up prominantly particularly in dyed fabrics. Medium to long term periodic irregularity in yarn will produce regular weft bars in the fabric.The remedial measures can be: y Better process control such as: o uniformity of count on groups of ring frames spinning the same count. o Prevention of periodic irregularity in the yarn.

o o o o 9. Broken Picks

Control of winding and pirning tension. Proper maintenance of let off and take up motion Control over blend proportion. Better housekeeping to prevent mixing up of yarn from frames.

In plain woven fabrics, this defect materialises by the presence of two picks in the same shed for a part of the width of the fabric.The main cause of weft breaks are rough surfaces of shuttle, shuttle box, rough or incorrect placement of shuttle eye, loose fitting of pirn in the shuttle, incorrect alignment of pirn with shuttle eye and low yarn strength. 10. Lashing-in Lashing in is the term used to describe bits of extra weft yarn found tucked into the selvedge of the fabric. 11. Missing End (Chira) A defect where one or more warp ends are missing in the fabric is called a chira. This is the most frequently occurring defect in Indian fabrics and constitutes 40-50% of the total defects. Most chiras are caused by broken that are not mended immediately. It can be prevented by minimising missing ends in the beam and efficient maninteance of the warp stop motion.Effective supervision to ensure that a broken end is not left unmended for long can also minimise the occurrence of chira. (Goyal, Mytextilenotes, 2008)

AVAILABILITY OF TEXTILE MACHINERY TO BE INCREASED IN INDIA A working group in the textiles ministry has come up with a three-point strategy aimed towards maximizing availability of textile machinery to the sector. This strategy includes the transfer of the textile machinery industry from the Ministry of Heavy Industries to the textile ministry, aggressive wooing of foreign direct investment in the sector and allowing import of second hand machinery. In addition, the group also suggested encouraging global manufacturers of textile machinery to set up facilities in India, and a new financial scheme to support modernization in the domestic textile machinery sector. The new scheme would provide 5 per cent interest reimbursement and 10 per cent capital subsidy. DK Nair, secretary general, Confederation of Indian Textiles Industry, said: "If the transfer happens, it would be a welcome development as the Ministry of Heavy Industries has been unable to take care of our interests." (Texmain)