CENTREFORLANGUAGESANDLITERATURE ARAK01:BachelorThesisinArabic Spring2010

AStruggleforIndependence
AYoungWomansComingofAgeasNational AllegoryinLafaal-Zayytsal-Bbal-maft

Supervisor:LenaAmbjrn Author:SandraBuijsse

Acknowledgments

Thewritingofthisthesishas beenalongprocess,ashavemystudiesintheArabiclanguage.I want to express my deep gratitude to Henry Diab, lecturer in Arabic Studies at Lund University,fornever-endinginspirationandencouragementtocontinuewithboth.

ThenamesofpeoplewhohavecrossedmypathinCairoandinSwedenduringthewriting ofthisthesisaremany,butIspeciallywanttoacknowledgeandthank: LenaAmbjrn,mysupervisorandlecturer, -forconstructiveremarksandsupportalongtheroad TheEmbassyofSwedeninCairo -formanygainedinsightsandmemorableexperiencesduringmyinternshipinthefall2009 Mahmoudel-Rabie,professorofArabicLiterature,theAmericanUniversityinCairo(AUC), andSayyidal-Barw,professorofModernArabicLiterature,CairoUniversity, -fortheirvaluabletime,commentsandsupervision TheAUCLibrary -fortheopportunitytoaccessandcollectexclusivematerialforthisthesis Mahmoudal-Shafey -forexcellentlessonsincolloquialEgyptianArabicthatmadethereadingofal-Bbal-maft possible GailConrod-List -forhelpfulproof-reading,invaluablecomments,anddeliciousSundaydinners KarinLudvigssonandIsabelleAndersson -forlongdays,manylaughters,andbadlyneededcoffeebreaksatSOL Sharafal-Hourani - forheateddiscussions,hoursofwritingandcoffee-drinkingatTheCoffeeBeanandTeaLeaf, and,mostimportantly,forhelpingmeinmysearchfortheexclusivecopyofal-Bbal-maft SorajaNasserel-DineandHelenRodgers -forencouragementandmanyunforgettablenightswithStellasandasinDowntown

Abstract

Without question, Lafa al-Zayyt (1923-96), ranks among the most important Egyptianand Arabwriters,critics, andactivistsofthe20thcentury.Publishedin1960, her breakthrough novel al-Bb al-maft [The Open Door] chronicles the emotional, psychological, and political growth of Layla, daughter of a conservative, Egyptian middle-classfamily.The backdropofher storyisthe decadeoftumultuousnationalist political activity in Egypt (1946-56) that leads to national independence. This thesis attemptstofindthoroughsupportforthehypothesisthatLaylaandherfemalebody symbolizescontemporaryEgypt. Thisthesisshowshowonastructural levelLaylasstruggle tofreeherselffrom patriarchal traditions parallels Egypts battle for national liberation from British imperial rule. As a quasi-autobiographical novel, insights about the authors life and politicalcommitment,aswellasthehistorical(andliterary)contextinwhichal-Bbalmaftemerged,helpthereadertounderstandthenovelsunderlyingdimensions.The inseparable intertwining nature of the personal and the public imbuesthe novel, not only intermsofplotbutalso asillustrated by sideline events, specific quotations,and itsuseofdialectandborrowedwordsinthestandardArabiclanguage.Toconclude,this thesisfindsstrongevidenceforthe assumptionthatLayla canbe considereda symbol ofEgypt,andherpersonalstrugglecanthusbereadasanationalallegory.

Keywords: Egypt,feminism, modernArabicliterature, national allegory,The Open Door,Zayyat

Transliteration

Inthisthesis,longerquotationsare reproducedinArabic script.Referencestowriters, specificwordsorshorternovel passagesemploythediacriticsignsbelow,accordingto Lund University Librarys transliteration system. To improve readability, Egyptian spelling(whichdoesnotdifferentiate betweenletterssuchasyand alifmaqra)has beenchangedtostandardspelling. Forsimplificationand easeofreference, establishedspellingsofEgyptiancitiesare usedaswellasspellingsofwriternamesusedintheirsources.

b t d r z s

f q k l m n h ,w , y

TableofContents

1 Introduction

Al-Bbal-maft..?Kitb?[TheOpenDoor?Abook?] Al-Ktibamn?[Whostheauthor?] Lafaal-Zayyt? L,msamiatigaanh...[No,Ihaventheardabouther...] These weretheresponsesIcametoexpectwheneverIturnedthe conversationto The OpenDoor,EgyptianLafaal-Zayytsbreakthroughnovel.Publishedin1960,al-Bb al-maft had even been made into a well-received and widely seen movie in 1963, withthelegendarystarofEgyptiancinemaFtinammaintheleadingrole1.Amazed by theignorance about al-Zayyt and herwritingsamongthe people Iencounteredin Cairo,Ibeganmysearchfortheoriginalversionofal-Bbal-maft. Asitturnedout,thiswasnotaneasytask.Notonlytaxidrivershadnot heardabout her; to a large extent, Cairene librarians, the intelligentsia and publishers professed ignoranceaboutLafaal-Zayytandhernovel.Inearlylostallhopewhennotasingle copyofal-Bb al-maftwastobe foundat theCairoInternational BookFair,hostto allEgyptianpublishinghouses. How was it that a literary classicone of political, historical and literary significancecould be erased from peoples minds and bookshelves? This was a book whose female protagonist, like her creator, was one of the most interesting, complex and inspiring charactersI had encountered in my Arabic studies. In my search, I wasoftenansweredwithitisofnointerestanylongeranditistoo old. But aha ussayns and Nab Mafs novels had been published even earlier and were still easily found in bookstores, so ageseemedapoorexcuse.Waslackofinterest,then,the real reason orwasitsomethingdeeper? Whateverthe reason, Iwasand still amastonished about the near impossibility of finding al-Bbal-maftin its original language. Athree-weeklong desperate search turnedup what wasprobablythe last Arabic-language copy forsale in Cairo. And so thisthesiscameintobeing.

Al-Bbal-maft,producedanddirectedbyHinryBarakt(oneoftheforemostfilmdirectorsinEgypt),starring assanYsuf(asIm),MamdMursy(asDr.Ramz),liSalm(asussayn),andwakr(asamla)
1

1.1 StatementofPurpose
Lafa al-Zayytslifelong dedication to Arabic literatureas novelist, professor and literarycriticandtopoliticalactivismmadeheroneofthemostdistinguishedwomen in Egypt, and in the Arab world, before her death in 1996. Her involvement in the strugglefornationalindependenceandtherightsoftheoppressedmadeherasymbolof integrityandcommitmenttotheArabmasses. Al-Bb al-maft was a landmark of feminist and nationalist writing in Arabic; Nab Maf, 1988 recipient of the Nobel Prize of Literature, acknowledged her as oneofhisearlysourcesofinspiration.Herapproachtoissuesofpersonal freedomand sexuality in the context of social expectations and constraints of political torpor, economic travail, and classwas newand, formany, appalling. Not least asa woman writing about female experience (Booth 2002:cover, ixf). As one of the pioneering committed Arab women novelists, Lafa al-Zayyt helped pave the way for todays generationofoutspoken femaleactivistsandwriters. Asthe nationshapedher, so she helpedshapethenationanditsliterature. The linking of the personal with the public imbues and distinguishes Lafa alZayyts authorship. So this thesis hypothesizes that the protagonist Laylaand her female bodysymbolizes contemporary Egypt in al-Bb al-maft, an assertion alreadymadebyformeracademics,suchasMaraNaaman(2008)andEllenMcLarney (2009). However, to my knowledge, a thorough analysis of the close personal and national intertwinement that permeates the whole novel has not yet been published. Thus,inessence,theaimofthisthesisistoshowhowLaylaspersonalstruggletofree herself from patriarchal traditions consistently parallels Egypts quest for liberation fromimperialrule,andthusbecomesanationalallegory.

