Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis

Highways: Influence is economic, social and political Have been studied as a cultural, political and economic phenomenon. Highway trends: Emphasis shifting from the construction of the mid-20th century (e.g., US Interstate system, the greatest Civil Engineering project of all time) Current focus: Infrastructure maintenance and rehabilitation, Improvements in operational efficiency, Various traffic-congestion relief measures, Energy conservation, Improved safety and Environmental mitigation. 1.2 Highways and the Economy 15% of household income spent on vehicles 16 million new vehicles sold in the US annually Vehicle industry $400 billion in vehicle sales 5 million jobs related to vehicle production and maintenance Over $200 billion spent annually on construction and maintenance of highways Highways critical to industrial and retail supply chains (just-in-time inventory, etc.) Highways strongly influence economic development 1.3 Highways Energy and the Environment In US, highways responsible for 60% of petroleum consumption (12 million barrels of oil per day) Highways responsible for 25% of US greenhouse emissions 35 percent of all nitrous oxide emissions (NOx) 25 percent of volatile organic compound emissions (VOC) More than 50 percent of all carbon monoxide (CO) emissions Major source of fine particulate matter (2.5 microns or smaller, PM2.5), which is a known carcinogen.

1.4 Highways and the Transportation System For passenger travel, highways account for about 90 percent of all passenger-miles (passenger-kilometers) Trucks account for about 37 percent of the freight ton-miles (metric ton-kilometers) and nearly 80 percent of the value of all transported goods 1.5 Elements of Highway Transportation 1.5.1 Passenger Transportation Modes and Traffic Congestion In the last 50 years, the percentage of trips taken in private vehicles has risen from slightly less than 70 percent to over 90 percent (public transit and other modes make up the balance) Over this same period, the average private-vehicle occupancy has dropped from 1.22 to 1.09 persons per vehicle Result: Massive traffic congestion that is difficult to manage 1.5.2 Highway Safety Highway safety involves technical and behavioral components and the complexities of the human/machine interface. Safety improvements: Highway design (such as more stringent design guidelines, breakaway signs, an so on), Vehicle occupant protection (safety belts, padded dashboards, collapsible steering columns, driver- and passenger-side airbags, improved bumper design), Vehicle technologies (anti-lock braking, traction control systems, electronic stability control) and New accident countermeasures (campaigns to reduce drunk driving) Still 40,000 people die in US on highways

1.6

Highways and Evolving Technologies 1.6.1 Infrastructure Technologies New technologies to assist in construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation New sensing technologies in the emerging field of structural health monitoring Extend the life-expectancy of new infrastructure with the ongoing nanotechnology advances in material science 1.6.2 Vehicle Technologies Foreign competition and changing consumer tastes have propelled technological advances: Supplemental restraint systems, Anti-lock brake systems, Traction control systems, Electronic stability control Such technologies directly influence highway design and traffic operations, and are critical considerations in providing high levels of mobility and safety. Traffic Control Technologies New advances in traffic signal timing and traffic signal coordination New traffic signal controls, numerous safety, navigational, and congestionmitigation technologies are now reaching the market under the broad heading of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Obstacles associated with ITS implementation include system reliability, human response and the human/machine interface

1.6.3

1.7

Scope of Study Highway engineering and traffic analysis involves an extremely complex interaction of economic, behavioral, social, political, environmental, and technological factors. These elements introduce a level of complexity that is unequalled by any other engineering discipline.

Chapter 2 Road Vehicle Performance

Why is vehicle performance important? Determines all highway design and traffic operations Defines how transportation engineers must react to advancing vehicle technologies The single most important factor in defining the tradeoff between mobility (speed) and safety TRACTIVE EFFORT AND RESISTANCE Tractive effort force available to perform work (engine-generated) Resistance: Aerodynamic Drag, shape of vehicle, etc. Rolling resistance Tire, roadway surface Grade (gravitational) resistance Figure 2.1 Forces acting on a road vehicle. Ra = aerodynamic resistance in lb (N), Rrlf = rolling resistance of the front tires in lb (N), Rrlr = rolling resistance of the rear tires in lb (N), Ff = available tractive effort of the front tires in lb (N), Fr = available tractive effort of the rear tires in lb (N), W = total vehicle weight in lb (N), g = angle of the grade in degrees, m = vehicle mass in slugs (kg), and a = acceleration in ft/s2 (m/s2).

