SLOGAN A slogan is a form of verbal logo.

In a print ad, it usually appears just beneath or beside the brand name or logo. A slogan sums up what one stand for, one s specialty, the benefit, and one s marketing position, and one s commitment. It is especially useful to reinforce one s identity. A slogan can prove to be more powerful than a logo. People can remember and recite your slogan while they are unlikely to doodle your logo. It is more important for your slogan to clearly state what you are about than to be clever, but if you can accomplish both, all the better. Slogans have two basic purposes: to provide continuity to a series of ads in a campaign and to reduce an advertising message strategy to a brief, repeatable, and memorable positioning. The slogan should be used everywhere. Think of it as being attached to one s name like a shadow; put it on business cards, printed ads, personal brochures, signs, letters, in the yellow pages -everywhere one can put it. The advertising slogan is always short and epigrammatic in nature. It helps to make the ad more impressive and memorable. (XUE Hangrong,2003:206) So let s take a look at the stylistic features of these fabulous slogans to see how it can achieve its aim. 1. At the graphetic level 1.1 Consistent use of initial capitalization. To achieve an emphatic effect, the ad slogan is just like a headline which uses initial capitalization to attract more attention or to stress every word it says to impress the reader. For example, Heinz: Beanz Meanz Heinz. Toyota: I Love What You Do For Me. 1.2 Sometimes full use of capitalization. Sometimes for the same reason as above, the ad slogan needs to emphasize every letter it uses or to make the ad slogan look trim and tidy. For example, NewsWeek: THE WORLD S NEWSMAGAZINE. Oracle: SOFTWARE POWERS THE INTERNET. 2. At the phonological level 2.1 Use of rhymes. 2.1.1 Rhymes with brand name One of the best techniques for bringing in the brand name is to make the slogan rhyme with it. An ad slogan is better if it reflects the brand s personality. By this kind of rhyming, the brand name is highlighted. The ad slogan is thus highly purposed. It can differentiate a slogan from others by the brand name and the special rhyming which is the identity of the slogan. Haig Scotch: Don't be vague. Ask for Haig. Quavers: The flavour of a Quaver is never known to waver. 2.1.2 Rhymes - brand name mention A fall-back position is to use a rhyme and mention the brand name without it actually rhyming. It is not so effective, perhaps, because the brand name is not highlighted. The slogan is likely to lose its identity, because similar products can use the same ad slogan with a simple change of the product name. Viakal: It's the Viakal fizz that does the bizz! Jaguar : Grace, space, pace. 2.2 Use of alliteration. Alliteration can help the slogans achieve the strong beating rhythm needed to make it an repeatable sentence. By so doing, the sentences are more slogan-styled. They can be easily remembered by the audience. Alliteration can also achieve an emphatic effect of the meaning. Allied Irish Bank: Britain's best business bank. Greyhound: Greyhound going great. Fila: Functional... Fashionable... Formidable... 3. At the lexical level 3.1 Common uses of second person addressee you , we , us . The use of second person addressee you tends to shorten the distance between the product or the producer and consumers, as if the producer or the ad is speaking to you face to face, making sincere promises, honest recommendations. In so doing, the ad slogans stand a better chance to move the receiver or customers to action, because the receiver feels that he is being thought of and taken care of and he is the center point of the producers. For example, HYUNDAI: Always there for you. Nestle Milo: Bring out the champion in you. The use of first person addresser we and us is the most direct way to tell the receiver what the sponsor of an ad slogan stands for, his idea, his view, and his credit. It s a little bit like a self-introduction to the potential customers to let them know you, recognize you, believe you and trust you. For example, Avis Rent A Car: We try harder. Fed ex: We live to deliver. 3.2 Use of unqualified comparison. Admen have to abide by the code of commercial practice and stick to the rules of advertising. They should not advertise their product at the expense of others. So they resort to unqualified comparison to avoid defaming other products. (XUE Hangrong,2003:189) They can not say: Brand X is better than brand Y. Otherwise, unpleasant lawsuits will inevitably occur. They can say:

For example, Coleman footgear: Better choice, better joys. 3.3 Use of every always , etc. These words are often used in ads to indicate the universal application of the product or to include as many potential customers as possible or to achieve the emphasis of the product s utility or the company s unswerving commitment. For example, Always Coca-Cola. Mitsubishi: Technically, everything is possible. 3.4 Use of no , none , etc. Negatives tend to be used very sparingly because the purpose of all ad slogans is to strengthen the positive side. But when negatives do occur, they are usually placed in an emphatic position to highlight the special the positive side. For example, Mercedes Benz: The pursuit for perfection has no finish line. M&Ms melt in your mouth, not in your hand. 3.5 Use of coined words. Coined words are both new and memorable. Coined words are kind of smart words have a special meaning in the specified context. They can raise the interests of the ad slogan receivers, make them ponder upon the meaning and marvel at the smart idea of the admen. By so doing, they recognized the brand. Louis Vuitton: Epileather. Burton Menswear: Everywear. Gordon's & Tonic: Innervigoration. 4. At the syntactic level. 4.1 Use of short simple sentences. The slogan must be short and simple; it can not afford to be complicated and clumsy. Short simple sentences are easy to remember, while one main aim of an ad slogan is to be memorable and recited. So short and simple sentences serve advertising slogans right. For example, Sumsung Digitall-Everyone is invited. GE: We bring good things to life. 4.2 Use of everyday sentences. Every day sentences tend to be overly used in day life, but it can be very forceful when used in an ad slogan. These sentences travel very fast, because anyone can remember it without any effort. It can just hang upon people s lips. It s something popularized without much publicity. For example, Nike: Just do it Nestle: It s the taste! 4.3 Use of phrases. Slogans are a kind of special writing form. They can almost do without subjects. Phrases may be better than if not as good as sentences. All kind of phrases can be put into use: noun phrase, verb phrase, preposition phrase, adjective phrase, etc. They are so concise and to the point that they are beyond our power to do any addition or subtraction. For example, Apple computer: think different Malaysia Airlines: Beyond expectation. Maxwell House: Good to the last drop. 4.4 Use of questions. In ad headlines questions are often used to attract attention by mentioning the matter that concerns the customers most. They help to arouse the curiosity of the customers and entice them to read on to find the solution to the problem. Many slogans (also called themeline or tagline) begin as successful headlines. (Arens, William F. & Bove, Courtland L. 1994: p.289) So it is not surprising that the slogan can use questions too for the same purpose. For example, Ford: Have you driven a Ford lately? Volkswagen Polo: R u Polo? 4.5 Use of imperative sentences. In an ad, the slogan is the last few words said. Although it s just a few words, the admen don t let it go at that. They use every opportunity to exhort the potential customers to act, to buy and to consume. The slogan is their last battle field to get people moved. It is not surprising that they would use imperative sentences to make a slogan while this kind of sentence is the most direct way to achieve the ideal effect. For example, Express card: Don t leave home without it. United Airlines: Life is a journey, travel it well. 4.6 Use of tense. Almost all the ad slogans use simple present tense to satisfy the customer s desire to know the present state of the product he wants to buy. But there is another aspect of the simple present: its implication of universality and timelessness. For example, DeBeers: A diamond is forever. Rossini: Time always follows me 4.7 Creative use of idioms or proverbs