1.2 MaterialsandMethods
A full analysis of Layla as a symbol of Egypt in al-Bb al-maft requires that the whole novel be taken into account, although some passages, such as the historical turning points, areobviouslymore crucial tothe theme.Sothe explorationofLaylas personal struggle as national allegory2 began with several in-depth readings of the EnglishtranslationoftheArabicnovel.Inthesereadings,generaltrendswereexplored: What happenstothenationwhenLaylaishappy orsad?What happenstoherduring the crucial transforming momentsof Egypt? The joint timeline in Figure 1illustrates how each advance or retreat in the political sphere parallels one in Laylaspersonal sphere. Lafa al-Zayyt skillfullyillustratesthenationalallegoryondifferent levels, sothe analysiswasmadeonbothastructuralandanin-depthlevel.Arepresentativesampleof quotations (from different passages of the novel) that illustrate deeper dimensions of LaylaasasymbolofEgyptwasselectedtosupportthehypothesis.Oftentheillustration
2InthisthesisthetermAllegoryreferstoanarrativestructureinwhichonelineisatraceofandconsistently

representstheother,whichinvitesadoublereadingofnarrativeevents.(cf.Sommer1990:120ff)

of the inseparable, intertwining nature of the personal and political is very much connectedtothe plot. But then again, a suddeninsight isoftenrevealedinan obscure lineorpassage. Ingeneral,thisthesisfocusesonthe novelscontent,andonlyoccasionallytouches on issuesof styleor language to fleshout the analysis. Forexample,Lafa al-Zayyt usestheArabic languageandthecolloquial Egyptiandialectasameansofexpressing aspectsofthenationalallegoryanddepictingthecharactersasrepresentativesofhigher valuesinvariousvaluesystems.Forthisreason,significantpassageswerestudiedinthe Arabicoriginalforfurtherinterpretationandanalysis. TheweaknessinthismethodologicalapproachisthattheoriginalArabicversionwas not the startingpointof analysis; a translationcan never be complete.Thisisperhaps especially applicable to a translation from Arabic, one of the worlds more complex languages,wherethemeaningofawordmayvary,dependening oncontext.Butal-Bb al-mafts length, nearly 400 pages, made this necessary. Sources of error were reducedthroughuseofa widelyacknowledgedtranslation3.Besides,keypassagesand quotations were constantly reviewed in the original Arabic version. Lafa al-Zayyt usedsimplelanguage,muchofwhichwascolloquialEgyptianArabicdialogue.Risk of misinterpretationintheEnglishtranslationwaslessthanitwouldhavebeeninatextof highercomplexity. The problem of misinterpretation is highly related also to the understanding of symbolsandallegories.AsJonssonandSjberg (2005:145)pointout,itisimportantto staysuspiciousofonesownreading,toavoidoverinterpretation.However,theanalysis of al-Bb al-maft was not done randomly. Since a fictional workand itsmessage doesnotemergefromavacuum;aclosereadingofanovel(cf.Holmberg&Ohlsson 2007:38) is not enough to gain an understanding of its symbolic and political dimensions.Contextualizationisessential. To this enda more profound understandingof al-Bb al-maftand to support myinterpretation,previousresearchonthenovelanditscreator,donebyEgyptianand foreign scholars, was scrutinized. Unfortunately, due to linguistic complexity, few Arabic texts could be used. The English translation of Lafa al-Zayyts biography, amlat taft: awrq aiyya, and transcriptions of some interviews of her were thoroughlyread.Backgroundon the author and herlife isespecially crucial since alBb al-maft is a quasi-autobiographical novel (Morgan 1998:35; al-Barw 2010) andsincesheemployedherownexperiencestodepictthestrugglesofLaylaandEgypt. Thestory,though,isnotthepersonalstoryofal-Zayyt. Furthermore,toputthe novelincontext,thisthesisexploressecondaryliteratureon the prevailing literary,historical,and political climate.In fact, a profound analysisof Layla asa national allegory isimpossible without insights into the popular resistance andthe politicaldevelopmentsinEgypt(1946-56),sincehiddenmeaningswouldhave remainedundiscovered. The struggle for national independence would still be pivotal forthe novel, but notascloselylinkedtoLaylaspersonal struggle forliberation.The riskisthatal-Bbal-maftwouldthenhavebeenreadonlyasaromance.

3TranslatorMarilynBoothearnedherD.Phil.inModernArabicLiteratureandModernHistoryintheMiddleEastat

St.AnthonysCollege,UniversityofOxford.HerresearchinterestsincludegenderpoliticsofArabicfiction,andthe emergenceoftheArabicnovelinthenineteenthcenturyanditsrelationtoemergentgenderactivismandearly feminism.ShehaspublishednumerousoftranslationsfromArabictoEnglish(e.g.MemoirsfromtheWomen'sPrison (2007)byNawlal-SadwandThievesinRetirement(2006)byHamdAbJulayyil).

In theory, contextualization as methodology to strive for objectivity and full understanding of a novel has no limits. For the purpose and scope of this thesis, however,it islimitedtothedomainsjust mentioned:backgroundonthewriterandher politicalactivism,andthehistoricalandliterarycontext. Since al-Bb al-maft isrelatively sparsely investigated, two professors inCairo, well acquainted withLafa al-Zayyt and herliterature, were interviewed. SayyidalBarw,professorofModern Arabic Literature at CairoUniversity,wasalso aclose friend of hers and was the editor of the anthology Lafa al-Zayyt: al-Adab wa-lwaan4 .These interviewshadneitheraninformantnorrespondentcharacter(Esaiasson et al 2007:284-303), but rather the form of a dialogue or supervision where my interpretations were discussed and viewed from a professionals perspective. These encountersgreatlyimprovedthevalidityofthisthesisfindings.

1.3 Outline
ChapterTwointroducesthereadertotheplot ofal-Bbal-maft.InChapterThree,a summary of political events contemporary to the novel (3.1) paves the way for an introductiontotheliteraryclimateinEgypt(3.2).AnaccountofLafaal-Zayytslife, writingsandpoliticalcommitment(3.3)follows.InChapterFour,theintertwinementof personal and political aspects of the workis analyzed, in general (4.1) aswell as in detail (4.2). Numerousquotations from and references to the original Arabic version illustrate how Lafa al-Zayyt portrays Egypt through the experiences of Layla. ChapterFivesummarizesthesisfindingsandpresentsaconclusion.

4SincetheanthologyiswritteninacademicArabic,onlyonechapterisreferredtointhisthesis.(seeMehrez1996)

Plot:Laylasdestinyinal-Bb al-maft

In 1946, in the wake of massive anti-British demonstrations in Cairowhen her nationalistbrothersurvivesa bullet wound11-year-old Layla,the youngest daughter inaconservativemiddle-class,Cairenefamiliy,menstruatesforthefirsttime.Thisisa crucial turningpoint, thestart ofher journeyto adulthood.Traditionalsocietal norms, appliedbyherfamily,areincreasinglylimitingherexistence;asasexuallymaturegirl, she must protect the family honor and live by the fundamentals. To her, entering womanhoodfeelslikecrossingthegatesofaprison. InspiredbyherbrotherMamdwhodefiestheirfatherbyjoiningthestrugglefor nationalindependenceLaylaparticipatesindemonstrationswithotherfemalestudents asteenagegirl.Forthis,sheisbeatenbyherfather,andwhenshe lookstoherbrother forsupport,shefindsthathe,too,isagainstherandheraisesthebanneroftradition.In despair, Layla confronts Mamd with the contradiction in his thought, which recognizesgenderequalityonpaperonly. Shortly thereafter she falls in love for the first timewith her cousin Imand insteadofconfidinginherbrother,Laylaimaginesanewworldoffreedomandlovein whichonlysheandIm exist.Theillusionsoondies,however; whenImdoesnot join Mamd to fight the British in the Canal Zone, she feels disappointed and abandoned.AsLaylasemotionstowardhercousinchangeandweaken,herrelationship withher brothergetsstrongerandtheyexchange lettersdaily;Laylaisthe onlyone in their circle of family and friends who truly understands and supports Mamds dangerousstrugglefornationalliberation.Inturn,hebeginstounderstandheraswell. Perhaps sensing Laylas increasing intellectual and emotional distance, Im becomesmoreandmoreobsessed(sexually)withLaylaandfearslosingher.Herstrong personality,self-confidenceandstrivingsforindependenceandgender-equalityfrighten him.Hisbehaviorbecomeswildlikeuncontrolledandhiseyesharborthreat.Allthe while,he istrying tofindasolutiontotheirrelationship.Laylaconstantlyfearsthathe isabouttohither.Andthisfinallyoccursathissisteramlasengagementparty.Ina fit of temper, he tries to strangle her, screamingYou belongto me!. Days later, a newbornImannounceshissolution:hewillnottouchherbeforetheirwedding. Mamds letters become shorter and shorter, and an emotional angry undertone emerges.Hewritesabouthowhefeelsisolatedandhoweveryonehasbetrayedhimand thefewpeoplefightingintheCanalZone;abouthowthetruebetrayalisthebetrayalof the millionsofEgyptianswholoveEgypt aslongasthislovedoesnotclashwiththeir personalinterests. Athishomecoming,Mamdistotallychanged,andLaylafeelsasifsomethinghas comebetweenthem,asifshehasfailed him.Sheimmediatelyfacespersonalbetrayal when amlawho is trying her sumptuous wedding dresstells her that Im is cheating onherwiththe maid,Sayyida.It isthenthatCairo startsburning; thepeople put fire to their own city.Mamd seesthis asthe endthe end ofthe battle forthe 5