With F = Ff + Fr and Rrl = Rrlf + Rrlr, sum of Forces give:

F = ma + Ra + Rrl + R g

(2.2)

AERODYNAMIC RESISTANCE Sources: Turbulence around the body (85%) Air friction (12%) Air flow through components (3%)

Basic Formula:
R = C 2 A fV
2

(2.3)

Where:

Ra = aerodynamic resistance in lb (N),

= air density in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3),
CD = coefficient of drag and is unit less, Af = frontal area of the vehicle (projected area of the (m2), and V = speed of the vehicle in ft/s (m/s). Air Density: Table 2.1 Typical Values of Air Density Under specified Atmospheric Conditions Table 2.2 Ranges of Drag Coefficients for Typical Road Vehicles Table 2.3 Drag Coefficients of Selected Automobiles Figure 2.2 Effect of operational factors on the drag coefficient of an automobile. Power required to overcome air resistance: US Customary CD Af V 3 hp Ra = 1100 (2.4) Metric PRa = C D A f V 3 2 vehicle in the direction of travel) in ft2

Where:

hp Ra = horsepower required to overcome aerodynamic resistance (1 horsepower equals 550 ft-lb/s), PRa = power required to overcome aerodynamic resistance in Nm/s (watts), and Other terms as defined previously.

What would you guess the drag coefficient of a 1969 MGC? 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 What would you guess the drag coefficient of a 2005 Mercedes Maclaren SLR (617hp)? 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.32 0.37
2005 Mercedes Maclaren SLR T = 11.60 sec from standing start 127.2 mph, 1/4 mile flashes past in third gear. T = 12.51 sec from standing start 130 mph. Of 464 hp making it to the road, over 110 are devoted to air resistance. Driver brakes, rear wing rises to 65 degree angle, drag coefficient increases to 0.43, generating 15 hp worth of aero drag and 167 lb of down force, distributed 49/51% front/rear. Concepts in Road Vehicle Performance

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

Accelerating from 0-60 mph in 5 seconds is considered fast for a car. Accelerating from 0-60 mph in 5 seconds is considered fast for a motorcycle. Anti-lock brakes prevent accidents. Vehicle weight is the major factor in determining top speed on a level surface. Vehicles can accelerate at more than 1g (9.807 m/s2). Weight distribution of a vehicle is critical for stopping distance. Four-wheel-drive vehicles stop quicker on ice than 2-wheel drive vehicles. Front-wheel drive vehicles have better traction than rear wheel drive vehicles. The amount of power needed to overcome air resistance at 60 mph is more than twice the power needed at 30 mph. 10) The amount of power needed to overcome rolling resistance at 60 mph is more than twice the power needed at 30 mph.

ROLLING RESISTANCE Sources: Tire deformation (90%) Pavement penetration (4%) Friction, other sources (6%)

Factors influencing sources: Tire inflation, temperature, speed Coefficient of rolling resistance:
US Customary V f rl = 0.011 + 147 Metric V f rl = 0.011 + 44.73

(2.5)

Where: frl = coefficient of rolling resistance and is unitless, and V = vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s). Rolling resistance, in lb (N), is coefficient of rolling resistance multiplied by W cos g,
with small g, cos g = 1:
Rrl = f rl W (2.6) power required to overcome rolling resistance is:

US Customary f WV hp Rrl = rl 550

Metric

PRrl = f rlWV

(2.7)

Where: hp Rrl = horsepower required to overcome rolling resistance (1 horsepower equals 550 ft-lb/s), PRrl = power required to overcome rolling resistance in Nm/s (watts), and
W = total vehicle weight in lb (N).

Problem 2.2 A vehicle manufacturer is considering an engine for a new sedan (CD = 0.30, Af = 21 ft2). The car is being designed to achieve a top speed of 100 mi/h on a paved surface at sea level ( = 0.002378 slugs/ft3). The car currently weighs 2100 lb, but the designer initially selected an underpowered engine and did not account for aerodynamic and rolling resistances. If 2 lb of additional vehicle weight is added for each unit of horsepower needed to overcome the neglected resistance, what will be the final weight of the car if it is to achieve the 100 mi/h top speed?