Idioms and proverbs are familiar to most potential customers in a society and have no difficulty to be popularized. The creative use of the idioms and proverbs can give them new meaning while making them memorable and campainable. For example, Financial Times: No FT, no comment. IBM: I think, therefore IBM. 5. At the semantic level. 5.1 Semantic ambiguity Ad slogans have to conform to the code of commercial practice. Semantic ambiguity is needed to avoid any possible legal liability. For example, Philips: let s make things better. 5.2 Use of puns 5.2.1 A really good pun can work miracles. However note the lack of brand identity in these otherwise excellent examples. Almost any competing brand could use these lines. Although they are good, they have no specific identity of their own. Moss Security: Alarmed? You should be. Pioneer: Everything you hear is true. Range Rover: It's how the smooth take the rough. 5.2.2 In these lines, the brand name appears, but as the solution or promise rather than part of the pun. These slogans with brand name in it can help the name be remembered while offer a two layered meaning to the slogan. The second layer of meaning can interest and impress the people with its smartness and its novelty. Kenco Really Rich Coffee: Get Rich quick. Finish Detergent: Brilliant cleaning starts with Finish. 5.2.3 Here the brand goes to work, as inextricably part of the pun. Citibank: Because the Citi never sleeps. Quavers Snacks: Do me a Quaver. All the above-mentioned stylistic features of ad slogans are necessary to make them neat, simple, original, strategic, memorable and campainable. The slogans are also a kind of poetic language, which we should pay attention to. After a study of 103 ad slogans of large to medium sized companies in recent years, I did a little summarizing. The reason why I choose large to medium sized companies is that good ad slogans always come form them and they can represent the trend in ad slogans. Number of words in a slogan Number of slogans counted 1 1 2 7 3 25 4 33 5 12 6 14 7 3 8 5 9 2 13 1 From this chart we can see that three-worded slogan and four-worded slogan are the most favored in the creation of a slogan with 25 and 33 slogans for each type, and five or six worded slogans are also widely used. Two worded and eight worded slogans still occupy a share. But the number of other length slogans decreased dramatically. The longest ad slogan in study has 13 words which is a rare case, because it is too lengthy to be a slogan. And one worded slogan can not express fully the rich and multi-layered meaning that a slogan wants to convey. The eight worded slogans are preferred than the seven worded ones is because the former generally uses a parallel or contrasted structure, so for each small sentence of the structure the length is just four words which is the most preferred length. The average length of an ad slogan is 4.447 words. It is the trend for the slogan to be short, about 2 to 6 words long. This is just my general analysis of the results. It is useful to conduct a more detailed study of the slogans; because more and more Chinese companies are going abroad to do their business and they need a good English slogan to establish their image in the world business arena. This study will also help the development of the Chinese ad slogans in China. Good ad slogans are forever. Here's How: Make it Memorable Your slogan must be memorable. Make it easy to remember, something they want to brand in their memory and possibly even repeat to others. Take for example the above slogans, when you first heard them what was it that made them stick with you? Key Benefits Your slogan must contain a key benefit of the product or service. Give them a reason to remember it. Differentiate Your Brand It must differentiate your brand. Does it bring out the character of the product or services that sets it apart from your competitors? Solidify the Brand It must recall the brand name otherwise who cares who remembers it. The brand can be depicted in the words you use or in the image of your logo. Rhythm and Rhyme Create rhythm and rhyme. Does it rhyme? Does it have a ring to it? The rhythm of the tagline will help to stick in the memories of those that read it or hear it.

Warm and Fuzzy Effect Make it warm and fuzzy. Does your slogan leave people feeling warm and fuzzy? Does it bring a smile to their face or perhaps even a little chuckle? A slogan is more likely to stick in the minds of others if it imparts a positive feeling or emotion.

USP USP: Unique Selling Proposition - Real or perceived benefit of a good or service that differentiates it from the competing brands and gives its buyer a logical reason to prefer it over other brands. Some good current examples of products with a clear USP are: Head & Shoulders: "You get rid of dandruff" Some unique propositions that were pioneers when they were introduced: Domino's Pizza: "You get fresh, hot pizza delivered to your door in 30 minutes or less -- or it's free." FedEx: "When your package absolutely, positively has to get there overnight" M&M's: "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand" Wonder Bread: "Wonder Bread Helps Build Strong Bodies 12 Ways" In marketing and advertising, a target audience, is a specific group of people within the target market at which the marketing message is aimed. Target Audiences are set to focus on different groups: Adults, teens, children, mid teens, and preschoolers. Functions of advertising 1. To differentiate the product from their competitors 2. To communicate product information 3. To urge product used 4. To expand the product distribution 5. To increase brand preference and loyalty 6. To reduce overall sales cost 7. Creates new demands

To differentiate the product from their competitors An important function of advertising is the identification function, that is, to identify a product and differentiate it from others; this creates an awareness of the product and provides a basis for consumers to choose the advertised product over other products this creates an awareness of the product and provides a basis for consumers to choose the advertised product over other products. The identification function of advertising includes the ability of advertising to differentiate a product so that it has its own unique identity or personality. There are four additional ways to differentiate your offering from the competition and increase your differentiation: leveraging the brand, innovating your service offering, as well as designing product and packaging in a way that creates an aesthetic beyond the functional. None of these methods are expensive. All are ways that can increase your perceived value to the customer and increase your market share. Example: GARNIER FRUTICS (shampoo) the shampoo bottle have the different color from all other shampoo available in the shelf. The bottle of the shampoo is unique from all others. Example: apple laptops make them different from others as the WHITE color and logo of APPLE on back of the screen. To communicate product information Another function of advertising is to communicate information about the product, its attributes, and its location of sale; this is the information function. Product information communicated to the customers in manner that meets their information needs. Most consumers tend to discount the information in advertising because they understand that the purpose of the advertising is to persuade. Making an advertising message believable is not easy; though often it is sufficient to make the consumer curious enough to try the product. Such curiosity is often referred to as interested disbelief. Advertisers use a variety of devices to increase the believability of their advertising: celebrities or experts who are the spokespersons for the product, user testimonials, product demonstrations, research results, and endorsements. Example: Ponds age miracle, in that ad the celebrity HADIQA KAYANI is informing the consumers about the benefits of it. That how the old women can look younger by using it continuously. It will make you fair cream plus it reduces freckles plus it can be used as a sun block as well it will make you look young. To urge product used The third function of advertising is to induce consumers to try new products and to suggest reuse of the product as well as new uses; this is the persuasion function. The basic function of advertising is to provide constant reminders and reinforcements to generate the desired behavior the advertiser wants from them. This is a particularly effective function in the long run as reminders and reinforcements register in the consumers' minds, becoming the base on which they shape their future decisions. Sampling in the way to urge the product using. Example: Fair and lovely as we know that it will make a girl look fair and prettier in 4 weeks. Example: Neutrogena acne treatment cream will remove your pimple is 24 hours. NEUTROGENA say no to pimples!! To expand the product distribution When the consumer comes to know about the particular product from the advertisement he/she wants to try that new product. They go to shops to buy the product; if the new product is not available in a shop then the shopkeeper consults the distributor

to make that product available in his shop. It is basically to provide the product all over market. It is necessary to make sure that product should be accessible to everyone. Availability of product effect the distribution. Example: Wateen telecom and Motorola Partner to Expand Distribution of Videoconferencing Product Line in Pakistan. So as many people are getting to know about this facility they are running towards the franchises to avail it. So for that Wateen should expand their distribution all around the cities. Accessibility is major factor for successful product To increase brand preference and loyalty Marketing is a moving thing. As your needs are changed your preferences are changed. When the product delivers the promised quality, service and value, it creates satisfied customers who become instrumental in spreading a favorable word-of-mouth. Satisfied customers also develop brand preference; each product features and uses are written on the product. Example: 99% girls who are not married will not look at the ad of pampers or any milk powder for children but when they will get married their interest will automatically move towards such ad' Brand loyalty Brand loyalty is a long-term customer preference for a particular product or service. Brand loyalty can be produced by factors such as customer satisfaction with the performance or price of a specific product or service, or through identifying with a brand image. It can be encouraged by advertising. People often make purchasing decisions based on how a brand makes them feel emotionally rather than based on quality or other objective evaluations. If "Just Do it" strikes a chord with an athlete, he'll buy Nike; the decision may have little to do with quality. Example: For instance, when one buys a tube of Colgate toothpaste and finds it ok, one will not have to spend any valuable time on looking for other toothpaste brands. To reduce overall sales cost When a product is selling you have to teach the people about the product. Like if we would advertise through newspapers, TV, broachers and internet, it would cater huge sum of masses and if you do individually it would be more costly and time consuming. Example: Coke targets their consumers on a very large scale through mass media whereas Makka cola advertise on smaller scale or go door to door to advertise their product. Creates new demands Advertising have to create new demands they should educate the people about more and more new things coming up in the market. Each year new products, including line extensions and new brands are introduced into groceries and drugstores. Example: Wateen telecom is offering wireless internet chips, video conferencing and WIMAX services as they are introducing new services in market its creating new demands.