Canalalthough ussayn,his best friend,promisesLayla that it isnot. That evening thetwomenaresenttojail. Inthe followingmonths, lifeforLaylagoesonasusual,but atthe endofeach day sheisexhaustedandherwholebodyaches.Sincechallengingtherulesandtraditionsof familyandsocietyclearlyisuselessshe andMamdhadbothfought foraworldof love and truth beyond their time, and they had been crushedLayla becomes increasingly introverted and decides to follow the norm to avoid getting hurt again. After all,amlawho acceptedlife asit wasby marryingthe aristocrat manof her mothersdreamswassplendid; sowhywould she not choose thisrational way of life? In thewake ofthe JulyRevolutioninwhich Mamdand hisfriend are released from prisonussayn professeshis love for Layla. She, however, does not want to everfallinlovewithorbeattachedtoanyoneagain,sosheerectsabarrierbetween them.Butwhenussayntellsherabouthisdecisiontoacceptathree-yearscholarship toGermany,hedetectsasadexpressioninhereyesandrealizesthatshedoesneedhim, despite her reluctance to admit it to him, or even to herself. Before departing for Europe,heseesLaylaalasttimeinPortSaid,andheconfidentlytellsherthatheknows she will wake up one day and realize that she loves him. Although she obviously dismissestheidea,aseedhasbeenplanted.She nowrealizesthattheacheinherbody isgoneandthatsheisoverIm.Afterussaynsdeparture,Laylaisnotherself,sheis nervous and ill at ease. And when she sees her friend San and Mamd together indeedthere issomethingthatlinksthemtoeachothershefeelslonely,asifshehas losteverything. Layla enrolls in the Department of Philosophy at Cairo University with her two distinct friends. WorkingclassAdla is intelligent, practical and down to earth; she considers love a waste of time and life an unvarnished fact. Upper-class San likes beautiful clothesandsweetparfume;wheneverrealitydoesnotsatisfyher,she retreats intofantasy,andsheispositivelyinlovewithlove.TheloveshefeelsforMamdis ofthekindshehascometoknowthroughnovelsandfilms. LaylahadalwaysfeltclosertoSanthantoAdla,buttheencounterwithImhad changedthis.ByembracingAdlasrationalviewoflife,Laylamanagestoconcealher feelings for ussayn, eventhoughsomethingin her heart rebels. Layla istornby her friends and their views on love when she receives a love letter from Germany, and finallywithtearsinher eyessheasksAdla towrite aletterto ussaynin which sheaskshimtostopwritingher. When Laylas lecturerthe emotionless, authoritarian and rigid Dr. Ramzasks her father for her hand, the two men read al-ftia5 without consultingher. In fact, duringthefirst year atuniversityhisinfluence onher ismorepervasive thanAdlas had everbeen; hiswordsare law.Laylahasbecomehisparrot andhasnoopinionsof herown.Sanistrulyconcernedaboutherfriendwhoshethinkshasundergoneasad transformationandbecomeunbearableinDr.Ramzsvicinity.Sheisnotatallhappy abouttheirengagementwhileAdlaandLaylasparentsrejoiceathercomingwedding withtheblack-and-white-thinkingprofessorwithhighsocialstatus. Layla questionsher approachingmarriage. When she realizes that her engagement partyarrangedbyamlawhoistrappedinalovelessmarriageandherwhitedress
5Al-Ftia,thefirstchapteroftheQurn,isreadbythetwoconcernedfamiliesasasignofagreement.Thisisthefirst

stepofengagementaccordingtoEgyptian(sunni)tradition.

mirror those of her cousin, Layla is assailed with foreboding. And when Dr. Ramz turnsouttobeasmuchachauvinistasImoranyoneelseandfinallytellsherthathe only marries her because of her obedient personalityand not out of loveLayla knowsthatthepathsheistreading isthewrongpathforher.Herapatheticstateofmind andfeelingofpowerlessness,however,restrictherfromchallengingherarrangedfate. A few days after the engagement party, Layla receives a letter from ussayn, who despiteeverything,stilllovesher. In the face of Laylas fathers and Dr. Ramzs disapproval, Mamd and San marryand move to Port Said. In disappointment, the parents place all their hopeson Laylasforthcomingwedding.Buteventhoughsheisagoodgirl,herfatherfearsthat sheis underabad influence from Mamdand San.Infact,Layla issecretlyseeing San daily, and duringone of their talks, she discovers that ussayn hasreturned to Egypt.Surprisingly, the news strikesLayla tothe core; she realizes herdeeplove for ussaynashehadpredictedandherdislike,evenhatred,forDr.Ramz. Slowly but steadily Laylas confidence increases and she starts challenging Dr. Ramz. Instead of working asa teacher inCairoashe demandsshearrangesto be senttoPort Said.Thewedding hasbeenpostponed,andduetotheIsraeli attackonthe Sinai,Laylastwo-week stayinPort Saidturnsintomonths.Herplaceat thecenterof war changes her dramatically, and she actively participates in the resistance; she becomesapartofthewhole.WhenEgyptwinsthewar,thecountrystartsanewhistory asanindependentnation,andLaylawinsherselfandbeginsanewlifewithussaynin anegalitarianrelationship.BothLaylaandEgyptleavethepastandlooktothefuture.

Context:Egypt,theNationalStruggle andFeministWriting

3.1 HistoricalDevelopmentsinEgypt(1946-56)
Although Egypt had been nominally independent since 1923, Britain continued to exercise financial and military control throughout the 1930s. Negotiations for true independence resulted in few improvements and was known as the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936), which favored maintaining the status-quo. Real power remained in BritishhandsasLondonkepttherighttodictatefinancialorganization,tostationtroops andcontrolEgyptsmilitaryaswellastheSuezCanal.(Booth2002:xix) Resentment against Britains continued hold over Egypt was strong, and after the SecondWorldWar,publicangergrew.OnFebruary21,1946,downtownCairobecame the scene of dramatic, violent demonstrations when thousands of young Egyptians joined up with workersto demandabrogation of the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty and evacuationofallBritishtroopsfromEgypt (a dayknownasEvacuationDay)6.Textile workerswereatthecenterofthedemonstrationsandformedthecoreoftheresistance movementrevoltingagainstdeterioratedworking conditionsandmassunemployment thatfollowedtheSecondWorldWarduetotheBritishcontroloftextilemanufacturing withEgyptiancotton(Beinin2010:174f). Bothrightistandleftistgroupings,includingcommunistmaleandfemalestudent leaders,wereproponentsofthedemonstrations.Forthisgenerationofyoung Egyptians, new ideas about social organization and personal freedom were inseparable from political demands. In their fight for national independence, they advocated more liberties for women and encouraged them to enter the public sphere. Actually, the womanquestion7 hadbeenatthecenter ofideasofnationalismandanti-colonialism sincethelate19thcentury.InthefirstrealexpressionofpublicresistanceonEvacuation Day, demonstrators literally clashed with the British, bodily attacking their armored carsandsettingthemonfire.(Elsadda2008:116f;Rizk2004) Isml idq, known as the repressive prime minister of the 1930s, had resumed power just before this mass show of public protest. For many, this unpopular prime minister represented the reactionary stranglehold of the old aristocracy (Booth 2002:xxi). During the time he was arresting popular protesters, he recommenced negotiations with the British. Once again, these failed. British troops withdrew from

6 InconnectiontoEvacuationDaytheNationalCommitteeof WorkersandStudentswasformed;aformidable

politicalforceinthelate1940sEgypt.(cf.3.3Lafaal-Zayyt:Life,WritingsandCommitment)

7Thewomanquestionisaphraseusuallyusedinconnectionwiththesocialchangethatstartedtotakeshapeinthe

late19thcentury,whichquestionedthefundamentalrolesofwomen.Issuesofdiscussionweree.g.reproductiverights, bodilyautonomy,propertyrights,legalrights,medicalrights,andmarriage.