GRADE RESISTANCE

From in Fig. 2.1, the resistance (Rg) is

R g = W sin g (2.8)
With small highway grades sin g tan g . So,

Rg W tan g = WG (2.9)
Where: G = grade defined as the vertical rise per some specified horizontal distance in ft/ft (m/m).
AVAILABLE TRACTIVE EFFORT Force available to overcome resistance will be governed by engine or tire/pavement interface: Maximum Tractive Effort Tire/pavement interface

Figure 2.3 Vehicle forces and moment-generating distances. Ff = available tractive effort of the front tires in lb (N), Fr = available tractive effort of the rear tires in lb (N), W = total vehicle weight in lb (N), Wf = weight of the vehicle on the front axle in lb (N), Wr = weight of the vehicle on the rear axle in lb (N), g = angle of the grade in degrees,

m = vehicle mass in slugs (kg), a = rate of acceleration in ft/s2 (m/s2), L = length of wheelbase, h = height of the center of gravity above the roadway surface, lf = distance from the front axle to the center of gravity, and lr = distance from the rear axle to the center of gravity.

Summing moments gives, for Rear wheel drive:

Fmax =

W (l f f rl h ) L

1 h L

(2.14)

Similarly, for a front-wheel-drive vehicle

Fmax = W (l r + f rl h ) L 1 + h L

(2.15)

= coefficient of road adhesion

Table 2.4 Typical Values of Coefficients of Road Adhesion

In some instances, the coefficient of road adhesion values can exceed 1.0.
Engine Generated Tractive Effort US Customary 2M e ne hp e = 550
2 M e ne Pe = 1000

Metric (2.16)

Where: hp e = engine-generated horsepower (1 horsepower equals 550 ft-lb/s), Pe = engine-generated power in kW,
Me = engine torque in ft-lb (Nm), and ne = engine speed in revolutions per second (the speed of the crankshaft).

Figure 2.4 Typical torque-power curves for a gasoline-powered automobile engine.

Figure 2.5 Tractive effort requirements and tractive effort generated by a typical gasolinepowered vehicle.

Engine-generated tractive effort reaching the driving wheels (Fe) is given as

Fe = M e 0 d (2.17) r

Where: Fe = engine-generated tractive effort reaching the driving wheels in lb (N), r = radius of the drive wheels in ft (m), Me = engine torque in ft-lb (Nm), 0 = overall gear reduction ratio, and d = mechanical efficiency of the driveline (0.75 to 0.95).

Relationship between vehicle speed and engine speed is

V= 2rne (1 - i ) (2.18) 0

Where: V = vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s), ne = crankshaft revolutions per second, i = slippage of the driveline, generally taken as 2 to 5% (i = 0.02 to 0.05) for passenger cars, and Other terms as defined previously. VEHICLE ACCELERATION

Basic equation
F R = m ma (2.19)

where the mass factor (rotational inertia) is approximated as

2 m = 1.04 + 0.0025 0 (2.20)

the force available to accelerate is Fnet = F R.

Figure 2.6 Relationship among the forces available to accelerate, available tractive effort, and total vehicle resistance.

Problem 2.6. A rear-wheel-drive car weighs 2700 lb, has 14-inch radius wheels, a driveline efficiency of 95% and an engine that develops 540 ft-lb of torque. Its wheelbase is 8.2 ft and the center of gravity is 18 inches above the road surface and 3.3 ft behind the front axle. What is the lowest gear reduction ratio that would allow this car to achieve the highest possible acceleration from rest on good, dry pavement? FUEL EFFICIENCY Factors affecting fuel efficiency Engine design Driveline slippage Driveline efficiency Aerodynamics Frontal area Weight Tire design PRINCIPLES OF BRAKING

Figure 2.7 Forces acting on a vehicle during braking with driveline resistance ignored. Braking Forces

Maximum braking (coefficient of road adhesion, ),

Fbf max = W f =
and
(2.28) W [lr+ h( + frl )] L

Fbr max = Wr =
(2.29) W l f h( + frl ) L

Maximum braking forces developed when tires are at the point of an impending slide.
Table 2.4 Typical Values of Coefficients of Road Adhesion

In some instances, the coefficient of road adhesion values can exceed 1.0.

Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency

Front/rear proportioning of braking forces optimal when deceleration rate equal to g). Occurs when brake force ratio is Fbf max/Fbr max or
BFR f/r max = l r + h( + f rl ) (2.30) l f h( + f rl )

Problem:

lr and lf change depending on deceleration rate.