Broadly there are 6 departments in any advertising agency

Account Servicing Account Planning Media Creative Production Finance and Accounting Account service department The account service, or the account management department, is the link between the ad agency and its clients. Depending upon the size of the account and its advertising budget one or two account executives serve as liason to the client. The account executive s job requires high degree of diplomacy and tact as misunderstanding may lead to loss of an account. The account executive is mainly responsible to gain knowledge about the client s business, profit goals, marketing problems and advertising objectives. The account executive is responsible for getting approved the media schedules, budgets and rough ads or story boards from the client. The next task is to make sure that the agency personnel produce the advertising to the client s satisfaction. The biggest role of the account executive is keeping the agency ahead of the client through follow-up and communications. Media department The responsibility of the agency s media department is to develop a media plan to reach the target audience effectively in a cost effective manner. The staff analyses, selects and contracts for media time or space that will be used to deliver the ad message. This is one of the most important decisions since a significantly large part of the client s money is spent on the media time and/or space. The media department has acquired increasing importance in an agency s business as large advertisers seem to be more inclined to consolidate media buying with one or few agencies thereby saving money and improving media efficiency. Creative department To a large extent, the success of an ad agency depends upon the creative department responsible for the creation and execution of the advertisements. The creative specialists are known as copywriters. They are the ones who conceive ideas for the ads and write the headlines, subheads and the body copy. They are also involved in deciding the basic theme of the advertising campaign, and often they do prepare the rough layout of the print ad or the commercial story board. Creation of an ad is the responsibility of the copywriters and the art department decides how the ad should look. Production department After the completion and approval of the copy and the illustrations the ad is sent to the production department. Generally agencies do not actually produce the finished ads; instead they hire printers, photographers, engravers, typographers and others to complete the finished ad. For the production of the approved TV commercial, the production department may supervise the casting of actors to appear in the ad,

the setting for scenes and selecting an independent production studio. The production department sometimes hires an outside director to transform the creative concept to a commercial. Finance and accounting department An advertising agency is in the business of providing services and must be managed that way. Thus, it has to perform various functions such as accounting, finance, human resources etc. it must also attempt to generate new business. Also this department is important since bulk of the agency s income approx. 65% goes as salary and benefits to the employees.

Buyer behaviour - introduction

Introduction An important part of the marketing process is to understand why a customer or buyer makes a purchase. Without such an understanding, businesses find it hard to respond to the customer s needs and wants. Marketing theory traditionally splits analysis of buyer or customer behaviour into two broad groups for analysis Consumer Buyers and Industrial Buyers Consumer buyers are those who purchase items for their personal consumption Industrial buyers are those who purchase items on behalf of their business or organization Businesses now spend considerable sums trying to learn about what makes customers tick . The questions they try to understand are: Who buys? How do they buy? When do they buy? Where do they buy? Why do they buy? For a marketing manager, the challenge is to understand how customers might respond to the different elements of the marketing mix that are presented to them. If management can understand these customer responses better than the competition, then it is a potentially significant source of competitive advantage. The consumer buying process is the series of steps consumers typically go through in making a purchase decision. Often the whole process will only take seconds or a few minutes, while other times it may take years. Regardless of how long it takes, consumers generally go through six steps when making a purchase decision: problem or need recognition search alternative evaluation purchase decision and action post-purchase evaluation Problem or need recognition initiates the buying process. Dissatisfaction with current products, running out of supply of an item, or a changed financial status can stimulate consumer needs. Most consumers are creatures of habit and will repurchase the product they always use. This helps firms who are the established leaders in their markets but creates a barrier for new competitors. New competitors look for dissatisfied customers; those who are new to an area; and those who, through inheritance, divorce, or other situations have significantly changed their purchasing power. In the search stage, consumers identify different products that will solve their problem. For everyday purchases like milk or bread, consumers usually quickly determine alternative sources of products to meet their needs. For high-involvement purchases like homes or automobiles, the search process will take longer and probably include searching for objective sources of information. Many consumers will only consider a few possible choices when searching for products to solve their problem. Marketers refer to the choices considered as the evoked set. Firms that have severely disappointed consumers in the past or who are new to the market often have difficulty even being

considered by consumers. For many years a significant portion of American consumers would not even consider American-made automobiles, having been disappointed with the performance of their last Americanmade cars. In the alternative-evaluation stage, consumers consider and weigh the choices available. Again, with everyday-type purchases this stage can take seconds, while for a specialty item it may take months. Marketers respond to the alternative- evaluation stage by providing and promoting features they hope will influence consumers evaluation of their products. There can be considerable variation in the evaluation stage. One marketer found that it took him half the time it took his wife to do the family grocery shopping. Going to the supermarket together, he found out why. His wife read the ingredient labels, while he just purchased what was on the shopping list. The purchase decision and action is, as the term suggests, the determination of which product will best satisfy one s need and the action of making the actual deal. Salespeople refer to this stage as the closing. For everyday purchases, the goal is to make the purchase as quickly and effortlessly as possible. For complex decisions like a real estate closing, the purchase process can take weeks. Post-purchase evaluation addresses the questions Did I make the right decision? and Did I get a good deal? Marketers refer to this anxiety as cognitive dissonance. Good marketers, recognizing that word-of-mouth is almost always the best form of promotion and that new customers are almost always more difficult and expensive to find than maintaining existing customers, try to reduce consumers cognitive dissonance. Realtors will offer buyer s insurance, protecting the purchaser against unforeseen problems. Service providers like dentists and doctors will often call clients to see how they are doing after a procedure. Thank-you notes convey appreciation and also remind consumers about their purchase process. The consumer buying decision process Buying decisions may be made by individuals or a group such as a family or a committee within a commercial or industrial organisation. Where a group is involved, the term Decision-Making Unit (DMU) is commonly used. Marketers are interested in identifying all of the parties involved in the decision making process and are careful to distinguish between buyers and users. The farmer may make the final decision as to whether a given piece of agricultural equipment is purchased but his/her decision could well be influenced by the views, attitudes and amptitudes of the farm worker who will operate the machine. Moreover, the subsequent experience of the operator will play a major role in determining whether or not the decision to buy is positively reinforced. Similarly, the mother in the family may be the chief buyer of household foods but children may have a major influence on the purchase of those food items of which they are the main consumers. Behaviouralists have used empirical evidence to develop models of the buying process. These models usually portray the buying decision as having several discrete stages. It should be emphasised that these models have been developed in the context of buying decisions in which there is a high level of involvement on the part of the potential buyer, that is, where the item under consideration is expensive and purchased infrequently. Typically, the buying decision models comprised five stages: problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision and post-purchase behaviour. Such models underline the fact that the actual decision to purchase is but a single event in a process which begins sometime beforehand and continues after the item is bought. The marketer is encouraged to think about influencing a buying process rather than a buying decision. Figure 5.4 A five-stage model of the buying process

Problem recognition The buying process begins with a recognition on the part of an individual or organisation that they have a problem or need. The farmer recognises that he/she is approaching a new cultivation season and requires seed; a grain trading company realises that stocks are depleted but demand is rising and therefore wheat, rice and maize must be procured; a rural family is expecting an important guest who must be honoured by the slaughter and preparation of a goat for a feast. Problems and needs can be triggered by either internal or external stimuli. A poor peasant family may purchase a goat, which they can illafford, either because they have an innate sense of hospitality (internal stimulus) or because social convention dictates that a goat be procured and prepared for special visitors (external stimulus). Marketing research needs to identify the stimuli that trigger the recognition of particular problems and needs. Research should be directed towards establishing the needs/problems that arose, how these were brought about and how buyers arrived at the decision that a particular product was likely to meet their need or solve their problem. By so doing marketers can design products/services capable of meeting those needs/problems and develop marketing strategies that can trigger customer interest in those products or services. Information search: Information gathering may be passive or active. Passive information gathering occurs when an individual or group simply becomes more attentive to a recognised solution to a given need. That is, he/she exhibits heightened attention. The potential buyer becomes more aware of advertisements or other messages concerning the product in question. In other circumstances the individual is