CairoandtheNileDelta,but theyremainedinthestrategicallyimportantCanalZone8 . (Booth2002:xxi) In the early 1950s, the British military complex at Suez was one of the largest militaryinstallationsintheworld.Consequently,theregionheldsymbolicandpractical importanceinthe fightagainst neocolonialism.In1951,afterthe 1936treatyhadbeen abrogated, volunteer commandos and British troops clashed there. Ten thousand students from Cairo University were trained in military maneuvers, and student divisionsleftfortheCanalZone.InJanuary1952,theBritishrespondedbyattackingan EgyptianpolicebarracksinIsmailia(ontheCanal),believingthatEgyptianpolicewere takingpartin theresistancethere.Cairoexplodeduponlearning that50Egyptianshad died. Police- and firemen watched in passive solidarity as crowds burned institutions andneighborhoodsassociatedwiththeBritishpresence.(Booth2002:xxif) The CairoFire,asit came tobecalled,mayhavehastenedtheJulyRevolutionlater thatyear.The Free OfficersassumedpowerandforcedKingFrq,everunpopular,to abdicate.Theendoftheancienrgime wasnottheendoftheBritishpresencethough. Furthernegotiationsresultedina1954agreementthat gaveBritishforces20monthsto withdrawfromtheirbaseattheSuezCanal.(ibid.) Within months of the British withdrawal, aml Abd al-Nir, the newpresident, denounced Western influence in the Arabworld by announcing the nationalization of the SuezCanal.Thiscameasaresponseto theUSpulloutofthe decision to,together with Britain, finance the building of the Aswan High Dam. Instead, Abd al-Nir explained that revenues of the Canal would go to construction projects that Western governments were unwillingto finance. Thismove provokedthe Great Powerswhile non-allied governments and populations applauded its sign of independence. (Booth 2002:xxiif) Threemonthslater,France,BritainandIsraelwhoforvaryingreasonsoftheirown opposedAbdal-Nirconcludeda secret agreement that ledto anIsraeli strikeinto the Sinai onOctober 29, 1956.Itwasfollowedbya wave ofBritishbombings,and a weeklater by British and French paratroop landingsin Port Said and an advance on SuezCity.Thefollowing day,aUnited Nationsceasefireended theEuropeanadvance as US troops entered and the British and French troopsfollowed by the Israelis withdrew.(Elsadda2008:116f) AlthoughthiswasnotamilitaryvictoryforEgypt,Abdal-Nirenjoyedapolitical victory and became a national hero and symbol of the revolution against imperialist forcesandcorruption. Thiswasa definingmoment forthenation,andended a decade of tumultuous political activity in an Egypt that was trying to free itself from both Britishcontrol andthe political system of the past.The airwasfilled witha sense of liberationandhopeinthenewlyindependentnation.(Booth2002:xxiii;ibid.)

8TheeconomicpotentialoftheMiddleEast,withitsvastoilreserves,aswellastheSuezCanal'sgeo-strategic

importanceastheonlyland-bridgebetweenAfricaandAsia,theshortestoceanlinkbetweentheMediterraneanand theIndianOceanpromptedBritaintoconsolidateandstrengthenitspositionthere.

3.2 TheEgyptianNovelinthe1950sandearly1960s: Committed,NationalistandFeminist

Referring to a body of literature and other creative arts that is recognized as emblematic ofthedominantideology,values,and organizationofsocialforcesina given society, a canon is thus inseparable fromindeed, it is often central to struggles over political power and economic and social pressures and structures. (Booth2002:xi)

Inthe1950sand60s,thecanonofArabicliteraturerespondedtothesurroundingsocial and political upheaval. A strong trend emerged that encouraged a literature of commitment andstressedtherole of writersingivingvoicetonational issues.Writing soon after the 1952 revolution, this generation of engaged writers was optimistic, convinced that thestruggle forliberation andjusticewouldbe undoubtedly victorious. Political commitmentin literatureappeared to be a cureagainst European dominance, strongalso within the cultural sphere. (Booth 2002:xif; Elsadda 2008:116; McLarney 2009:187) It ishardly surprisingthat most novelistschoseto engage these social andpolitical realities in the most accessible fictional mode, that of realism. The common characteristic of the major realistic novels of the 1950s9 is their focus on the basic preoccupations of the time. Social, economic, intellectual, and political themes all interweaveinsomewaywiththenationalcause.Patrioticconcernsarethefocalpointof these novels, and the writersattitudesare continually directed against theircountrys enemiesandtheobstacleshamperingEgyptsprogress.(Allen1995:65) Sabry Hafez, professorof Modern Arabic Literature at the School of Oriental and AfricanStudiesatUniversityofLondon(SOAS),viewsthetypicalherointhesenovels as one who engages all his intellectual and physical activities in the task of transforming external reality (1976:70). This behavior stems from the protagonists wishtofulfillhimselfinsociety,forwhichdevelopment he feelsstrongresponsibility. Despite strongaffinitieswith his nationand fellow citizens, he might criticize power figures and particular structures in society, and may act thereafter. Not seldom, the novelsshed light on marginalized peoplealongboth class and gender linesin the Egyptofthattime;asinal-Ar(1953),byAbdal-Ramnal-arqw,whichdepicts peasants resistance to oppressive landslords, as well as in the novel that this thesis analyzes,al-Zayytsal-Bbal-maft.(Hafez1976:70;Amireh2002:55) Egyptianwomennovelistswritinginthe1950salsostartedlinking theirheroinestoa broadercommunalandnationalexistenceinsteadofsolelyfocusing onthepersonaland self-centered.LikeEgyptianmen,thesewomenhadbeenwriting andpublishing fiction since the late 19thcentury, andtheybeganto stress themselvesas beings insociety and at the same time achieved an increased sense of individuality. By giving it a national dimension, Egyptian women writers tried to make their own experience concrete, even placingfeminist concerns within the context of the national identity crisis(Zeidan1995:229f).Bythat,theyarguedforexpandedrightsforwomen,theyrethoughtgenderroles,andtheyincreasedfemalevisibilityandinvolvementinsociety.
9SuchastheCairoTrilogybyMaf,QiatubbbyYsufIdrs,al-Arandal-awrial-alfiyyabyAbdal-

Ramnal-arqw,andal-Bbal-maftbyLafaal-Zayyt.

10

Itisnocoincidencethatthree importantnovelswere publishedbyEgyptianwomen intheearly1960s:al-Zayytsal-Bbal-maft,Itirft imraamustarjila10 bySuad Zuhayr,andMuakkirtabba11byNawlal-Sadw.Thesenovelsillustratewomens uprising against various forms of female oppression: as women and as citizens. By bravely criticizingcontemporaryproblemsin society throughexposure ofpatriarchys variouseffects on women, they advocate societal change in attitudesand institutions. Thesethreenovelscrowntheburstofoptimismthatfollowedtheyearsofstruggle for liberationonalllevels(Elsadda2008:120).Infact,theyappearedduringaperiodwhen Abd al-Nirs regime was imprisoning many of its opponents and strictly limiting freedomofexpression.Yetmemoriesofrecenttriumphswerestill freshandthe young generationembracedtheseinnovativeworks.(ibid.;Booth2002:xif) Althoughal-Bbal-maftat first seemstoparticipate fullyinarealistapproachto socialcritique,ithintedatsomeofthewaysinwhichtheEgyptiannovelwoulddevelop awayfromthatapproachbothcausedbyexternalcircumstances(asthe1967war)and the fact that the realistapproachhad been thoroughlyexplored,byNab Mafand YsufIdrsamong others.(Booth2002:xviii)Symbolism wouldcome tobefrequently usedinthe1960s.(Zeidan1995:229)

3.3 Lafaal-Zayyt:Life,WritingsandCommitment
Bornintoamiddle-classfamilyintheEgyptianDeltacityofDimyat,11-year-oldLafa al-Zayyt(1923-96)decided,asshelookeddown atdemonstrationsfrom herbalcony, thatherlifewouldbeoneofcommitmenttonationalcauses:
Itrembledwithfeelingsof powerlessness,ofmisery,ofoppression,asthebulletsof thepolice killedfourteendemonstratorsthatday.Iscreamedformyinabilitytoact, Iscreamedfor myinabilitytogodowntothestreettostopthebulletsfromcoming outof the black guns.Ishedthechild in me andtheyoungwomancame ofage prematurelyforIencounteredknowledgethatwentbeyondthehometoincludeall ofthehomeland.Myfuturefatewasdecidedatthatmoment... (al-ZayytinAmireh1996:1)

Inherinnovativeautobiographyfrom1992amlattaft:awrqaiyya12 onecan trace the main lines of al-Zayyts life. She writes about her quite happybut sometimes gypsy-likechildhood in the Nile Delta, and about her undergraduate days,whenshejoinedtheCommunistPartyandtheNationalMovementandsheledthe struggleagainstBritishcolonialism.AsgeneralsecretaryoftheNationalCommitteefor Students and Workers, al-Zayyt was one of the main organizers of the 1946 demonstrations.Inhermemoirsshedescribesheractivismastransformingherbody:

10ConfessionsofaMasculineWoman(1960) 11MemoirsofaWomanDoctor(1960) 12SeefurtherAppendixA:TheNovelsofLafaal-Zayyt

11

Fromthe cloak of contactwiththe massesI wasbornandfrom their warmth and stabilityIwastransformed,fromthegirlwhoboreherwomanlybodyasifitwerea sinintothattough,liberatedyoungwoman,so fullof vigorous protest,who knew howtowinoverthemasses(Al-Zayyat1996:104)

