Chip Morphology Characterization

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Machining Science and Technology, 11:335354 Copyright # 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1091-0344 print/1532-2483 online DOI: 10.1080/10910340701567289
CHIP MORPHOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION AND MODELING IN MACHINING HARDENED 52100 STEELS
Mason D. Morehead and Yong Huang & Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC Jian Luo & School of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC
& Hard machining is attracting more and more attention as an alternative to grinding in finish machining some hardened steels. The saw-toothed chips formed in hard machining have their own unique characteristics. The saw-toothed chip morphology is of great interest since the understanding of the saw-toothed chip morphology and its evolution in machining helps unveil hard machining chip formation mechanisms as well as facilitate hard machining implementation into industry. In this study, the effect of tool wear and cutting conditions on the saw-toothed chip morphology was examined in machining 52100 hardened 52100 bearing steel. It was found that the chip dimensional values and segmentation frequency were affected by tool wear and cutting conditions while the chip segmentation angles were approximately constant under different tool wear and cutting conditions. The shear band spacing has also been predicted at the same order of magnitude as the measurement, and improved spacing modeling accuracy is expected if the cutting process information can be better predicted first. Keywords Chip morphology, Cutting condition, Hard turning, Saw-toothed chip, Tool wear
INTRODUCTION Finishing machining of hardened steels offers many technical and economical advantages over conventional grinding such as shorter setup=tool change times, higher material removal rates, and less negative environmental implications. Thus it has gained increasing attention in many industrial settings (Konig et al., 1993; Tonshoff et al., 2000; Huang, 2002). Recently, this hard machining practice has been made possible through the development of ultrahard cutting materials such as polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN). The chips formed in machining hardened steels, along with
Address correspondence to Yong Huang, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634. E-mail: yongh@clemson.edu
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other difficult to cut alloys such as titanium-based alloys (Hua and Shivpuri, 2004) and nickel-based alloys (Shaw and Vyas, 1993), are typically sawtoothed or segmented. This phenomenon occurs generally in machining hardened steels ( > 50 HRC) when undeformed chip thickness is greater than 20 mm (Tonshoff et al., 2000). The formation of such saw-toothed chips, which are of great research interest, is generally considered the result of a highly nonlinear and dynamic plastic deformation process that has been shown to adversely affect cutting forces, machine deflection and vibration, tool wear, and surface finish (Ueda and Matsuo, 1982; Davies et al., 1996). While most hard machining research thus far has focused on chip formation mechanisms and tool wear characterization, it is of great interest to study the effect of tool wear on the evolution of chip morphology and the effect of cutting conditions on chip morphology. It has been observed that the chip dimension changes as tools wear (Davies et al., 1996) and cutting conditions change (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000). However, there is still no systematic study of chip morphology characterization in hard machining. The objective of this study aims to better define and further characterize different chip dimensions as functions of tool wear and cutting conditions in hard machining. The paper first gives background for this study. Experimental setup and design are then discussed, along with the experimental observations on the chip morphology. Furthermore, predicted segmentation spacing is compared with the experimental results and discussion is given. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for the future research are presented. Such chip morphology knowledge will help better understand and model the hard machining process, making hard machining a viable technology. BACKGROUND Chips produced in machining most metals and alloys can be generally classified into four distinct categories based on their geometric shapes: flow, wavy, saw-toothed=segmented, and discontinuous (Komanduri and Brown, 1981). It should be noticed that different approaches have also been pioneered to characterize chips in machining other nonmetallic engineering materials besides the aforementioned chip classification. Chips produced from machining advanced materials such as ceramics and reinforced composites may be quite different in physical nature than those observed in metal machining. For example, Shih et al. (2004) developed a classification system to define 7 types of chips obtained in machining nonmetallic elastomers under different cutting conditions. Flow type chip arises in machining of ductile materials and is classified by its uniform cross-section. Wavy chips occur when the shear angle oscillates widely causing fluctuations in cutting forces and chip thickness (Shaw and Vyas, 1993). Both the flow and wavy chips are considered