proactive rather than reactive with respect to information. A trader who sees potential in a new vegetable which is being imported into the country will actively search out information about the product, sources of supply, prices and import regulations. He/she is likely to converse with other traders, request literature from potential suppliers, etc. Evaluation of alternatives: The process of evaluating alternatives not only differs from customer to customer prospective customer but the individual will also adopt different processes in accordance with the situation. It is likely that when making judgments customers will focus on those product attributes and features that are most relevant to their needs at a given point in time. Here, the marketer can differentiate between those characteristics which a product must have before it is allowed to enter the customer's evoked set. Consider for instance a manufacturer of pasta products sourcing durum wheat. The manufacturer may have criteria he/she uses in deciding whether or not a prospective supplier's wheat qualifies for entry to the evoked set, e.g. a maximum of 14% moisture content, a guarantee of a maximum of 1.5% material other than grain (MOG), and price within a given range. A quite different set of criteria might be used in deciding between alternative products and suppliers within the evoked set e.g. the period of credit given by the supplier, the ability of the supplier to deliver the total order in periodic batches and the reliability of the supplier in the past. Purchase decision: At the evaluation stage the prospective customer will have arrived at a judgement about his/her preference among the evoked set and have formed a purchase intention. However, two factors can intervene between the intention and the purchase decision: the attitude of others and unanticipated events. If the attitude of other individuals or organisations who influence the prospective customer is strongly negative then the intention may not be converted to a firm commitment or decision. The case of the Swiss-Pakistan Agricultural Light Engineering Programme, which is outlined below, illustrates a situation where the attitudes of peers and reference groups frequently determine whether intentions ever become decisions. Unanticipated events can also intervene between intention and action. Whenever human beings form judgements or seek to make decisions they invariably make assumptions. These assumptions are often implicit rather than explicit. A farmer may state an intention to purchase a mechanical thresher within the next twelve months but when his/her implicit assumption of a good harvest is not realised, due to drought, the purchase of the machine is postponed. Postpurchase behaviour: The process of marketing is not concluded when a sale is made. Marketing continues into the postpurchase period. The aim of marketing is not to make a sale but to create a long term relationship with a customer. Organisations maintain profitability and growth through repeat purchases of their products and services by loyal customers. Having procured the product the customer will experience either satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his/her purchase. The level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction is largely a function of the congruence between the buyer's expectations of the product and the product's perceived performance. Buyer expectations of a product are usually based upon promotional messages from the product's supplier, family, friends, work colleagues and, perhaps, professional advisors. In addition, the buyer's own perceptual processes influence expectations. If the product's perceived performance either matches or exceeds its expected performance then the buyer is likely to feel highly satisfied. It is in the best long term interests of commercial organisations not to oversell their products. That is, the claims made for products should faithfully reflect the product's actual performance capabilities. Even then, this will not prevent some buyers from holding unreasonable expectations of the product. Another aspect of postpurchase behaviour that is of interest to marketers is how the buyer actually uses the product. It is common to find buyers using a product in a different way from that for which it was either designed or intended. Such deviations can present problems or opportunities to the product supplier. For instance, whilst maize meal is chiefly used as a foodstuff, consumers discovered that it makes an excellent cleansing agent for suede shoes and other items of clothing when these have become badly stained. This new use for the product could represent a marketing opportunity for a repackaged and repositioned product. Types of buying behaviour. There are four typical types of buying behaviour based on the type of products that intends to be purchased. Complex buying behaviour is where the individual purchases a high value brand and seeks a lot of information before the purchase is made. Habitual buying behaviour is where the individual buys a product out of habit e.g. a daily newspaper, sugar or salt. Variety seeking buying behaviour is where the individual likes to shop around and experiment with different products. So an individual may shop around for different breakfast cereals because he/she wants variety in the mornings! Dissonance reducing buying behaviour is when buyer is highly involved with the purchase of the product, because the purchase is expensive or infrequent. There is little difference between existing brands an example would be buying a diamond ring, there is perceived little difference between existing diamond brand manufacturers.

Product:
Family restaurant Company Name: Spencer's Tagline: Feeding Your Family Since 1974 Target Audience: Primary audience is families with children. The restaurant also has an established clientele of older folks who used to bring their own children to Spencer's. Ad's Focus: Spencer's has bought ad time during the 5-7 p.m. drive home. Radio spots will air during this time to entice families to skip dinner at home but still have a home cooked meal at the restaurant. Parents on the go can come to the new drive through window they've named Spencer's Express. Special Promotions: Children under 12 always eat free when dining at the restaurant. Fridays are all you can eat buffet style from 7 p.m. to 9 p.m. Challenge:

Spencer's has been losing money during the week because families are opting for fast food chains instead. The restaurant's owners want customers to look at Spencer's as an option. They have a new drive through window and all meals are prepared from scratch just like you would make at your home. Additional Information: Two ads will air during the 5-7 p.m. time slot so Spencer's would like two different versions of ads playing off of each other. However, each ad should stand on its own in case the listener only hears one. This is a local restaurant with only one location. Spencer's has a distinguishable dollhouse look to it. It is known for its unique appearance. Located at 151 Goode Street. Spencer's was established in 1974 by the Spencer family. They are a family-owned and operated business. All meals are prepared from scratch. Sample items on the menu include country fried steak, meatloaf, roast beef, fish and the most popular menu item, "MaMa's Famous Chicken Casserole Surprise." Open every day of the week. This information is provided to help you write the advertising material. You can use or not use all of these points at your own discretion. The Limits Of Copywriting The limits of copywriting are essentially those of the medium. You can't write 10 minutes of copy for a 30-second radio spot. The mechanics of writing for one medium are too infrequently translatable into another medium. You can't put 50 words of copy on a billboard alongside a high speed highway and expect the message to be read. And yet there are times when originality, imagination, and skill dictate that all rules be violated. Fifty or 100 words on that billboard may be just the ticket if the headline is something like, "There are not enough words to describe ... " and you don t really expect people to read the text. The Objectives of the Ad Writing advertising copy begins, as you might expect, with defining objectives -- of the campaign, of the marketing program, of the specific ad. These objectives will be unique to you and your firm, to each campaign, and to each ad. They dictate that the copy -- as well as all other elements of the ad -- are focused and relevant. Elements Of A Good Ad An ad that includes at least the following elements might be expected to be good Attention. In the clamor and clutter of sight and sound, and the competition for the reader's eye, ear, and heart, it's imperative that you compete successfully for attention. There should be some element in the ad -- whether it's the headline or the illustration or the layout -that attracts the eye or ear and arouses sufficient interest to warrant attention to the message. And the copy itself must sustain that attention. Promise of Benefit. Something in the ad should promise the reader or the listener some benefit that will accrue from accepting the ad's premises. Credibility. The premises of the ad must be believable. (On the other hand, do you really believe that Exxon put a tiger in your tank? But it sold a lot of gas.) Persuasiveness. The ad should be persuasive. It should sell or generate the need for the service you offer, and project your service as superior. (On the other hand, what do those Nike shoe ads say that persuade you? But they sell a lot of athletic shoes.) Interest. Once you've captured the reader's attention you've got to say or show something to sustain interest, or the message will not be heard. Desire. The ad must generate a desire to accept what you have to say about what you have to offer; to want to do business with you. Action. The ultimate aim of an ad is to generate action on the part of the reader or listener; to cause the reader to want to do something that you want him or her to do, such as buy your service, or, in the case of professional services marketing, it might be to either generate an inquiry or accept a selling situation. On the other hand, just getting a reader to think about you in a specific way is an action, too. That s what institutional advertising is about. The Foundation For Copy Ads seem to work best when you... Know your prospect. Not only who your prospect is, but what kind of service your prospective clientele really wants, and what kind of problems they'll depend upon your service to resolve. Know your service. Know your service in terms of what the prospective client is willing to buy, not what you're offering to sell. Copy Structure The purpose of a headline is to attract attention and to bring the reader to the ad. A headline that offers nothing to the reader in terms of either benefit or interest may effectively mask the cleverest ad, and one that's offering the most useful service. The text should spring from the headline, and follow through the promise it offers. It should explain and clarify the facts and claims. It should be a logical progression of ideas, covering all of the points you mean to cover, even if it's done only with an illustration. Copy can appeal to the intellect and reason, or it can appeal to the emotions, or it can do both. The text of an ad designed to cause action should lead naturally to a call for action. What precisely do you want your reader to do? Call now? File for future reference? Send in a coupon? Send for a brochure? Remember something? Experienced copywriters know that the call for action works. It's not so much that when readers are told to do something they do it. It's that when they're not told to do something they're less likely to do it. The copy usually ends with a logo and a signature for identification and impression, and sometimes also a slogan. The Copy Platform The professional copywriter usually develops a concept, sometimes called the copy platform, which is a clear statement of the copy objectives, focus, and approach. This is an attempt to articulate, as clearly and as simply as possible, what the copy shall say and how it shall