Shefurtherwritesaboutherfirstmarriagewithapoliticalactivistin1949andabouther arrest bythe political police the same year; herisolated sixmonths inprison,and her unhappy second marriage, which lasted for more than 12 years with a man of sentimentsoppositetohers; andhercapabilitytoatlast divorce him.The final partof herautobiographywaswrittenintheQanaterPrisonin1981,whereshetogetherwith 1,500 other opposition figures of different affiliationswasdetained without trial on President Anwaral-Sdtsorders. (Al-Zayyt 1996; Al-Nowaihi 2001:493; Morgan 1998:37) Like al-Zayyts activism, her imprisonments had a profound impact on her intellectuallife.Oneeffectofthe1949detentionwasthatherpoliticalwork tookona double meaning,becauseitwasacollectiveactinwhichthepersonalselfdissolved,to beenrichedbythecollectiveone,andbecauseitwasanactagainsttheauthoritywhich chargesallthepsychologicalandmentalfacultiesofahumanbeing(Zeidan1995:165; Muqbala). According toMaggieM.Morgan(1998:34),formergraduatestudentinEnglishand Comparative Literature at the AUC, the attempt to concentrate on the personal to uncover its collective dimensions is evident in all al-Zayyts works. In fact, when readingabout her, one realizesthat throughout her life, her ownpersonaldestiny andtheoneofthenationhavebeencloselyintertwined.Shebelievedthat:
Man [...] does notreally findhimself,doesnotbecome whole,unlesshe firstloses himselfina whole,atotalitygreaterthanhisnarrow,individualself.The opendoor tothe truepeacewiththeselfisthedoorthatopensontobelongingtothesum,the whole,inthoughtandwordanddeed.(Al-Zayyat1996:100)

Itwasinthisspirit,inanewlyindependent Egypt,thatal-Zayytsfirstfictional work al-Bb al-mafther magnus opuscame into being. While not strictly autobiographical, she revisited her college yearsand created a heroine after her own heart (Al-Zayyat 1994:250). I wanted to capture my vision of reality when I was young,becauseifIdidntitwouldhaveescapedmeintheend(Al-Zayyat1996:100). Paradoxically, she wrote this novelher most optimistic oneduring a very difficult periodofherlife,asifsheturnedtothepastforhelp.Duringhersecondmarriage she wrotelittleandtotallyleftherpoliticalwork. After the divorce she resumed her suspended activities and engaged herself in numerous organizations, for example, she became chair for the Committee for the Defence of National Culture13 . In addition, she continued workingas a professor of EnglishLiterature at Ain ShamsUniversity andas a literary critic. But it would take until the mid-1980s until she allowed her own voice andvision to stand side by side with the writers she was studying; she published her second work of fictionalaya:waqiaurain1986.(Al-Nowaihi2001:493;Amireh1996:1-3)
13AschairfortheCommitteefortheDefenceofNationalCulture,al-Zayyte.g.campaignedagainstthenormalization

towardIsraelanditspotentialeffectsonEgyptiansocietyandculture.

12

Inherautobiography,al-Zayytexaminesherlifefromdifferentperspectivesandat different momentsof being,toquestionherearliersetofbeliefs.Shecomestorealize thather26yearlongsilencewasinsteadofasignofweaknessanexpressionofher ambivalence about powerand itsstructures;duringthat timeshefeltalienated from the nation, and from herself. (Morgan 1998:39f) She writes for example about the national defeat ofEgypt against Israel in1967, andhowit coincidedwith feelingsof personal disillusionment after herseconddivorce andherbrothersdeath.Thisdefeat happened to me on a personal level and it isthe hardest thingthat has happened to me(Al-Zayyat1996:66). Theunisonoftheprivateandthepublicisverymuchevidentinherautobiography. Al-Zayyt presentsher life aslifenotasa privateora public life,butas one that is connected and completeby lending other dimensions to the writer, the critic, the professor, the prisoner, the child, the woman, the adult and the political activist. (Bennett1998:291)Nationalandpersonalconcernsarearticulatedwithequalintensity, in Morganswords: inthe eyesofal-Zayyt, thenationcomesintobeing [...] onlyin theareawherethepersonalmeetsthecollective(1998:40). Samia Mehrez, professor of Modern Arabic Literature at the AUC, interprets amlattaftasa negationofal-Zayytsbeliefsofheryouth, andasanabandonment of them (Mehrez 1996:140). However, the fact that sheafter personal and national defeatsrejoins the community, starts writing again, and in the end finds herself, is ratherawayofreassertingheroldideas.Lafaal-Zayytevensaidinaninterviewlate inlifethatshestill holdstightlytothe dreamofsocialism,evenifaproperapplication ofithasnot yetoccurred(Muqbala).Andwiththeending:thenIopenedthe dooras wide as it would go and slipped into the courtyard and the sunlight (Al-Zayyat 1996:125) her autobiography cannot be anything else than an updated and revised, OpenDoor.(Morgan1998:50) Lafa al-Zayyt published a few more novelsbefore herdeath of cancer in1996. Whenshelookedbackonheroftendifficultlife,shehadnoregrets:
Perhapsitwouldhavebeenpossible forme tobe abetterwriter,or abetterfighter, or a better professor,if I had confined myself to one role. Butmy languages are multiple. And it is through the use of these many languages that I have enriched myselfandothers.(al-ZayytinAmireh1996:3)

ThatsameyeartheEgyptiangovernmentfinallyacknowledgedheraccomplishmentsby presentingherwithitshighestliteraryaward,the StatePrize forLiterature; izataldawlaal-taqdriyya.(Badran&Cooke2004:409)

13

LaylaandEgypt:TheIntertwined StruggleforIndependence

4.1 AnalysisOverview
Unfoldingas it doesbetween 1946 and 1956, al-Bb al-maft takesplace in a key periodof Egyptiannationalism. Eventssuchas the Free Officers Revolution andthe Suez Crisis provide the setting and the ideological frame of the work. The plot, however, revolves around Laylas, the protagonists, entering into adulthood; around love and courtship scenarios. Mainly expressed through Laylas own struggle for personal liberation andfulfillment, the political eventspave the way towardcomplete independencefrom theBritish.They arenot simplyfootnotestothe novelsstory;the historical occurrences are centralto the plot andshake the protagoniststotheircore, emotional upheavalsthat lead to tumultuouschange in bodyand politics (McLarney 2009:189). Al-Bb al-maft develops linearly and every advance or retreat in the political sphere ismatchedbyoneinLaylaspersonalsphere, andvice versa.Onerealmnever precedes the other. Al-Zayyt uses this(allegorical)structure ofthe novel,to suggest that the heroines will to free herself from conservative social customs is similar to Egypts goal of freeing itself from the dying institution of colonialism. The novel indeedservesthe purpose toillustrate howtherelationbetweenthe private andpublic realms are intertwined and inseparable since events consistently take place on both levels.
This is Egypts own coming of age, as she struggles against an overbearing protectorate thathad takenthe formof aneconomicpaternalism(British ownership oftheSuezCanalandcontrolof naturalresourceslikecotton).Newallianceswith themasses,the workers,the freedomfightersreplace oldinfatuationswith wealth and the West. In this sense, the body becomes the very field of articulating the politicaleconomy[italicsadded].(McLarney2009:189)

Thusal-Bbal-maft,asMaraNaaman(2008:327)putsit,functionsbothasromance andasafoundingfictionforanindependentEgypt.Shecontinues,
Both intriguesthenthat is,heteronormative loveforanother andlove for country (and in this case also self-love)facilitate the tension that escalates through the novel, making each of their purposes codependent on the outcome of the other. (ibid.)

Thetimelineonthenextpagepresentsanoverallviewofthenovelsallegoricstructure. 14

The!war!is!over:! The!first!signs!of! popular!resistance! against!the! British!occur!on! Evacuation!Day First!official!step! towards!national! independence: Abrogation!of! 1936!treaty,!but! Betrayal!1: Student! the!vast!British! military!complex! divisions!sent! to!Canal!Zone! at!Suez!was! to!attack!and! fortified fight!!British! troops !

Stronger! resistance! against!British! imperialism

1946

Free!Officers! Revolution:! False! King!Far"q! independence: abdicates;! the!Republic!of! Although!the!king! Betrayal!2: has!been! Egypt!is! Resistance!in!the! overthrown,! declared Canal!Zone!is! British!control!is! weak!because!the! still!strong!and!the! people!do!not! Egypts!national! people!find!it! wholeheartedly! defeat:! difficult!to!break! support!the! The!Cairo!Fire away nationalists !

Egyptian! resistance!begins! to!succeed: British!withdrawal! and!nationalization! of!the!Suez!Canal

Last! obstacle: Tripartite! Invasion

Egyptian! independence! realized!after! French#British# Israeli! withdrawal!and! marks!the! beginning!of!a! new,!socialist! era

1956

Figure1.