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continuous as there are no gross fracturing but only signs of uneven strains in the chip. When there are cracks or fracture in the chip formation, the chip may be discontinuous or saw-toothed=segmented. Discontinuous chip formation is common in machining brittle materials at low cutting speeds (Tonshoff et al., 2000), and these chips are classified by their nearly identical and discontinuous segments (Shaw and Vyas, 1993) that are entirely separated by their broken segments. Saw-toothed chips, a common name for segmented chips, are semicontinuous and have zones of low shear strain (continuous portion) and high shear strain (discontinuous portion). Saw-toothed chips, unlike conventional flow type or continuous chips, show areas of intense shear strain in cyclic form causing sharp segments to be distributed along the free side of the chip. While the exact chip formation mechanism of saw-toothed chips is still not clearly known, there are two main conflicting chip formation mechanisms: catastrophic strain localization (Davies et al., 1996, 1997) and fracture=crack generation (Shaw and Vyas, 1993; Vyas and Shaw, 1999). For the catastrophic strain localization mechanism, strain localization, or sometimes called adiabatic shear, takes place when thermal softening governs the combined effects of strain and strain rate hardening. This commonly takes place when the strain rates occur higher than a significant value governed by the properties of a material. Once this value is reached, the chip segment is pushed along the direction of strain and a new segment is formed. For the fracture=crack generation mechanism, the segmentation of chips is initiated through gross periodic fractures occurring from the workpiece free surface to the cutting tool tip. For this situation, the fracture initiates at the workpiece surface and continues down toward the tool tip until the compressive stresses formed from the tool tip are strong enough to stop the crack. These stresses result in plastic deformation near the tool tip that can be compared to the common flow-type chip (Shaw and Vyas, 1993). As the segment is released from the crack, compressive stresses begin to build up and gross fracture occurs again in the same manner. Regardless of the saw-toothed chip formation mechanisms, the objective of this study is to study the relationship of saw-toothed chip morphology and the effect of both tool wear and cutting conditions on chip morphology in hard turning. It has been observed that the overall chip shape evolves as tool wears in machining hardened steels. This shape evolution can be appreciated in Figure 1. Due to the interesting chip morphology of hard turning chips, the saw-toothed chip formation has been studied in terms of the effect of cutting speed on segmentation dimension (Davies et al., 1996, 1997; Poulachon and Moisan, 2000) and segmentation frequency (13, 14), and the effect of feed on segmentation dimension (Vyas and Shaw, 1999; Poulachon and Moisan, 2000) and segmentation frequency (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000; Becze and Elbestawi, 2002). However, there still is
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FIGURE 1 Hardened 52100 steel chips taken using (a) fresh PCBN tool and (b) worn PCBN tool after 12 minutes at speed of 1.52 m=s, feed 0.0762 mm=rev, and depth of cut 0.203 mm. Due to the chip shape difference, the pictures were taken from the different angles.
no systematic study about the effect of cutting conditions as well as tool wear on chip morphology (chip dimensional and angular information) and segmentation frequency. This study aims to better understand the chip morphology and its evolution through a systematic study via hard hard turning of hardened steels. Besides better understanding toward chip formation mechanisms, the chip morphology can be a good and convenient indicator of tool wear in hard machining. Also, the knowledge on the chip morphology evolution can improve manufacturing productivity where tool wear and workpiece dimensional accuracy need to be closely monitored. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DESIGN Hardened 52100 bearing steel with a hardness of 62 HRC was chosen for experimental studies because of its wide use in both industry and research fields. Facing operations were performed dry using a Hardinge 6=45 computer numerical control lathe. CBN cutting tools (Kennametal KD050) with a negative 5-degree rake angle and a negative 20-degree chamfer angle were used. Tool flank wear was measured using an optical microscope, and average cutting forces were measured using a Kistler 9257B dynamometer where the force fluctuation due to the saw-toothed chip formation was ignored. To characterize chip segmentation morphology, steel chips were collected, mounted in epoxy, and polished to reveal their cross-sections. Since the collected chips were three-dimensional in nature inside the epoxy mold, the chip samples were carefully polished to identify and clearly present the chip cross-section of interest. An optical microscope and a Hitachi S-3500N scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to characterize saw-toothed chip cross-sections. Two experimental designs were created to study and quantify chip morphology during machining. The first design (Scenario A), as shown in Table 1, aimed to research the effect of tool wear on chip segmentation