say it. Shall it be extensive or brief? What tone shall it take? Shall it be breezy and light, or formal? What message shall it try to convey? What is the rationale behind the approach? The purpose of this copy platform, whether it's specifically articulated on paper or merely understood in the copywriter's mind, is to serve as a guide to actually writing the copy. Many copywriters use it to present to their clients for a clear understanding of how the ad will come out. Writing The Copy The artistry of advertising lies in the ability to manipulate symbols and ideas in order to inform and persuade people. As in any art form, there are no rules that can guide you in doing this, except to list those factors that seem to work most consistently. And yet, remember, some of the most successful ads are those that violate the rules. Two universally accepted axioms are that an ad must be simple, and it must look and sound as if it's worth paying attention to. And obviously, it must be complete -- it must contain all the information you want to convey. These axioms -- if indeed they are axioms -- spring from the fact that few ads are successful when these rules are ignored. Beyond that, clarity is essential. No matter how an ad is written it must be understood and easy to read. It should be grammatical -- despite the fact that there are many examples of successful advertising that are clearly ungrammatical. A breach of grammatical rules, however, should be deliberate, and designed to serve a specific purpose. The rules of grammar are not arbitrary, nor are they engraved in stone. But the purpose of the rules of grammar is consistency, understanding and clarity. Unless there is a conscious reason to do otherwise, copy should be grammatically sound. There are some other guidelines that professional copywriters also find useful ... Talk to the reader, the listener, or the viewer. Don't announce, don't preach. And don't get carried away by words and lose sight of the message. Write short sentences, with easy and familiar words. You want the reader or listener to do the least possible work to get your message. Even when you're talking to very bright people, communication is of the essence, not language manipulation. Don't waste words. Whether you use three or a thousand words make sure each is exactly the one you need. Make sure each word is exactly the right one to convey your meaning. Try to avoid being formal. You're talking to people as people. You're not writing an insurance contract for lawyers. An ad is information and persuasion. Use the present tense and the active voice ("All professional copywriters have extensive experience in preparing material," rather than " ... extensive experience in the preparation of material."). If you do want a formal style it should be deliberate, and you should have a clear idea of why you are using it. Punctuate correctly. Punctuate to help the reader, and not merely to follow specific rules. The less punctuation the better, within the bounds of clarity, but don't be afraid to use it if it helps the flow of an idea. Don't be afraid to use contractions and personal pronouns, just as you would in chatting informally with a prospect. After all, that's what you're trying to accomplish in your ad. Watch out for cliches. They turn some people off. More significantly, people don't hear them as they pass mindlessly off the tongue without bothering to visit the mind, and the point you're trying to make is lost. (Again, unless you're doing it deliberately.) Try to use bright, cheerful language that keeps the reader alert and maintains attention. To be enthusiastic and exciting is to be well along on the way to being interesting. Writing is not the manipulation of words -- it's the expression of ideas. Words, grammar and punctuation, are merely the tools and devices we use to express ideas most clearly. To think of copy as a configuration of words is the same as thinking of a symphony as a configuration of notes. Why do ads that seem well written sometimes not work? Because they miss these points of advertising. Because they attempt to merely translate somebody's idea of persuasive talk into the ad medium, which can sometimes be like wearing a tuxedo to the gym. And because somebody didn't recognize that the art of advertising copywriting is not the art of literary writing. Different medium, different art form. Product: Whitening toothpaste Company Name: SNOW Tagline: The company wants you to develop a tagline. Target Audience: Adult men Ad's Focus: This is not a new product launch but its intended audience is new to SNOW's marketing strategy. This print ad is the very first to launch the new ad campaign. Special Promotions: Results in 7-days guaranteed or your money back. Challenge: The company has had great success marketing SNOW to women. A majority of SNOW's advertising budget will be moved to market SNOW specifically to men. SNOW execs feel there's a huge gap in the whitening toothpaste market when it comes to advertising the product to men. Additional Information: This print ad will appear in Esquire, GQ, Men's Health, Men's Journal and Sports Illustrated. The cost of the product is $22 for a 4.5-ounce tube or $14 for a 2.5 ounce tube. Due to the product's price, most of SNOW's customers are professionals. American Dental Association (ADA) approved. SNOW removes all stains caused by coffee, tea and tobacco.

Regular use of SNOW protects teeth from future stains. Safe enough for daily use. No harsh abrasives or chemicals that cause irritation. A clinical study shows SNOW whitens teeth 224-percent more effectively than the leading brands of whitening toothpaste. Order by phone or on the website This information is provided to help you write the advertising material. You can use or not use all of these points at your own discretion.

Chapter 1. Public Relations Planning

One of the advantages of developing a communications plan is that it allows you to assess your situation, establish your objectives and maintain greater control over your communications program and, in turn, the image you project for your litho club. In addition, by outlining the various activities you may want to follow, you will be able to set priorities for those which can be supported within your budget constraints. This will help eliminate some of the "as you go" style of spending which can prematurely deplete the club finances. The following descriptions represent key steps in establishing a communications plan: 1. Situation Analysis Before you proceed in any direction, it's important to know where you're at. What are the strengths and weaknesses of your organization? What does your organization offer new members or the community at large? What is the club's purpose? What do people currently think of your organization? You could be making many assumptions about the status of your organization. Recent reports in trade journals indicate the graphic arts industry has some major image problems. Perhaps your local community including prospective graphic arts students, have some misconceptions about the industry and your organization. Find out what the community thinks of your local litho club. Ask people outside your organization, formally or informally, what they know about the graphic arts industry and your club. A brief questionnaire will help you ask consistently organized questions and assure reliable responses. That will give you a new perspective in analyzing your situation and determining your future course of action. 2. Establish Objectives Once you know where you're at, you can then determine where you want to go and how to get there. You may want your objectives to include broader, industry-wide goals such as, "Creating a positive image of the graphic arts industry to attract a greater number (you should establish a specific number) of top students (define what a "top student" is) to graphic arts careers." When establishing objectives, remember they should be: Improvement oriented Clearly defined Measurable Attainable Tied to specific expectations 3. Identify Your Audience First consider a broad audience to include those who affect your organization and those who are affected by your organization. You may cite groups like printing and publishing professionals, educators, students, government agencies, suppliers, clients and others. The next step is to divide these larger groups into smaller, reachable target audiences and prioritize then so your communications effort is directed toward the most important among them. In this way you can direct your primary effort toward those groups on which you wish to have the greatest impact. 4. Shape Your Message Once you've learned what your audiences think of your organization, you can then begin to mold your desired image. You can use communications opportunities to shape your image. If you want the public to see your organization as progressive, professional or community-minded, look for opportunities to display those qualities. Then be sure your target audiences are made aware of what you've accomplished. Of course, it's important that you paint a true picture of your organization -- not a fabricated image. But unless the public is made aware of your progressiveness, professionalism and community-mindedness through your communications effort -you may never achieve your desired image. Keep in mind that all club events or activities may not receive news media coverage, but this does not mean that those events cannot be important public relations opportunities. 5. Tools for Reaching Your Audience