Percentage of braking force that the braking system should allocate to the front axle (PBFf) and ear axle (PBFr) for maximum braking is
PBF f = 100

100 (2.31) 1+ BFR f/r max

and
PBFr = 100 (2.32) 1+ BFR f/r max

Braking Efficiency
Figure 2.8 Effect of brake force proportioning on the braking performance of a light truck and a passenger car.

b =

g max (2.33)

Where:
b = braking efficiency, = coefficient of road adhesion, and g max = maximum deceleration in g-units (with the absolute maximum = ).

Anti-Lock Braking Systems ABS can get close to 100% efficiency and avoid wheels locking

EBD Electronic brake distribution Performance example:

NISSAN 350Z 0-60 acceleration: 5.5 seconds 0-100 acceleration: 14.0 seconds Peak braking g's: 1.12 Theoretical Stopping Distance

With b = mass factor accounting for moments of inertia during braking (1.04 for automobiles) from physics stopping distance is:
S = b m
V1 V2

VdV Fb + R

(2.35)

With resistances:
S = b m
V2

VdV (2.36) F + Ra + f rlW W sin g V1 b

With:
Ka = C D A f , m = W/g, Fb = W 2

and, frl, constant and approximated by using the average of initial (V1) and final (V2) speeds (V = (V1 + V2)/2):
S=
2 bW W + K aV1 + f rlW W sin g ln (2.39) 2 gK a W + K aV22 + f rlW W sin g

If the vehicle is assumed to stop (V2 = 0) and including braking efficiency, S= bW K aV12 ln 1 + (2.42) 2 gK a W + f rlW W sin g

If aerodynamic resistance is ignored (due to its comparatively small contribution to braking),

S=

b V12 V22 (2.43) 2 g (b + f rl sin g )

Problem 2.21

A small truck is to be driven down a 4% grade at 75 mi/h. The coefficient of road adhesion is 0.95 and it is known that the braking efficiency is 80% when the truck is empty and it decreases by one percentage point for every 100 lb of cargo added. Ignoring aerodynamic resistance, if the driver wants the truck to be able to achieve a minimum theoretical stopping distance of 300 ft from the point of brake application, what is the maximum amount of cargo (in pounds) that can be carried?
Car Braking from 60mph From 80mph

Corvette Z06 109ft Viper 113ft Honda Civic SI 133ft Mercedes SLR 107ft Pontiac Solstice 114ft Zamboni far Zamboni does mile in 93.5s with a terminal speed of 9.7mph

197ft 196ft 228ft 186ft 206ft very far

Practical Stopping Distance

Basic physics 101 equation,

V22 = V12 + 2ad (2.44)

Where: d = deceleration distance (practical stopping distance) in ft (m), a = acceleration (negative for deceleration) in ft/s2 (m/s2), V1 = initial vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s), and V2 = final vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s). AASHTO [2001] recommends a deceleration rate of 11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2), so with grade and V2 = 0:

d=

V12 a 2g G g

(2.47)

Where: g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.807 m/s2), G = roadway grade (+ for uphill and for downhill) in percent/100, and Other terms as defined previously. Note similarity with real equation (Eq. 2.43) with: V2 = 0; sin g = tan g = G (for small grades),

b and frl ignored due to their small and essentially offsetting effects, we have
S= V12 2 g (b G )
(2.48)

b = g max (Eq. 2.33).

AASHTO maximum deceleration of 0.35 gs (11.2/32.2 or 3.4/9.807) is used for Eq. 2.47.
Distance Traveled During Driver Perception/Reaction

In providing a driver sufficient stopping distance, Must consider distance traveled during perception/reaction:

dr = V tr (2.49) 1
Where: V1 = initial vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s), and tr = time required to perceive and react to the need to stop, in sec. Conservative perception/reaction time has been determined to be 2.5 seconds [AASHTO 2001]. Average drivers have perception/reaction times of approximately 1.0 to 1.5 seconds. Total required stopping distance = theoretical or practical plus the distance traveled during perception/reaction,

d s = d r + d (2.50)

Where: ds = total stopping distance (including perception/reaction) in ft (m), d = distance traveled during braking in ft (m), and dr = distance traveled during perception/reaction in ft (m). What would you guess the perception/reaction time of an average racer? 0.10s 0.20s <correct> 0.30s<correct> 0.40s 0.50s
Problem 2.28

An engineering student claims that a country road can be safely negotiated at 70 mi/h in rainy weather. Because of the winding nature of the road, one stretch of level pavement has a sight distance of only 590 ft. Assuming practical stopping distance, comment on the students claim.