TABLE 1 Cutting Conditions for Scenario A Cutting speed (m=s) Scenario A1 Scenario A2 1.52 2.29 Feed (mm=rev) 0.076 0.114 Depth of cut (mm) 0.203 0.203
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morphology. Tool wear and chip morphology information were collected throughout the whole tool life until the tool reached a tool life criterion of 0.2 mm or had a jump of cutting forces due to the catastrophic tool breakage (Huang, 2002). The second design (Scenario B), as shown in Table 2, aimed to research the effect of cutting conditions on chip segmentation morphology using new tools. Cutting conditions were varied to study the effect of cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut on cutting forces and chip morphology individually. Both cutting forces and chip morphology information were collected. Cutting conditions were selected based on recommendations for typical finishing processes (Huang and Liang, 2005).
CHIP MORPHOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION IN HARD TURNING Chip Morphology Figure 2a shows a representative SEM picture of a collected chip etched with a 2% Nital solution for 10 seconds. The relatively white portion of the chip cross-section is the chip white layer formed in hard machining. As shown in Figure 2b, chip morphology is characterized by its dimensional values in terms of saw-tooth spacing (a1 ), saw-tooth height (a2 ), chip height of continuous portion (a3 ), shear band spacing (Lc ), half shear band width (h) and angular values in terms of crack initiation angle (h1 ) and
TABLE 2 Cutting Conditions for Scenario B Cutting speed (m=s) Scenario B1 (effect of cutting speed) 1.52 2.29 3.05 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 Feed (mm=rev) 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.076 0.114 0.152 0.114 0.114 0.114 Depth of cut (mm) 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.152 0.203 0.254
Scenario B2 (effect of feed)
Scenario B3 (effect of depth of cut)
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FIGURE 2 (a) SEM image of a saw-toothed chip cross-section and (b) Segmentation dimensions for saw-toothed chips.
saw-toothed chip included angle (h2 ). The aforementioned chip dimensional information for each design was measured and averaged, and only the mean values are presented here. Since Lc can be easily determined by a1 and h1 as Lc a1 sin h1 , only a1 and h1 are discussed in this section. More information about the Lc prediction is discussed later. Effect of Tool Wear Figure 3 shows the tool wear progressions of the experimental scenarios A1 and A2. Since the measured tool wear progression profiles are similar to the documented results (Davies et al., 1996; Poulachon et al., 2001; Huang and Liang, 2004), the experiments were not repeated for the same design
FIGURE 3 Tool wear progressions of Scenario A.
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conditions. The more aggressive cutting conditions (Scenario A2) led to a higher tool wear rate, and the cutting test stopped when a large force jump due to tool breakage was observed around 3.75 minutes. Segmentation geometry evolution with machining time is shown in Figure 4. It is found that both the saw-tooth spacing (a1 ) and height (a2 ) decreased as the tool wore (Figures 4a and 4b) while the chip height of continuous portion (a3 ) increased (Figure 4c). The tooth height was larger than the continuous portion height when the tool was new; however, the continuous portion height turned to be larger at a certain tool wear condition. All a1 , a2 , and a3 changed significantly faster under aggressive cutting conditions when comparing such measurements for Scenarios A1 and A2. The overall chip thickness, including the segmented and continuous portions of the chip, is determined by simply adding a2 and a3 . This chip thickness a2 a3 is shown in Figure 4(d) and had an overall increase after a slight decrease as the tool wore. The sudden changes between cutting time 10 and 12 minutes were due to tool microchipping at the end of tool life.
FIGURE 4 Evolution of (a) saw tooth spacing (a1 ), (b) saw tooth height (a2 ), (c) chip height of sawtoothed chip continuous portion (a3 ), and (d) chip thickness (a2 a3 ) of Scenario A.