Local and trade news media can be important vehicles for reaching your target audiences. There are several important sources that can be used in developing a mailing list for your club. These include: Local publicity distribution services Media list services Bacon's Publicity Checker Standard Directory Laramie's Television Contacts Laramie's Radio Contacts Broadcasting/Cablecasting Yearbook Editor and Publisher Yearbook Local libraries/Chambers of Commerce Select a resource that best suits your needs, then develop and maintain a mailing list so you won't need to reinvent one with each publicity mailing. A mailing list should include the following: Name of publication/station Editor's/Reporter's name Address Phone Number Any other pertinent information, such as deadlines, circulation figures, etc. Chapter 2. Public Relations Implementation Publicity and Promotion Planned activities can be the source of considerable attention by the news media Your community, professionals in the graphic arts industry and others may be very interested in your activities. Promotion of those activities can generate a considerable amount of publicity that will benefit your club and the entire industry. The following are just a few examples of what can be done to enhance your communication effort: Participate in local community events. Try to participate in a unique and interesting fashion. Often local parades, events or shows need participants who can add color or interest to these events. Be creative. Seek opportunities to address pertinent associations , schools or other community organizations. Before addressing any such group, release a news story announcing the event and your club's participation, if the host organization is not doing so. Send an advance copy of the talk to appropriate editors and/or radio and television broadcasters. Publication deadlines will vary, so be sure to give advance notice appropriate to each publication's specific requirements. Radio and television also need as much advance notice as you can give them, even if they typically deal with fast breaking news. Participate in college and high school career days by setting up an exhibit or a booth. Announce such an event in a news story well in advance and don't forget to issue personal invitations to graphic arts instructors, students and appropriate editors. Don't overlook newsworthy events which may be a regular part of your club's activities, such as: News About People: * Appointment of new officers * Retirements * Participation in community activities * Club-sponsored scholarship recipients * Award winners, such as "Member of the Year' News About Club Activities * Special events/meetings * Scholarship sponsorship/availability * Education support, donations, presentations * Annual National Convention * Social events Editors and Newscasters have hundreds of news items competing for their attention and limited time and space to fill. Nevertheless, a legitimate local or industry news story can catch their attention. The following guidelines, along with the sample news release section in this manual, will help you in your efforts. Developing a PR Plan For most businesses, the new year is a time for assessment, goal setting and strategic planning. When it comes to PR, this is the time to set objectives and formulate a clear, defined plan that'll help your business achieve optimum results in the media. When planning your PR activities for the year, as a general rule, consider the full year ahead, plan for six months, and expect to revise after three months. Like most business activities, PR requires flexibility and a recognition that things will change over time. However, there are a number of factors that'll make a measurable difference to your company's success if you take them into account at this early stage.

Assess & Plan First, review the past year in terms of PR activity. If your business received media attention last year, review the resulting coverage with an analytical eye. Determine the angles and pitches that worked well and resulted in positive coverage. Take note of which journalists reported in your favor and which didn't. Look at the overall amount of positive, negative or neutral coverage you received. If you subscribed to a media measurement service, assess the results of your campaigns and, if possible, compare your progress against your competitors. Next, consider your overall business objectives, and use these as a basis for developing your key media messages. Make sure that what you say and how you say it reflects what you're trying to achieve. Your messages will form the backbone of your communication activity for the year. Finally, develop a plan of attack. Review your business plan through the eyes of a journalist--what would be of interest to your customers or investors? Identify potential media opportunities that could occur during the year, such as product launches, expansion activities and new service offerings, and develop a calendar that lists the events. If you can, try to organize major news events to create the most buzz. For instance, if your company is introducing a new line of beach apparel, time the launch in the spring to coincide with warming temperatures. Always remember to put your goals and objectives in writing so you can refer back to them throughout the year and evaluate your success. Tools & Tactics Once you've sketched out your plans for the year, it's time to consider the activities that'll enable you to achieve your objectives. Establish a news release calendar to plan out the news releases you intend to issue throughout the year. You may need to revise this calendar as you move through the year, but it'll give you some initial structure to adhere to and help you stay focused on generating news. Media outreach in the form of pitching reporters and placing articles is still the essence of PR, and the foundation for any PR program is a solid media list. Before engaging in any PR activities, take the time to carefully research and build a database of key reporters. Your list should contain the contact details of the publications and journalists that pertain to your industry and be organized according to how valuable each is in terms of reaching your target audience. Once you've created a list, schedule time on your calendar for media outreach. Contact each reporter individually to introduce yourself and to arrange informal meetings where you can discuss the outlook for your company and industry. Publications' editorial calendars offer an excellent vehicle for planning media exposure. Researching them will enable you to identify opportunities to offer yourself as an expert source, contribute an article or even suggest a feature on your company. Once you've set your list of targets, begin contacting them as soon as possible. Most editorial outlets have deadlines several months ahead of their publication dates. Pay careful attention to the closing dates, or you'll risk losing out on the opportunity. For more on editorial calendars, see " Generating Coverage Between Press Releases." Contributed or "bylined" articles can be an excellent way to generate exposure and establish yourself as an industry expert. Research magazines, newspapers and websites to find those outlets that are open to such articles, then contact the editor to propose a topic. Remember to make sure the focus of the media outlet is in sync with your business objectives and the article contains your key messages. Case studies are very attractive to the media because they offer a tangible, real-world example of the benefits of your product or service. The challenge with developing case studies is they require active customer participation. So talk to your clients and ask them if you can report on their successes. While this'll require your customers to share their "war stories," it offers them--and you--a chance to shine. Speaking opportunities offer another avenue for generating exposure. When planning your PR activities for the year, research conferences, trade shows and webinars for opportunities to nominate yourself as a keynote speaker or a member of a panel discussion. The value in securing such engagements can be tremendous, especially for a growing business; however, they also require vigilant planning because most speaking opportunities are finalized several months in advance. Blogs and social media have grown in popularity as communications tools because they offer a way to have an active discussion with a motivated audience. When considering PR tactics, don't forget to research the blogs that relate to your industry and get to know the styles and personalities of their authors. Technorati , the leading blog search engine, is a great place to start. A presence in the blogosphere can add to your company's perception as a thought leader. But remember, all material published on a blog is open to a wide audience and can initiate a line of discussion that may not always jive with your point of view.

If you want to launch your own blog, there are free tools, such as Bloggerand Blog.com , that enable you to do this easily. When it's all set up, make sure it gets listed on Technorati. The internet also contains a number of social media networks such asdel.icio.us and Digg . These networks are used to store and share content and information--like articles--among members. Additionally, if you have video content that you'd like to share with a consumer audience, you should familiarize yourself with video sharing sites such as YouTube andMetacafe .

Crisis planning is also an essential part of your business's PR plan. This should include all possible negative scenarios and the appropriate responses to them. Ensure that other members of your business are aware of crisis procedures, and take time to do a test run to help iron out any inconsistencies or holes in your plan. Planning your PR strategy now will not only help generate new ideas and opportunities for you and your business to shine, it'll give you peace of mind in your day-to-day operations. While PR plans are always subject to change, planning ahead will enable you to stick to your overall goals and maintain your focus.

1.1 What is Public Relations?

Public relations is the practice of getting attention and shaping public opinion. Its tools include publicity, advertising, public affairs forums, lobbying public officials, and any and every other means that gets a message out to the public. Mostly however it is about placing stories in the media, getting newspapers, radio and television to accept stories or messages sourced from PR agencies. This gives the illusion that the client's message is simply the product of impartial journalism rather than advertising with which the consumer is more familiar and resistant. Sir Tim Bell, of Bell Pottinger, comments, "A strong story placed in the newspaper, picked up by everybody else, will actually have more impact than an advertising campaign." Public relations uses many of the tools of marketing and may be used to promote a particular product but often it is employed in pursuit of a slightly different goal. Marketing (including advertising and promotion) is about selling products and services whereas PR is often concerned with selling persons, government policies, corporations, and other institutions. In addition to marketing products, PR has been variously used to attract investments, influence legislation, raise companies' public profiles, put a positive spin on disasters, undermine citizens campaigns, gain public support for conducting warfare, and to change the public perception of repressive regimes. In a modern democracy the mechanisms of propaganda and control must necessarily be far more subtle than those employed by more repressive regimes and PR or spin-doctoring has become ubiquitous in the western political economy. By necessity the industry keeps a very low profile, however. Although the public consumes a huge amount of their work, companies such as Burson-Marsteller or Bell Pottinger are far from household names. Michie quotes a top British spin doctor as saying "'PR is very much an invisible art and it doesn't serve our purposes to reveal how much we manipulate journalists and the public'" 1.2 Economic Importance From its birth in the early part of the 20th Century public relations has grown in to a multi-billion dollar industry that has become an integral part of modern business and political life. In recent years the PR industry has been pulling in record revenues. In 2001 the PR industry recorded global revenues of $4.3bn, with revenues of $2.9 billion in the US, down 7% from 2000. That's 2.7% down from 2000, due to the economic downturn immediately after the Sept 11th attacks but still 19.5% higher than in 1999. From 1990 to 2000 worldwide PR revenues increased by a massive 250%. In Britain, memers of the Public Relations Consultants Association saw incomes rise from 18m in 1983 to 401m in 2001. In a report commissioned by the Council of PR Firms, Economist Jaime de Pinies noted, "despite the budget cuts, it appears that public relations as a discipline is increasingly valued by the firms in this survey." By contrast advertising revenues have declined in the past decade. According to David Michie, ex-PR and author of 'The Invisible Persuaders: How Britain's Spin Doctors Manipulate the Media', it was the cheapness of PR compared to advertising that gave it a competitive edge. "During the recession of the early nineties most British companies faced the unhappy prospect of having to slash their marketing budgets, and in many cases it was the large and over-ripe advertising budgets which proved the easiest to prune marketing directors turned more of their attention to other aspects of the marketing mix - and were pleased to discover the impact of a well-directed PR campaign. With the return of more clement trading conditions, PR held on to its increased market share of many corporate marketing budgets, spurring a massive boom in the industry." 1.3 Origins of PR Public relations began to emerge as an identifiable industry in America in the early part of the 20th Century. From the mid-1800s onward there had been a rapid consolidation of wealth and power into the hands of big business resulting in systematic abuses of that power on their part. By the turn of the century trade unions began to emerge in order to protect workers. In time public opinion became highly sceptical of the new corporations and there were calls for stringent new regulations on corporate power. In this hostile climate of public opinion big business found itself in need of friendly propagandists. Stuart Ewen, author of "PR: A Social History of Spin", puts it thus:

"corporate PR starts as a response to the threat of democracy and the need to create some kind of ideological link between the interests of big business and the interests of ordinary Americans." The practice of PR was pioneered and shaped by men such as Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays. Lee was a journalist who moved into handling press relations for Standard Oil and railroad companies. Up until then companies faced with a crisis, such as a railway accident, had tended to do their best to cover up accidents and problems, engendering an oppositional attitude and hostility from the press. Lee innovated by allowing journalists supervised access to accident scenes, defusing press hostility and in the process exercising some influence over coverage. Even in the early years however, PR practitioners were not above lying to promote their clients' interests. Ivy Lee famously handled public relations for the Rockefeller family after the Ludlow massacre of 1914, when 14 striking miners were shot dead by the National Guard who were working on behalf of John D. Rockefeller, the owner of the mine. The event provoked a national scandal. In spinning the Rockefeller line, Lee printed numerous falsehoods about striking miners, claiming that they had started fires and deliberately provoked the National Guard. According to Stuart Ewen, Lee quickly gained a reputation as a professional liar. In the 1930s Lee accepted work for the German Dye Trust to improve relations between Nazi Germany and America. He died with the accusation of being a Nazi sympathiser hanging over him. Edward Bernays (quoted above) was another of the early PR men. He learnt his trade working at the Committee for Public Information, or the Creel Commission, Woodrow Wilson's pro-war propaganda outfit that coaxed the American public into supporting US involvement in World War One. After the war, Bernays opened his New York office in 1919 and worked for companies including Procter & Gamble, CBS, General Electric and Dodge Motors. Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, attempted to apply theories of social psychology to his work in mass communication. By contrast with Lee who claimed to be very open, Bernays was quite candid about the secretive and manipulative nature of his work (see opening quotations), and was expert in the use of third party advocacy. Working for the manufacturers of Chesterfield cigarettes, he famously boosted sales of tobacco to women by persuading 1930s feminists to adopt smoking as a symbol of emancipation. But it wasn't until after World War Two that the PR industry really began to take off. Larger companies began to emerge from an industry dominated by individual consultants. Companies such as Hill & Knowlton and Burson-Marsteller crossed the Atlantic in the 1950s becoming the first PR transnationals and quickly assembled global networks of offices. For the first time it became possible to coordinate corporate propaganda in both the US and Europe. [see Hill and Knowlton and Burson-Marsteller profiles] In the sixties Hill and Knowlton again innovated by offering lobbying as a service to its clients. Within a few years its Washington DC office had multiplied its revenues many times and H&K began a string of acquisitions of other Washington lobbying companies. Now all of the major PR companies have a 'public affairs' or 'government relations' practice. In recent decades the PR and advertising industries have begun to consolidate. A small number of large conglomerates, such as WPP Group and Omnicom (see section 2.3 below), have been buying up the largest players and offering integrated corporate communications services. Only one of the top ten PR companies, Edelman PR Worldwide is still independent.

An advertising strategy is a campaign developed to communicate ideas about products and services to
potential consumers in the hopes of convincing them to buy those products and services. This strategy, when built in a rational and intelligent manner, will reflect other business considerations (overall budget, brand recognition efforts) and objectives (public image enhancement, market share growth) as well. As Portable MBA in Marketing authors Alexander Hiam and Charles D. Schewe stated, a business's advertising strategy "determines the character of the company's public face." Even though a small business has limited capital and is unable to devote as much money to advertising as a large corporation, it can still develop a highly effective advertising campaign. The key is creative and flexible planning, based on an indepth knowledge of the target consumer and the avenues that can be utilized to reach that consumer. Today, most advertising strategies focus on achieving three general goals, as the Small Business Administration indicated in Advertising Your Business: 1) promote awareness of a business and its product or services; 2) stimulate sales directly and "attract competitors' customers"; and 3) establish or modify a business' image. In other words, advertising seeks to inform, persuade, and remind the consumer. With these aims in mind, most businesses follow a general process which ties advertising into the other promotional efforts and overall marketing objectives of the business.

STAGES OF ADVERTISING STRATEGY As a business begins, one of the major goals of advertising must be to generate awareness of the business and its products. Once the business' reputation is established and its products are positioned within the market, the amount of resources used for advertising will decrease as the consumer develops a kind of loyalty to the product. Ideally, this established and ever-growing consumer base will eventually aid the company in its efforts to carry their advertising message out into the market, both through its purchasing actions and its testimonials on behalf of the product or service. Essential to this rather abstract process is the development of a "positioning statement," as defined by Gerald E. Hills in "Marketing Option and Marketing" in The Portable MBA in Entrepreneurship: "A 'positioning statement' explains how a

company's product (or service) is differentiated from those of key competitors." With this statement, the business owner turns intellectual objectives into concrete plans. In addition, this statement acts as the foundation for the development of a selling proposal, which is composed of the elements that will make up the advertising message's "copy platform." This platform delineates the images, copy, and art work that the business owner believes will sell the product. With these concrete objectives, the following elements of the advertising strategy need to be considered: target audience, product concept, communication media, and advertising message. These elements are at the core of an advertising strategy, and are often referred to as the "creative mix." Again, what most advertisers stress from the beginning is clear planning and flexibility. And key to these aims is creativity, and the ability to adapt to new market trends. A rigid advertising strategy often leads to a loss of market share. Therefore, the core elements of the advertising strategy need to mix in a way that allows the message to envelope the target consumer, providing ample opportunity for this consumer to become acquainted with the advertising message. TARGET CONSUMER The target consumer is a complex combination of persons. It includes the person who ultimately buys the product, as well as those who decide what product will be bought (but don't physically buy it), and those who influence product purchases, such as children, spouse, and friends. In order to identify the target consumer, and the forces acting upon any purchasing decision, it is important to define three general criteria in relation to that consumer, as discussed by the Small Business Administration: 1. 2. Demographics Age, gender, job, income, ethnicity, and hobbies. Behaviors When considering the consumers' behavior an advertiser needs to examine the consumers' awareness of the business and its competition, the type of vendors and services the consumer currently uses, and the types of appeals that are likely to convince the consumer to give the advertiser's product or service a chance. 3. Needs and Desires Here an advertiser must determine the consumer needs both in practical terms and in terms of selfimage, etc. and the kind of pitch/message that will convince the consumer that the advertiser's services or products can

fulfill those needs. PRODUCT CONCEPT The product concept grows out of the guidelines established in the "positioning statement." How the product is positioned within the market will dictate the kind of values the product represents, and thus how the target consumer will receive that product. Therefore, it is important to remember that no product is just itself, but, as Courtland L. Bovee and William F. Arens stated in Contemporary Advertising, a "bundle of values" that the consumer needs to be able to identify with. Whether couched in presentations that emphasize sex, humor, romance, science, masculinity, or femininity, the consumer must be able to believe in the product's representation. COMMUNICATION MEDIA The communication media is the means by which the advertising message is transmitted to the consumer. In addition to marketing objectives and budgetary restraints, the characteristics of the target consumer need to be considered as an advertiser decides what media to use. The types of media categories from which advertisers can choose include the following:

y y y y y y

Print Primarily newspapers (both weekly and daily) and magazines. Audio Video FM and AM radio. Promotional videos, infomercials.

