Introduction to Compressible Flows

Ben Thornber

Fluid Mechanics & Computational Science Cranfield University

b.j.r.thornber@cranfield.ac.uk G19

Compressible Flows I
1.Introduction to Compressible Flows
1.1 Examples 1.2 Practical consequences 1.3 Introduction to three main waves in compressible flows 2. One Dimensional Relations 2.1 Isentropic Relations 2.2 Nozzle Flows

Compressible Flows I

3. Shock Waves 3.1 Normal Shock 3.2 Oblique Shock 3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection

Check your notes

Should have:
Isentropic flow tables IF1-IF5 (Mach 0-10) Normal shock tables SF1-SF7 (Mach 1-4.3) Oblique shock tables OB1-OB9 (Mach 1.05-3.95)

Recommended Books
Elements of Gas Dynamics, Liepmann and Roshko, 1957 The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, 1953 Modern Compressible Flow, Anderson, 1990

Compressible Flows in Nature

Many natural flows are compressible
Majority of Astronomical Flows and MHD Acoustics Strong weather phenomena Meteorite reentry and impact Volcano eruption

Man made Compressible Flows

Principal applications are
Aircraft design Combustion High speed material deformation Rocket exhausts Ballistics

Flows Treated as Compressible

Certain flows are solved using the same form of equations as compressible flows
Flood prediction Ocean wave behaviour Traffic flow Population models Financial market models

What is a Compressible flow?

What are the differences between compressible and incompressible flows?

Early Compressible Flow Analyses

Newton recognised that sound has a speed and attempted to calculate it (1687) He assumed that the motion is isothermal wrong! Corrected by Laplace (1816) Ernst Mach (1888) took first pictures of shock waves

Features of Compressible Flows

Features of Compressible Flows

Flow Regimes

Anderson (2003)

Shock on transonic wing

Shock Waves
What are shock waves?

Why are shock waves formed?

Shock Waves

Shock Waves

Expansion Waves
What are expansion waves?

How are expansion waves formed?

Expansion Wave

Mach 2, 2D Wedge (TU Delft)

Contact Wave/Surface
What are contact waves?

How are contact waves formed?

Contact Surface

Rayleigh-Taylor (Los Alamos)

Application: Shock Tubes

Primary source of experimental data for supersonic flows

Shock Tubes

(Caltech)

Section 2 One Dimensional Relations

2.1 Isentropic Relations

2nd Law introduced entropy s
A corollary of this is that entropy is always increasing in a physical system

If there is zero heat transfer into a flow, and heat conduction is zero (Adiabatic) then
ds > 0 ds=0 irreversible reversible (isentropic)

Compressible flow as a damped spring

 Second law applies to any substance

It can be shown that for an incremental change between two states by any process that

Integrate between states 1 and 2 (using h=cp T and p/=RT) gives

Isentropic Flows and the Speed of Sound

Must be zero, giving

alternatively

 Speed of sound represents a limiting case for the passage of information in a flow Weak sound waves (e.g. speech 0.1Pa) can be assumed isentropic

 Alternative expressions

Mach number

Note that strong waves, e.g. shocks are NOT isentropic and can travel faster than sound

Some Questions
Calculate the speed of sound in air at 500K Calculate the speed of sound in Hydrogen at 298K What is the Mach number of a projectile with velocity 500m/s in air at 298K? For the Vulcain 2 nozzle, assume =1.25, chamber pressure of 10MPa and temperature 2000K. If the exit pressure is 100kPa, what is the exit density?

Steady Flows
Many practical flows are steady. Special results can be derived using streamtube analysis

 Continuity equation reduces to

Energy equation reduces to

 From the energy equation we gain

Gives the energy ellipse

Isentropic Relations
Again, using the energy equation a relationship for the pressure is gained for an isentropic flow

Can also be gained from the momentum equation Adding the isentropic relationship makes the momentum and energy equations equivalent

Isentropic Relations for Density and Temperature

If the flow is isentropic and adiabatic then

Pitot Static Tube in Subsonic Flow

 Note that if any two of adiabatic, isentropic or reversible are true then the third also applies Isentropic relations determine the reservoir conditions Conditions that are obtained if the flow is brought isentropically to rest

NOT the same as stagnation conditions

Stagnation temperature is the same for all Mach Stagnation pressures are same for M<1 but vary for supersonic Mach

Steady form of the Momentum Equations

Consider the differential form of the equations of motion

2.2 Nozzle Flow Equations

Take the momentum and mass steady flow equations

 Explains why Subsonic: converging duct accelerates flow, diverging decelerates Supersonic: converging duct decelerates flow, diverging accelerates Sonic flow appears at dA=0, i.e. at the minimum BUT with dA=0, can also have du=0

Typical Nozzle Flows

Questions
Air is accelerated isentropically from reservoir conditions of p=10MPa, =10kg/m3 up to Mach 3

Calculate the pressure and temperature

Calculate the flow velocity Calculate the ratio between the nozzle exit area and the throat area (hint either use the sheet or first compute the velocity at the throat then use continuity to gain the area ratios)

Section 4

Shock Waves

Compressible Flows I

3. Shock Waves 3.1 Normal Shock 3.2 Oblique Shock 3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection

3.1Normal Shock Wave

For altitudes less than approx. 60Km shock waves are discontinuities
Thickness on order of 10-7m a few mean free paths. Shock waves generate large viscous stresses due to the strong gradients

BUT classical analysis uses an inviscid control volume correctly models the jumps over the shock but not the internal shock structure

 Moving shock

Stationary shock frame of reference

 Conservation of Mass:

x-momentum

Eliminate (Us-u2) to give

 For a weak shock:

Assume that the motion is approximately isentropic hence

 Given a shock in a stationary framework

Reconsider the three steady state equations

 Eliminate p and u to give

There are two roots,

or

Normal Shock Relations

Using mass and momentum equations:

Normal Shock Relations

What happens when M ! 1 for a gas with =1.4?