Childhood! ends: Layla!begins!to! argue!against!the! restrictive!rules! First!step!of! of!womanhood! liberation!from! soon!after!she! her!familys!and! begins!to! societys!norms!in! menstruate deed: Layla!takes!part!in! "I#$m!! nationalist! wrongs! demonstrations,! Layla!by! but!falls!in!love! paying!lip! with!$I%&m! service!to! (member!of!the! new!ideas,! artistocracy!with!a! but!refuses! traditional!point!of! to!join! view) Ma'm"d!in! the!Canal! Zone

1952

"I#$m!starts! cheating!! with!the!maid! at!(am)las! engagement! party

Laylas!rebellion: Layla!breaks!free! from!$I%&m; Ma'm"d!and! *ussayn!are! released!from! prison

Laylas! personal!defeat:! $I%&m!is!caught! unfaithful!and! Ma'm"d!is!sent! to!prison

Entry!to!the!public! sphere!not! liberating: Although!Layla!has! now!left!home!and!is! at!university,!she!is! engaged!to!the! dominant,!controlling! Dr.!Ramz)

Layla! independent: Empowerment Layla!frees! herself!from! Last!ties: Taking!part!in! Dr.!Ramz)!and! her!family!and! the!popular! engages!in!an! resistance!in! Layla!begins!to! Port!Said!gives! egalitarian!and! break!with! loving! Layla!the! tradition: relationship! strenght!to!do! Layla!steadily! anything:!she! with!nationalist! gets!stronger,! *ussayn ignores!Dr.! more! Ramz)!and!her! independent!and! father! less!introverted:! she!spends!more! time!with!San&! than!with!$AdIla

15

4.2 In-DepthAnalysis
4.2.1 SuppressedLayla-ColonizedEgypt
The nationalist movement in Egypt did not suddenly emerge in 1946; broad-based nationalist resistance to British control had existed throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Similarly, Layla was born 11 years before the first real expression of public protest againsttheBritish(andtheking),andherfirstmenstruation.MarilynBooth(2002:xxiii) parallelsLaylasgrowthwiththatofthenationalistmovement.However,hersexual and simultaneous politicalawareness starts in 1946, when Mamd is shot in the demonstrations and her own private sphere becomes increasingly limited due to her sexualmaturity.Thus,thenoveltakesitstartatthispoint. When Layla demonstrates against the British, she physically responds to the crowdscommunalmotion;shefeelsthatsheismeltingintothewhole,shespeakswith avoicestrongerthanherown.Thisfeeling oflightnessandstrengthcontrastsherinitial 14 shynessandperceptionofherselfandherbodyasasexobject. ]...[]...[ .. . . -].. [ Thisintensefeelingofalivenessandbodilyunitybecomesachangingexperienceasshe triesto recreate the same emotionin otherhumanrelationships. Immediately after the demonstration,Layla findsthiskindofstimulationwhen she fallsinlove with Im. Thisromantic sparkgives hera feelingbi-nr qib yatariqasadhwa yastaqirrf anyh15 (54)andyuial-nrminaynayhwamin afatiyh wa min addiyh16 (55).AsEllenMcLarney(2009:189)mentions,thissenseofvitalconnectionbecomes anintuitivecompassasLaylanavigateshernascentpassions. Incontrast, rulesofpropriety restrain thisdesire fortransformativeexperiencesof humansometimes, intimateconnection. The Arabic word ul refers to both conservative rules of behavior (especially between the sexes), and to property and financial assets. 17 Al-Zayyt showshow propriety becomes intertwined with ideasof patriarchalownershipcommunicatedinthemarriagecontract.Shealsoshowshowclass in addition to patriarchalconcerns influence ideas about social manners, and

14FortranslationsofalllongerArabicquotations,seeAppendixB:EnglishTranslations 15[thatanintense,concentratedbeamoflightpiercedherbodytosettleinside] 16[alightshonefromhereyes,lipsandcheeks] 17ul,pluralofal,principles,fundamentals,rudiments,elements[...]codeofconduct;guidelines;ancestors[...]

realestate,landedproperty;assets(financial)[...]capitalassets(Wehr1994:23)

16

control the mating process. After all, the aristocracy believes that qmat al-insn f imtilkal-atd,anal-insnmyaknmutaramillaiknaniyy18(70). Laylacomestounderstandal-ulwhensheentersthemarriagemarketatpuberty. Heraristocraticauntsinspecther physicalfeaturesandassesshervalue on thismarket asifshewasagoodsatauction.Oneofthememphasizesthatbeautyisaselling point, whichvaluecanbeincreasedthroughsuitableclothes. ]...[ []. Layla later compares herself, as a girl, to a slave in a slave market19 , dressed up to attractthehighestbiddingcustomer.Clothesaswellasimportedclothandexpensive textilesplay a crucial role in the courtship process, essentially linked not only to proprietybutalsotothepoliticsofBritishtextilemanufacturing.Throughtheemphasis on clothesand exclusive (British) textilesin the novel, al-Zayyt touches upon a key nerve in Egypts political economy: British control of textile industry, textile manufacturedwithEgyptiancotton(Rizk2004;cf.3.1:HistoricalDevelopments) Lafa al-Zayyt describes how the Egyptian aristocracy has imported not only Britishqualitytextiletoitsul,butalsootherEuropeancommoditiesascars,jewelry and technical equipment. By interspersing the novel with foreign words as Ford, Frigidaire,villa, chiffonandGibere writteninoriginal Arabic,the author underscores the invasionofforeigncommoditiesand vocabularyinEgyptian (bourgeoisie) culture and propriety. McLarney (2009:190) mentions how the infusion and use of words related to ulsuch as al (origin), ala (authenticity) and al (being native, indigenous, or genuine)illustrate that the reigning propriety is imported, that it is constructed out of importedgoods.Forexample, when Layla andamlagoshopping fora weddingdress,a couple discussesthe authenticityof some expensive cloth.The mansays: Dmial-aliyy,dtaqld... 20 andthe womanwhispersback:Hi..Bal dawa,anafaal-mrkabiayn,quminlziyyaliyy..21 (103)Here,thevaluable originalal-alistheEnglish;andthe(cheap)imitation,theEgyptian. Inthesamesceneal-Zayytmakesanotherpoliticalplayonwordswhenoneofthe shopping customers jokingly compares sale to a war: D mi awkzn, dah y abibat,darb,wallahiinafidiyyna! 22(ibid.)Atthetimethissceneoccurs (late 1951) the referenceis tothe nationalist guerillasfightinginthe Canal Zone, and somehow, it foreshadows the defeat there, which leads to the Cairo Fire. To further darkenthe novelsmoodandreiteratecriticismofBritishcontrolling interestsinthe Egyptiantextileindustrythisfirebreaksoutasamlatriesonherweddingdress.

18[apersonsvalueisthethingsheowns,thatyourenotrespectableunlessyourerich] 19 20 21 22

riyya!riyyafsqal-raqq..(36) [Thatsnottheoriginal,thatsimitation...] [Shh..dontmakesuchafuss,Isawthelabelwithmyowneyes,originalEnglishcotton..] [Thisisnosale,mydear,thisiswar,Iswear,wearerealguerillas!]

17

 [.]. Laylaandamlastandontheroof,overlooking theburningcity,whenLaylaperceives the blacksmoke as the frame of her cousinsweddingphoto in the above quotation. ThisimageislaterevokedinhermindasshepreparesforherownengagementwithDr. Ramz.23 Forthe Egyptianaristocracy, whichamla and Laylas auntsbelongto,love and passion are not the foundations of marriage. Desire is rather seen as somethingthat threatensal-ulsincethechoiceoflifepartnermaybechosenonfeeling,andnoton worthsomethingdisgraceful,somethingsoiled.WhenImfallsinlovewithLayla andfantasizessexuallyabout her,he istornby theprinciplesofproprietyandhisown desire: ][ . []. According to the moral valuesofthe time, the attractionIm feels for Laylamakes her intoa cheapthing;he associatesherwitha cheapwomanonthe street.Inhis worlda womansbodyislike a goodstobe consumed; the lowertheavailability,the more it is worth. Therefore, Im concentrates on Laylasbody asan object to be posessed(McLarney2009:191).Theperceptionofagirlasanobject,andnotahuman being,isfurtheremphasizedinthereferencetoherasay(thing),inmasculine,neutral form.Inthequotation above,al-Zayyt alsointerweavesassociationsofpropertyother thanprivatethatneedstobeprotected:thatofterritoryanditsborders. Similartoacountrysterritorialborders,thespacebetweenapersonsselfandbody must be jealously guarded and protected in order to maintain its worth. Already in Chapter One, when the limitations of al-ul are sketched out, these bordersaludd24playakeyrole. ][ . []. Here Layla speaks of womanhood as a prisonwith clearly and decisively fixed restrictionsof which fathers and brothers (and similiarly Im) are warders and womenprisoners.Thisreferencetoprisoner,besidestheobviousunderstanding ofagirl
23Seefurthernextpage. 24udd,pluralofadd,edge,brink,brim;border(ofacountry),boundary,borderline;limit(fig.)(Wehr1994:187)