World Wide Web. Direct mail. Outdoor advertising Billboards, advertisements on public transportation (cabs, buses).

After deciding on the medium that is 1) financially in reach, and 2) most likely to reach the target audience, an advertiser needs to schedule the broadcasting of that advertising. The media schedule, as defined by Hills, is "the combination of specific times (for example, by day, week, month) when advertisements are inserted into media vehicles and delivered to target audiences." ADVERTISING MESSAGE An advertising message is guided by the "advertising or copy platform," which is a combination of the marketing objectives, copy, art, and production values. This combination is best realized after the target consumer has been

analyzed, the product concept has been established, and the media and vehicles have been chosen. At this point, the advertising message can be directed at a very concrete audience to achieve very specific goals. Hiam and Schewe listed three major areas that an advertiser should consider when endeavoring to develop an effective "advertising platform":

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What are the product's unique features? How do consumers evaluate the product? What is likely to persuade them to purchase the product? How do competitors rank in the eyes of the consumer? Are there any weaknesses in their positions? What are their strengths?

Most business consultants recommend employing an advertising agency to create the art work and write the copy. However, many small businesses don't have the up-front capital to hire such an agency, and therefore need to create their own advertising pieces. When doing this a business owner needs to follow a few important guidelines. COPY When composing advertising copy it is crucial to remember that the primary aim is to communicate information about the business and its products and services. The "selling proposal" can act as a blueprint here, ensuring that the advertising fits the overall marketing objectives. Many companies utilize a theme or a slogan as the centerpiece of such efforts, emphasizing major attributes of the business's products or services in the process. But as Hiam and Schewe caution, while "something must be used to animate the theme advertising." When writing the copy, direct language (saying exactly what you mean in a positive, rather than negative manner) has been shown to be the most effective. The theory here is that the less the audience has to interpret, or unravel the message, the easier the message will be to read, understand, and act upon. As Jerry Fisher observed in Entrepreneur, "Two-syllable phrases like 'free book,' 'fast help,' and 'lose weight' are the kind of advertising messages that don't need to be read to be effective. By that I mean they are so easy for the brain to interpret as a whole thought that they're 'read' in an eye blink rather than as linear verbiage. So for an advertiser trying to get attention in a world awash in advertising images, it makes sense to try this messagein-an-eye-blink route to the public consciousness be it for a sales slogan or even a product name." The copy content needs to be clearly written, following conventional grammatical guidelines. Of course, effective headings allow the reader to get a sense of the advertisement's central theme without having to read much of the copy. An advertisement that has "50% Off" in bold black letters is not just easy to read, but it is also easy to understand. ART WORK AND LAYOUT Small business owners also need to consider the visual rhetoric of the advertisement, which simply means that the entire advertisement, including blank space, should have meaning and logic. Most industry experts recommend that advertisers use short paragraphs, lists, and catchy illustrations and graphics to break up and supplement the text and make the document both visually inviting and easy to understand. Remember, an advertisement has to capture the reader's attention quickly. ADVERTISING BUDGET The advertising budget can be written before or after a business owner has developed the advertising strategy. When to make a budget decision depends on the importance of advertising and the resources available to the business. If, for instance, a business knows that they only have a certain amount of money for advertising then the budget will tend to dictate what advertising is developed and what the overall marketing objectives will be. On the other hand, if a business has the resources available, the advertising strategy can be developed to meet predetermined marketing objectives. For small businesses, it is usually best to put together an advertising budget early in the advertising process. The following approaches are the most common methods of developing an effective budget. All the methods listed are progressive ones that look to perpetuate growth: care must be taken not to lose the underlying message in the pursuit of memorable

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Percentage of future or past sales Competitive approach Market share All available funds

The task or objective approach and thus the one that is most often used is the percentage of future or past sales method. Most

The easiest approach

industry experts recommend basing spending on anticipated sales, in order to ensure growth. But for a small business, where survival may be a bigger concern than growth, basing the advertising budget on past sales is often a more sensible approach to take. METHODS OF ADVERTISING Small business owners can choose from two opposite philosophies when preparing their advertising strategy. The first of these, sometimes called the push method, is a stance wherein an advertiser targets retail establishments in order to establish or broaden a market presence. The second option, sometimes called the pull method, targets end-users (consumers), who are expected to ask retailers for the product and thus help "pull" it through the channel of distribution. Of course, many businesses employ some hybrid of the two when putting together their advertising strategy. PUSH METHOD The aim of the push method is to convince retailers, salespersons, or dealers to carry and promote the advertiser's product. This relationship is achieved by offering inducements, such as providing advertising kits to help the retailer sell the product, offering incentives to carry stock, and developing trade promotions. PULL METHOD The aim of the pull method is to convince the target consumer to try, purchase, and ultimately repurchase the product. This process is achieved by directly appealing to the target consumer with coupons, in-store displays, and sweepstakes. ANALYZING ADVERTISING RESULTS Many small businesses are distressingly lax in taking steps to monitor whether their advertising efforts are having the desired effect. Instead, they simply throw a campaign out there and hope for the best, relying on a general sense of company health when determining whether to continue, terminate, or make adjustments to advertising campaigns. These small business owners do not seem to recognize that myriad factors can influence a business's fortunes (regional economic straits, arrival of new competition, seasonal buying fluctuations, etc.). The small business owner who does not bother to adequately analyze his or her advertising efforts runs the danger of throwing away a perfectly good advertising strategy (or retaining a dreadful one) if he or she is unable to determine whether business upturns or downturns are due to advertising or some other factor. The only way to know with any accuracy how your advertising strategy is working is to ask the consumer, the opinions of whom can be gathered in several ways. Although many of the tracking alternatives are quite specialized, requiring either a large budget or extensive advertising research expertise, even small businesses can take steps to measure the effectiveness of their advertising strategies. The direct response survey is one of the most accurate means of measuring the effectiveness of a company's advertising for the simple reason that it measures actual responses to a business's advertisements. Other inexpensive options, such as use of redeemable coupons, can also prove helpful in determining the effectiveness of an advertising campaign. ADVERTISING AGENCIES The decision whether or not to use an advertising agency depends both on a company's advertising strategy and its financial resources. An agency has professionals who can organize, create, and place advertising so that it will meet established objectives better than most small businesses can do on their own, but of course the expense associated with soliciting such talent is often prohibitive for smaller companies. Still, some small- and mid-sized businesses have found that agencies can be helpful in shaping and monitoring advertising strategies. Because of their resources and expertise, agencies are useful when a business is planning a broad advertising campaign that will require a large amount of resources. An advertising agency can also help track and analyze the effectiveness of the advertising. Some criteria to consider when choosing an agency include size of the agency, size of their clients (small companies should avoid allying themselves with agencies with a large stable of big corporate clients so that they are not treated as

afterthoughts), length of time that the principals have been with the agency, the agency's general advertising philosophy, and the primary nature of the agency's accounts (are they familiar with your industry and the challenges involved in differentiating your company's products or services from others in that industry?). ADVERTISING LAWS The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) protects consumers from deceptive or misleading advertising. Small business owners should be familiar with the following laws, which pertain to marketing and advertising and are enforced by the Commission:

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Consumer Product Safety Act

Outlines required safety guidelines and prohibits the sale of harmful products. Prohibits the sale of toys known to be dangerous.

Child Protection and Toy Safety Act Fair Packaging and Labeling Act Antitrust Laws

Requires that all packaged products contain a label disclosing all ingredients.

Protects trade and commerce from unlawful restraints, price deception, price fixing, and monopolies.

Many complaints against advertisers center on allegedly deceptive advertisements, so small business consultants urge entrepreneurs and business owners to heed the following general rules of thumb: 1. Avoid writing ads that make false claims or exaggerate the availability of the product or the savings the consumer will enjoy. 2. Avoid running out of advertised sale items. If this does happen, businesses should consider offering "rain-checks" so that the consumer can purchase the item later at the same reduced price. 3. Avoid calling a product "free" if it has cost closely associated with it. If there are costs associated with the free item they need to be clearly disclosed in the ad. Since advertising is a complex process, and business law undergoes continual change, business owners should consult an attorney before distributing any advertising.