Pressure Loss Due to Shocks

All supersonic regions are terminated by a shock
T0 is conserved, but 0 and p0 decrease Loss of stagnation pressure indicates a loss of efficiency Across a normal shock
M1 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 10.0

p02/p01

1.0

0.93

0.72

0.5

0.33

0.003

Moving Shock Relations

Can convert all relations in preceding section by setting u1=U, u2=U-u2 and Ms=U/a1=M1 e.g.

Moving Shock Relations

Mach number behind the shock

Using relations for a1/a2 and postshock Mach number M2 for a stationary shock

What happens for =1.4 and Ms ! 1 ?

Questions
A Mach 2 stream of air at 1 bar, 500K passes through a stationary shock wave. Calculate the Mach number, velocity and pressure downstream of the shock. What is the postshock speed of sound?

What pressure would be recorded by a Pitot static tube in a Mach 2 stream with T=500K and p=1 bar? What is the corresponding stagnation point temperature?

3.2 Oblique Shock Waves

Most practical flows are two dimensional
Generates shocks inclined relative to the flow angle

(q - d) u1 u2 v U1 u1

U2 v U2

U1

u2

Normal shock

Add v

Rotate system

Shock only acts on shock-normal flow component Oblique shock can be treated the same as a normal shock, but replacing

 Hence
M1

U1 u 1 1 a1 a1 sin q

or

u1 M 1 sin q a1

The oblique shock relations are now given by substituting M1 sin q for M1 in the normal shock relations

 Note that all relations require u1 to be supersonic, i.e. M1 sin q > 1

Substitution of M1 sin q for M1 and M2 sin (q-d) for M2 into the normal shock relations gives

Relationship between d and q

U2

A2
U1

A1

1 A1U1 2 A2 U 2 hence 1 u1 2 u2

Relationship between d and q

For weak shocks q=sin-1 (1/M1) If d=0 then there are two solutions q=/2 strong normal shock q=0 shock of zero strength

This relationship is usually plotted on a shock polar

Shock Polar

Sharp Wedge with Attached Shock

Sharp Wedge with Detached Shock

Sharp Wedge with Detached Shock

Strong normal shock on centreline Moving outboard, move along the strong shock branch of the polar After the sonic line the solution is now on the weak shock polar

Asymptotes to the free stream Mach angle at large distances

3.3 Prandtl-Meyer Deflection

Consider the entropy wave across a weak normal shock

For small m this expression expands to

Weak shocks are almost isentropic

 Ideally would like to turn the flow isentropically lower thermal stresses, less drag etc.

 Look at the entropy rise for a weak oblique shock as a function of the turn angle d
For weak shocks q ! giving

Also, as M1 sin q 1

 So for weak oblique shocks:

Prandtl-Meyer Deflection

1 weak shock

n weaker shocks

infinity of Mach lines

Thus a smooth isentropic compression can be achieved although the compression fan may form a shock away from the wall Expansive turn will always be isentropic

Seek allowable d as a function of Mach

From previous analysis

Hence

From adiabatic relations

Seek allowable d as a function of Mach

giving

From the definition of Mach number

Leading to

Change of flow angle in an isentropic turn is described only as a function of Mach

Prandtl-Meyer Function
Integrating over a change in angle gives the PrandtlMeyer function

Where the constant is chosen so that =0 when M=1

Prandtl-Meyer Compression

Compression fan of Mach waves

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion

Expansion fan of Mach waves

Prandtl-Meyer Function
is tabulated on the attached tables Define d as the angle the flow turns through

Given M1 (hence 1)
2 is computed by addition or subtraction M2 can then be found from the table Can then use standard isentropic relations

Prandtl-Meyer Function
A Prandtl-Meyer turn can carry the flow through large angles particularly if expanding

Prandtl-Meyer Function
In theory flow can be expanded to absolute zero Set M2=1

Hence the maximum turn a sonic flow (M1, =0) is 130.5o. The maximum turn for Mach 2 flow (M1=2, =26.5) is 104o.

Thin Plate Theory

Questions
Uniform flow M1=1.5, p1=1atm, T1=500K encounters and expansion corner which deflects the stream by an angle d=20o. Calculate M2, p2, T2, p02 and T02

Calculate dD and dN for Mach=2.2. From this state the minimum expected angle for Mach reflection

Conclusions
Compressible flows are characterised by Shocks

Contact surfaces
Expansion waves Very important to compute the Mach number of your problem Several analytical solutions exist for isentropic flows, and shocks useful for code validation