18

growingup in a patriarchal and traditional home similar to a prison, could infer the Egyptian people guarded by their British colonizers. Whatever the case, Layla/Egypt knowsthe abrupt andshockingstrength ofher body developing,growing. She finds herselfheldbypowersthatsweepallbeforethem,thatimpelhertowardfreedom.(24) Continuingto internally question and outwardly challenge these udd and ul, Layla rebels against the prison to which she has been assigned merely based on her gender,a random act of chance. These features of independent thinkingandpersonal strength of hers naturally frustrate Im; his desire to own Laylaand her body increasesradically.Inhisquesttoprotectherudd,helosestouchwithhisnormalself andbecomesaggressive.Laylaconfrontshim:al-nahrdahkuntbitbuliyzaymakn aduwwatak,zay mtaknaztantairaliyy.Lh?25 (113).At amlasengagement partyhisjealousyreachesitspeakwhenhetriestostrangleher,shoutinginti bitat.. bitatana..milkana!Fhima?26(130). Therecurrence of thebody/landimageemphasizesthe properselfasproperty tobe guarded and defended. Ims final solutionwhich frees him from his (sexual) frustrationistosexuallyexploittheservant girl.Since Sayyidaischeap,thisactis justifiableaccordingtotheprinciplesoful,anditillustratesthattheproper(sexual) relationshipis one of ownership andinequality; master overmaid, man over woman, andaccordingly,colonizerovercolonized. InhistoricallyhorizontaltimewiththeacceptanceofImssolution,Britishtroops and Egyptiancommandosclash inthe Canal Zone.Mamdwhoisfightingthere writestoLayla: []. ThissentenceequallyreflectstheEgyptianpeoplesbetrayaloftheirnationandIms personalunfaithfulnesstoLayla;he lovesherwithhisheart,butnotwithhislimbsand blood.BothdisloyaltiesarefinallydiscoveredandvisualizedthroughtheCairoFire. As Layla begins her university studies, the physical borders of her prison are extendedbeyond thehome, whichsupposedlyincreasesherfreedom.However,justas the British presence did not end with the ancien rgime in 1952; the patriarchal, rational and traditional influence and controlnow personified by her lecturer Dr. Ramz, instead of her father or Imcontinues to hold a firm grip on Layla. Dr. Ramzsbasicnatureandattitudetolifedifferfromhersinsharplydefinedways.Layla initially refusestogive in andbecome hisparrot27 ,since sheinstinctively perceives thatsomesortofdangerthreatensfromhisdirection.However,continuouslydrinking herbloodLaylafallsunderDr.Ramzsoverarchingauthority,andfinallyhisopinion ishers: . ..]...[
25[TodayyouwerelookingatmeasifIwasyourenemy,asifyouwantedtowinsomevictoryoverme.Why?] 26[Youbelongtome..Youremine..Myproperty!Understand?] 27baban(222)

19

 .]...[. . ]...[ . .] [ Similar to her first feelingstowards Im, Layla respondsphysically to Dr. Ramzs gazeandpresence;evenwhile shefearshim,he attractsher.Butrealizing thathedoes notmarryherbecauseofloveordesire,Laylaknowsthatshehaschosenthewrong life path. The knowledge that her engagement party is arranged in exactly the same way amlasweddinghadbeen,andthatshecatcheshercousinbeingunfaithful,intensifies this feelinga premonition that Layla is approaching a future that holds a similar marriage; put in the deep freeze and locked up28 ,so tosay. amla isnot onlythe suppressed woman, her character serves as a symbol of the inferior future Egypt is approachingunderBritishruleandtraditionalul. Throughthecharactersofamlaandhernouveurichehusbandwhocansatisfyall amlas material wants, but is unable to offer her an affectionate, egalitarian relationshipal-Zayyt criticizesthe notion that wealth isthemost desirable traitin a potentialpartner.Shedoesthisbyshowing howinterwoven(imported)commoditiesas clothes are in the mating process, and especially by showing how the striving for material comfort increases power inequalities in the context of the couple. The dependenceandinequalitiescreatedaresimilartoEgyptseconomicdependencyonthe British. According to al-Zayyt, this kind of loveless, status-searching relationship is traditional, and she simultaneously associatesitand the growingclass-hierarchies withforeigninfluence.Althoughthismightseemcontradictory,itisnot.Thetraditional Egyptian rulingclassthe monarchy and aristocracymade key capitulations to the British, extending their presence long after independence was declared (both in 1919 and1952).Inaddition,asMcLarney(2009:192f)notes,theindustrialbourgeoisieoften moved to thwart nationalist mobilization because it coincided with the workers movementandunionization. Laylasfather(butalso hermotherandIm)personifiesboththerulingclass,the bourgeoisieandthemalehegemony;opposingbothMamdsnationaliststruggle and marriage out of love aswell asLaylas independence. He passively accepts the class system aswell as the rule of the king and the British although he loves Egypt (and Layla, of course).Thusby drawing close parallels between classand genderlines al-Zayytscriticismofmaledominancesimultaneouslybecomesacriticismnotonlyof theBritishovertheEgyptians,butalsoofthearistocracyoverthemiddle-class.

4.2.2 LiberatedLayla-IndependentEgypt
Laylas ultimate romance is in the end with ussayn, who fights for national independence,believesingenderequalityandtrulylovesLayla.Heisacontradictionto

28tatuftalawayanqafilalayh(230)

20

Dr.Ramz,Im, Laylasfatherandaunts, andthebeliefintraditional foundationsof social interaction. The letter he writes to Layla from Germany clearly illustrates his :standpoints .. . . . ... --. .. . --. . . . . . . . .. . .. : .. .. ....
]-[

12

Not onlyussayns beliefin egalitarianism is clearfrom the above, butalsohisown image of Layla asa symbolofEgypt;WhenIthink ofEgypt,Ithink ofyou;whenI longforEgypt,Ilongforyou.Andtobehonest,Ineverstoplonging forEgypt(217). Hisstruggle tofree Layla fromal-uland towinherlove issimilartoandindeed coincideswithhisstruggle fornationalliberation. That he is partof theengineering team assigned to designthe AswanHigh Dama symbol of Egyptian independence: withdrawalofforeignfundingcaused Egyptto nationalizethe SuezCanaland usethe ensuingrevenuetobuildthedammakesussaynanevenstrongerimageofEgyptian resistance against the British. Moreover,he believesin trueloveand especiallyinthe love for the nation and its people. In his letter above, he tells Layla to rejoin the collective; to open the door, cross al-udd and meet him on the other side as her independentself. After a long period of emotional monotony, Laylas entire body starts trembling whenshe hearsthatussaynisback inEgypt(in1956)andthathestilllovesher(AlZayyt2002:314)andthisfeelingintensifieswhenshetakespartinthewarinPortSaid andintheendisreunitedwithussayn. ...]-[ . ]. [ Infact,thisinnerfeelingisapowerstrongerthananything;Laylafeelsasifeverything ispossible.HeractiveparticipationinthewarwhichleadstoEgyptsliberationasa partofthewhole(resistance),causesLaylatorealizenotonlyherundyingcommitment tothenation,butalsotherealityofherloveforussayn. .. .. .]...[ [].. As illustrated above, love becomes an erotic as well as patriotic and revolutionary impulse, and is heightened and more intensified due to this doubling (cf. Naaman 2008:326).ThroughthisimpulseLaylagainsthepowertofreeherselffromherfamily, fromDr.Ramz andbythatfromal-ul.Actually,intheparagraphthat precedesthe quotationabove,LaylasimageofDr.Ramzsfacehascompletelybeenblottedoutof hermind,asifithadneverbeenthere.Ofwhathadshebeensoafraid?(354). AboutLatinAmericanromancesthatfollowasimilarpattern,DorisSommerwrites:
What I find ingenious, indeed brilliant, about this novel productivity is that one libidinalinvestment ups the ante for the other.Andeveryobstacle that the lovers encounter heightens more than their mutualdesire to (be a) couple,more than our voyeuristic butkeenlyfeltpassion;italsoheightenstheir/our love for the possible nation in which the affair could be consummated. The two levels of desire are different, which allows us to remark on an allegorical structure; but they are not discrete. [...] The desire keeps weaving,or simply doubling itself at personal and

22

politicallevels,because theobstaclesitencountersthreatenbothkindsofhappiness. (1990:127)