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The differences in both feed and velocity under Scenarios A1 and A2 are accounted for the differences of a1 s and a2 s at the beginning of the machining tests. However, it is found that the chip continuous portion height a3 at the beginning of machining is less sensitive to the change of cutting conditions. The preceding observations will be examined further later when discussing the effect of cutting conditions respectively. Figure 5 shows the evolution of segmentation angles (crack initiation angle (h1 ) and saw-toothed chip included angle (h2 )) as the tool wears. There are no noticeable angle changes of the segmentation angles over the whole cutting tests, and both tests had similar segmentation angles. The crack initiation angle (h1 ) was approximate 35 degrees over the whole test, while the included angle (h2 ) remained constant around 45 degrees. The included angle values (45) are also comparable with other documented studies in machining AISI 4340 steel (45) (Shaw and Vyas, 1993), facing chromium carbide hardened steel (45) (Ren et al., 2001), and milling AISI D2 tool steel (47) (Becze and Elbestawi, 2002). It is concluded here that the included angle of steel sawtoothed chips is around 45 regardless of cutting conditions, types of machining operations, and tool wear. A complete understanding of the saw-toothed chip formation mechanism is expected to explain this observation in the future. For conventional machining, the cutting ratio can be determined by dividing the undeformed chip thickness by the average chip thickness or the cutting speed (V ) by the chip velocity (Vc ). It was found that the cutting ratio can be approximated by the ratio of the mean tooth spacing (a1 ) to the mean tooth height (a2 ) (Vyas and Shaw, 1999). Then, the cutting ratio in hard machining can be approximated as follows: r a1 Vc a2 V 1
FIGURE 5 Segmentation angles evolution of Scenario A.
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FIGURE 6 Chip segmentation frequencies of Scenario A.
This cutting ratio can be further used to determine the segmentation frequency f , which is a ratio between cutting speed and segmentation spacing in hard machining as follows (12): f Vc V a1 a2 2
Figure 6 shows the segmentation frequency information of Scenario A. An increasing trend of chip segmentation frequency as functions of cutting time can be seen for both scenarios, and both scenarios showed comparable magnitudes of frequency at the beginning ($ 60 kHz) and the end of cutting ($ 130 kHz). It will be of interest to study in the future whether the thermal effect under the worn tool condition is responsible for higher frequency segmentation as observed, leading to continuous-like chips. Effect of Cutting Speed As observed in (Chou and Evans, 1999; Huang and Liang, 2005), the effect of cutting speed on cutting forces was less significant as seen in Figure 7. However, the tooth spacing, a1 , and the mean tooth height, a2 , did increase with cutting speed, while the continuous portion of the chip, a3 , and the overall chip thickness showed a slight oscillation with a small increase followed by a large decrease. It is found that the tooth height was always larger than the height of the continuous portion when the tool was new. Figure 7c shows that the segmentation frequency increased with the cutting speed, which agrees with the other observations in machining hardened steel (HV0.02 630) (Ekinovic et al., 2004) and grade 2 commercially pure titanium (Sheikh-Ahmad et al., 2004). However, it was reported
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FIGURE 7 The effect of cutting speed on (a) cutting forces, (b) chip morphology, and (c) segmentation frequency.
that there is a linear relationship between segmentation frequency and cutting speed (Ekinovic et al., 2004; Sheik-Ahmad et al., 2004), which is different from the observations in this study. Segmentation angles (h1 and h2 ) maintained 35 and 45, respectively, while changing the cutting speeds, which is similar to the observations during the tool wear progression. Since the same constant segmentation angles were also observed while changing feed rate and depth of cut, the following two sections will not discuss the observations of segmentation angles. Effect of Feed As seen from Figure 8, when the feed increased, all cutting forces increased accordingly except the feed force at the low feed rates (0.076 mm=rev), which is attributed to the ploughing effect in finish hard turning with shallow cuts (Huang et al., 2003). Figure 8b shows the tooth spacing (a1 ) increased approximately 20 mm for each 38 mm increase in feed. This increase in tooth spacing proved to be the most significant when changing cutting conditions, thus making the feed rate have the most
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FIGURE 8 The effect of feed on (a) cutting forces, (b) chip morphology, and (c) segmentation frequency.
influence over the tooth spacing dimension. The height of each segment (a2 ) oscillated with the feed increase, while the chip height of the continuous flow portion (a3 ) decreased. It is found that the tooth height was always larger than the continuous portion height when the tool was new. As shown in Figure 8c, the increase of feed caused the segmentation frequency to decrease. This decreasing trend in segmentation frequency as a function of feed agrees with the other observations (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000; Becze and Elbestawi, 2002). Effect of Depth of Cut Figure 9 describes the effect of depth of cut on cutting forces, segmentation dimensions, and segmentation frequency. It can be seen that cutting forces increased with depth of cut although the relationship is not linear as expected. As the depth of cut increased from 0.152 mm to 0.254 mm, all three cutting forces increased at approximately the same rate. Both the chip segmentation spacing (a1 ) and the height of chip continuous portion (a3 ) slightly increased, however, the chip tooth height (a2 ) and overall chip thickness decreased slightly first then increased. Unlike the effect of cutting
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FIGURE 9 The effect of depth of cut on (a) cutting forces, (b) chip morphology, and (c) segmentation frequency.
speed and feed rate on the segmentation frequency, the chip segmentation frequency oscillated while the depth of cut changed. SEGMENTATION PREDICTION AND DISCUSSION Shear Band Spacing Prediction Segmentation geometry prediction during saw-toothed chip formation has been studied by numerous researchers since the late 1990s (Davies et al., 1996; Elbestawi et al., 1996; Poulachon and Moisan, 2000; Becze and Elbestawi, 2002; Molinari et al., 2002). Shear band spacing Lc is of great interest here since it helps discover the saw-toothed chip formation mechanism, and this spacing can be modeled using a linear thermal softening strain rate hardening constitutive model based on the adiabatic shear band theory (Wright and Ockendon, 1996; Molinari, 1997; Molinari et al., 2002) as follows: !1=4 m 2 kc1 hh0 a2 h2 0 3 Lc 2p 1 _ 1 m b2 c3 sa 2
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where m is the strain-rate sensitivity, k is the heat conductivity, c is the heat capacitance per unit mass, a is the thermal softening parameter, h0 is the initial temperature, b is the Taylor-Quinney coefficient representing the fraction of plastic work transformed into heat, and the stress s0 and _ the strain rate c are determined by Equations 4 and 5, respectively: m _ h c 4 s s0 1 a _ h0 c0 V cos a 2h cos/ a
_ c
where s0 is the reference stress, c_0 is the reference strain rate, / is the shear angle (/ 90 h1 a 30 and is treated as constant for simplicity), a is the tool rake angle (25), and h represents the one half of the width of the actual adiabatic shear band. Although the chip white layer can be easily seen from Figure 2a, the shear band width of hard turning chips is still difficult to quantify. The empirical regression approach was used to model the shear band width (2 h) (Becze and Elbestawi, 2002); however, to simplify the model process, the shear band width is assumed as 1=17th of the shear band spacing Lc here based on an experimental observation in machining titanium (Molinari et al., 2002). Some other physical properties of hardened steel for Lc modeling are listed as follows (Batra, 1987; Davies et al., 1997; Molinari, 1997): m 0.025, h0 27C, a 25, k 49.2 _ W=mC, b 0.9, c 0.46 kJ=kgC, s0 930 MPa, c0 104 =s, and a 0.00552=C. Since it is still a challenge to accurately predict the temperature information h along the shear band, h is assumed to be around 500C (Huang and Liang, 2004) to simplify the Lc prediction. Actually, Equation 3 is not as sensitive to the h value because the thermal softening effect (a) is relatively small. Molinari et al. (2002) even ignored the effect of shear zone temperature in estimating Lc when machining Ti-6Al-4V. The strain hardening effect is ignored here for simplicity, and a future study will consider the effect of strain hardening as discussed in (Molinari, 1997). The experimentally obtained shear band spacing can be easily calculate using the simple geometrical relationship Lc a1 sin h1 obtained from Figure 2b. The predicted and actual values of Lc for all cutting scenarios can be seen in Table 3. Chip dimensions were taken for this analysis with new tools under all cutting scenarios using new tools. It is found from Table 3 that for most cutting tests the model overestimates Lc in machining AISI 52100 bearing steel except Scenario B1 (V 3.05 m=s), but the model does predict the same order of the shear band spacing measurements. It is expected that accurate shear band width
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TABLE 3 Experimental and Predicted Adiabatic Shear Band and Pacings Lc measurement (mm) Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario A1 A2 B1 B1 B1 B2 B2 B2 B3 B3 B3 ($ 1min) ($ 1min) (V 1.52 m=s) (V 2.29 m=s) (V 3.05 m=s) (Feed 0.076 mm) (Feed 0.114 mm) (Feed 0.152 mm) (DOC 0.152 mm) (DOC 0.203 mm) (DOC 0.254 mm) 30.09 38.42 37.09 38.42 40.84 31.01 37.09 49.95 32.96 37.09 36.50 Lc prediction (mm) 48.27 42.60 56.55 42.60 35.92 49.39 56.55 70.83 51.72 56.55 55.86
Error percentage 60.43 10.88 52.46 10.88 12.05 59.26 52.46 41.80 56.93 52.46 53.05
(2 h) measurement or modeling may improve model-based prediction accuracy since this study uses Lc =17 to represent the actual shear band width. Although the chip formation in hard machining is still controversial, the adiabatic shear band theory based shear band spacing prediction provides a reasonable way to capturing the chip morphology in hard machining, which may help understand the chip formation mechanism in the future, vice versa. Effect of Cutting Conditions on Chip Dimensions From Figures 79, it is found that the segmentation spacing a1 increased with cutting speed, feed rate, and=or depth of cut. It is also found that the tooth height a2 was always larger than the continuous portion height a3 for the investigated cases when the tool was new. To better appreciate the observations of this study, the chip dimensions are compared with other published observations (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000). Segmentation dimensions (a1 ; a2 , and a2 a3 ) are normalized by dividing by undeformed chip thickness, which is simplified as feed here even for oblique cutting configurations. Comparable cutting conditions as (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000) are selected, normalized, and compared with the observations in this study as shown in Figures 10 and 11 to appreciate the effect of cutting speed and feed rate. For the effect of cutting speed, it is found in this study that segmentation spacing a1 and saw-tooth height a2 increased with cutting speed. The overall chip thickness (a2 a3 ) remained approximately constant, meaning that the continuous chip portion a3 decreased with cutting speed. However, Poulachon and Moisan (2000) found that a1 oscillated with cutting speed and both a2 and a2 a3 decreased with cutting speed.
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FIGURE 10 A comparison with Poulachon and Moisan (2000) of data trends of normalized segmentation dimensions vs. cutting speed for (a) a1 , (b) a2 , and (c)a2 a3 .
For the effect of feed rate, this study finds that segmentation spacing a1 increased linearly with feed rate since the slope of a1 is almost zero in Figure 11a, and the slopes of both a2 and a2 a3 generally decreased indicating a2 and a2 a3 do not increase as fast as a1 increases. Poulachon and Moisan (2000) also found the similar effect of feed rate on the chip dimensions as seen from Figure 11. Although there are chip dimension value differences between Poulachon and Moisans work (2000) and this study, it is believed to be due to the effect of different depths of cut used since depth of cut also affects the undeformed chip thickness in oblique hard turning (Huang and Liang, 2003). Elbestawi et al. (1996) developed a model to predict the overall chip thickness as a function of the rake angle (a) and the included angle (h2) only, which indicates that the overall chip thickness should be constant in this study since both a and h2 remained constant for all cutting scenarios. However, this model is not well justified by the observations here and another documented study (Poulachon and Moisan, 2000). It should be noted that cutting conditions have the same effect on Lc as a1 because Lc a1 sin h1 a1 sin 35 . For simplicity, the effect of cutting
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FIGURE 11 A comparison with Poulachon and Moisan (2000) of data trends of normalized segmentation dimensions vs. feed for (a) a1 , (b) a2 , and (c) a2 a3 :
conditions on Lc is not further elucidated here. If Lc can be accurately estimated as discussed earlier, it is expected that a1 can also be accurately predicted. Segmentation Angles It was found that the segmentation angles (h1 and h2 ) remain constant in machining hardened steels and Ti alloys under different cutting conditions (Nakayama et al., 1988; Elbestawi et al., 1996). The critical shear angle (Nakayama et al., 1998; Elbestawi et al., 1996), which corresponds to 90 (h1 a) in this study, was found to remain constant at $ 33 degrees during saw-toothed chip formation under different cutting conditions and rake angles. This shear angle value (33) agrees well with the measurements in this study (30). Elbestawi et al. (1996) concluded that the crack initiation angle h1 stays constant and is not affected by varying cutting conditions if the workpiece material is very hard, brittle, and homogeneous (Elbestawi et al., 1996), which agrees the observation in this study. The included angle h2 , which was 45 in

TABLE 4 Ratios of Chip Continuous Portion rmax Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario A1 A2 B1 B1 B1 B2 B2 B2 B3 B3 B3 ($ 1min) ($ 1min) (V 1.52 m=s) (V 2.29 m=s) (V 3.05 m=s) (Feed 0.076 mm) (Feed 0.114 mm) (Feed 0.152 mm) (DOC 0.152 mm) (DOC 0.203 mm) (DOC 0.254 mm) 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.42 0.33 0.48 0.44 0.33 0.41 0.44 0.40
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this study, has also been found around constant 45 over a variety of cutting conditions and cutting materials (Nakayama et al., 1988). However, this angle was measured around 5257, in machining AISI 1550 case-hardened steel (HRC 60) using ceramic tools (instead of CBN tools) (Elbestawi et al., 1996). Ratio of Chip Continuous Portion It was found that the ratio of the height of chip continuous portion to the overall chip thickness to be constant at approximately 0.4 in machining hardened AISI 1550 steel under different cutting conditions (Elbestawi et al., 1996). This ratio can be estimated easily using Equation 6 and some results are shown in Table 4. It is found that the measurements in this study also led to a ratio value around 0.4. a3 6 rmax a2 a3 Segmentation Frequency Segmentation frequencies can range from 3.8 kHz to 250 kHz in hard machining (Becze and Elbestawi, 2002; Ekinovic et al., 2004). It is found that chip segmentation frequency increased with cutting time (Figure 6) and cutting speed (Figure 7c), but decreased with feed rate (Figure 8c). However, there is no definite conclusion on the effect of depth of cut on segmentation frequency since frequencies oscillated when depth of cut increased (Figure 9c). This decreasing trend in segmentation frequency as a function of feed agrees with other observations by Poulachon and Moisan (2000) and Becze and Elbestawi (2002). Although the segmentation frequency values are well above natural frequencies of most machine elements, rigid machining centers are still recommended for hard machining to allow for the tool workpiece engagement/
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exist shock and the workpiece material non-uniformity-induced cutting instability (Vyas and Shaw, 1999). CONCLUSIONS In this study, the effect of tool wear and cutting conditions on the saw-toothed chip morphology was examined in machining hardened 52100 bearing steel. This research is of interest because of its relevance to increasing hard machining implementations as a quicker, cleaner, and practical alternative to finish grinding. Chip morphology was measured and quantified to appreciate the effect of tool wear, cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. Chip dimensions in terms of segmentation spacing, saw-tooth height, chip continuous portion height, overall chip thickness, shear band spacing and chip segmentation angles in terms of crack initiation and chip included angles were either measured using microscopes or indirectly deduced. Cutting forces and segmentation frequency were also collected during the experiments. The following conclusions can be drawn based on this study, and they can be applied for vision-based tool wear condition monitoring: 1. Mean saw-tooth segmentation spacing (a1 ) and tooth height (a2 ) decrease as flank wear progresses while the chip height of continuous portion (a3 ) increases; 2. Segmentation spacing a1 always increases with cutting speed, feed rate, and=or depth of cut. The tooth height a2 is always larger than the continuous portion height a3 for the investigated cases when the tool was new. However, there are no monotonic relationships among cutting conditions and other chip dimensional values except a1 ; 3. Both crack initiation angle (h1 ) and included angle of saw-toothed chip (h2 ) remain approximately constant as 35 and 45, respectively, under different tool wear and cutting conditions; 4. Segmentation frequency increases with tool wear and cutting speed, decreases with feed, and oscillates with depth of cut; and 5. Shear band spacing (Lc ) of the saw-toothed chip can be reasonably estimated based on cutting configuration and workpieces mechanical and thermal properties. Further chip morphology research in hard machining is believed to help unveil the segmentation chip formation mechanisms as well as promote hard machining to be a viable technology. Some future work is of interest as follows: 1. It will be of interest to study whether the thermal effect under the worn tool condition is responsible for higher frequency segmentation as observed, leading to continuous-like chips;
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2. The chip segmentation mechanism should be clearly identified since the effect of cutting conditions on machining process information depends on the chip segmentation mechanism; 3. Some inconclusive observations such as the effect of depth of cut on chip segmentation frequency should be explained in terms of machining physics and material behaviors; and 4. The shear band spacing model should be enhanced such as including the strain hardening effect to increase its predictive capability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Mr. Yu Long, Mr. Michael Justice, and Dr. JoAn Hudson of Clemson University for their help. Financial support from the South Carolina Space Grant Consortium is also highly appreciated. REFERENCES
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Chip Morphology Characterization

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CHIP MORPHOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION AND MODELING IN MACHINING HARDENED 52100 STEELS

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Scenario B2 (effect of feed)

Scenario B3 (effect of depth of cut)

FIGURE 3 Tool wear progressions of Scenario A.

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

FIGURE 5 Segmentation angles evolution of Scenario A.

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

FIGURE 6 Chip segmentation frequencies of Scenario A.

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

Chip Morphology in Machining Hardened Steels

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