Hence,new,independentEgypt becomesthe onlysiteonwhicharelationshipbetween Layla and ussayn can be actualized. The novel concludesin their union under fire, surrounded by a series of committed couplesjoined by love, like Mamdand San. McLarney (2009:193) writes that these symbolize Egyptsnewalliances of classand gender, as they join against British dominance and the hierarchies it has created in Egyptiansociety. Paradoxically, it is Adla, Laylas working class friend, who most radically implementsal-ulinthenovel(cf.Plot).Herviewoflifecontrastswiththematerially well off and lovingSans. Duringdifferent stagesin Laylas liberation process, she alternately feels either more attached to San or more attached to Adla, again illustrating her struggle between the values of secure ul and risky love. Laylas proper self feels more attached to San, however, and offers criticism of Adlas backwardtraditionalviewoflife: . []! Inthe final scene ofal-Bbal-maftonlySanispresent;both workingclassAdla andbourgeoisamlafadeoutofthenarrative,asdoesIm,whobecomesavictimof the war. Symbolically breakingwith the past Layla joins the masses in the streetsof PortSaidandscreamsal-ass,al-muhimmal-ass!29(350)beforethecrowdsdestroy theheadlessstatueofDeLesseps:asymboloftheagesofslaveryandcolonialismthat they had inherited, a symbol that pulled them backinto a loathsome past, that put a barrierbetweenthemand a finer future (362). At thesame timethe engagement ring disappears from her finger, and ussayn screams to her inti urra, y abibati!30 (350). Laylaagainrespondsphysicallywhenshereuniteswiththe whole,asshedidwhile participating inthe studentdemonstrations; whilebeing pushedforward by themasses andsmilingatussaynalightreappearstoher.Butthisoneisdifferent,itcomesfrom within;shehasfoundherself. . [.]. WhenussaynasksLaylaforhowlong theyhavewaitedforthatday,andsheanswers al-umrkullhu31(352),thisistruebothforherasagirlandforEgyptasa nation.This

29[Thefoundation,thatiswhatisimportant!] 30[Youarefree,mylove!] 31[Allourlives]

23

also counts for his comment: d al-bidya, ya habibati!32 (353). This day, when the ceasefire markedthe endofthe Tripartite Aggression on Egypt,isnot onlya defining moment for Laylaliberating and findingher real self as well asher lovebut it is, aboveall,thefirstdayofnew,independentEgypt.

32[Thisisthebeginning,mylove!]

24

Conclusion

Written in the wake of the Suez crisis, al-Bb al-maft is a perfect example of the committednationalistevenfeministEgyptiannovelofthetime.Layla,inherroleof protagonist, actively rebels against the patriarchy, the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the British; power figuresthat hamper Egyptsdevelopment andindependence intheir attempts to retain the status-quo. But Layla is more than the traditional post-1952 heroine. This thesis analysis of al-Bb al-maft, on both a structural and a more profound level,found strongevidence forthe hypothesisthat Laylaandher body couldbeconsideredasymbolofEgypt.Bothentitiesareboundbyhistoryandtradition and struggling to break free: Layla from womans traditional role of unquestioning, dutifuldaughterandwife;Egyptfromitssubserviencetoaforeignpower. Intermsoftheplotandthestructureofthenovel,theanalysisoverviewshowedthat fromthe beginning totheend,theprivateislinkedtothepublic; linearlyeventsoccur onbothlevels,andLaylasfate iscloselyconnectedtothat ofthe nation. Infact,each phaseinthenationalstrugglebeginning withEvacuationDayin1946andendingwith the popular resistance in Port Saidtothe Tripartite Aggressionof Israel, Britain, and France against Egypt in 1956represents a decisive moment for the heroine. That Laylas struggle for independence so clearly parallels that of the nationwhere an understandingofaneventontheonetimelinedeepenstheunderstandingoftheparallel event on the othermakes the novels structure allegorical. Insights into Lafa alZayytslifeandhernationalist,socialistandfeministcommitmentfurthersupportthis double reading,since her beliefwasthatthe nation onlycomesinto beinginthe area wherethepersonalmeetsthecollective. There are many close connectionsbetweenthe creator,and her fictional workand female protagonist. Just as al-Zayyt herself decided to commit her life to national causesat the age of 11, Layla is11 years oldwhen her journey toward political and sexual awareness and independence takes its start with the massive nationalist demonstrationin1946;thefirstexpressionofEgyptianresistanceagainsttheBritish. It seems no coincidence that Layla likens the suppressive isolation that she as a young woman facesand which she rebels againstto a prison. Al-Zayyts experienceas a political prisonerhada significant impact on herpolitical work,since thatwaswhenittookonadoublemeaning.Thisfactencouragestheinterpretationthat, for example,Laylas condemnation ofthe ideaof a womansbody asan object to be possessedandused,relatestothecriticismofBritisheconomicuseandconsumptionof Egyptianinterests(suchastheSuezCanal)andmaterials(suchascotton). The in-depth analysis showed how al-Zayytthrough the use of the Arabic language: the colloquial Egyptian dialect and its imported foreign vocabulary explainsal-ul(the traditionalprinciplesthat according toLayla constitutethe main obstacle for female fulfillment and independence) as formed by foreign interests and maintained by the aristocracy. Furthermore, through the characters of Laylas aristocratic cousin amla and her nouveu riche husband, and Ims sexual exploitment of the maid Sayyida, al-Zayyt illustrates how al-ul increases 25

inequalities, alongboth classandgender lines.The social dependenceandinequalities created are illustrated as similar to Egypts economic dependency on the British. By associating representatives of the aristocracy with colonizers, depicting them as members of the colonial system, al-Zayyts criticism of male dominance simultaneously becomes a criticism of the British over the Egyptians, and the aristocracyoverthemiddle-class. Although Layla defies her destined role as wife and mother, the novel revolves aroundherandherfriendsloveinterests.However,thenotionthattheprivateisclosely intertwinedwith the public is further underpinnedby the fact that Laylas sexual and emotional awakening is articulated with an intensity equal to that of her political awakening.Theintenseexperienceofbodilytransformationthatshefelt(likeLafaalZayyt) as a political activist and as part of a greater whole in the beginning of the novel, becomes an emotion that the female protagonist seeks in her human relationships, for example, with heraristocratic cousin Im,whom she falls inlove with,andtherigidDr.Ramz. Laylas active participation inthe popularresistance in Port Saidwhich leadsto EgyptianindependenceawakensaninnerphysicalstrengththatempowersLaylatodo anything, even to conquer her familys norms and societal values of marriage asthe vehicle forsocial mobilityand,thus,tobreak withDr.Ramz.Andatthesametimeas sherealizesherundyingloveforEgypt,herloveforussaynwhohaslivedthrough everystage ofthenationalist strugglebecomescrystalclear.Asaresult,thepowerof this love is depicted as an erotic as well as libratory and patriotic impulse that is heightenedduetothisdoubling. Lafa al-Zayyts optimism infuses the novel, in which events progress logically and foreseeably toward completion and victory, on both personal and national levels. This thesis found that Egypts struggle to resist the forces of imperialism parallels Laylas struggleto winher freedom asa woman.Inthe end, newallianceswiththe masses, the workers, and the freedom fightersreplace the old admiration of wealth and the West. Here al-Zayyt presents the vision of the alternative ideology that she fought for asa political activist; that of gender and class equality, and of true love. Thus, the union of Layla and ussayn symbolizes the forming moment of an independent Egypt: asLaylaregainsherself-confidence andher abilityto engageina balanced,egalitarianrelationshipwithussayn,sodoesEgyptattainindependenceand strivetodevelopalessclass-definedsocialorderunderthebannerofsocialism.SoThe OpenDoorwasLaylasdoor,andEgyptsdoor.

5.1 FinalRemarks:ofnointerestanylonger..?
Al-Bbal-maftremainsatimelyliteraryworkandisverymuchaproductofitstime. The revolutionaryoptimism that followed the yearsof struggle for national liberation imbues the novel. The common sentiment among Egyptiansat that time allowed the ending of Lafa al-Zayytsnovel to offer a new beginningfor Egypt andfor Layla. Unfortunately,thedoorthatopenedin1956,closedshortlyafterwards. The optimismofal-Zayyt andwriterslike al-arqw couldnot be sustainedafter 1967.The Arab defeat wasa definingmoment notonlyforAbdal-Nirasleaderof 26

the Arab world, but also for the canon of Arabic literature. Post-1967 writersturned their backon socialist realism and began to portray a more pessimistic viewof their societyanditsfuture.Thistrendalsooccursinal-Zayytslaterworks.Consideringall theeconomic,political,andsocialchangesthathavetakenplaceinEgyptsince1967,a novel like al-Bbal-maft wouldnowbean impossibility. Thestrongnationalunity and sense of belongingthat existed 50yearsago has been marginalized and istoday almostnon-existent. Atthesametime,manygirlsandwomennowenjoythelibertiesthatal-Zayytand othersstruggledtorealize.Manymaynowbeabletoreachindependenceontheirown, without a man like ussayn by their side. To them, Laylas struggle might seem of another world. Yet, in an environment of increasing conservatism and elimination of opposition, the social and political struggles that al-Zayyt[, her fictional heroine Layla]andotherindependent-minded,courageous[women]havemade[]areindeed notentirelyathingofthepast(Booth2002:xxx).

27

References

6.1 Sources
Al-Zayyat,Latifa(2002).TheOpenDoor.Transl.MarilynBooth.Cairo:TheAmerican UniversityinCairoPress Al-Zayyt,Lafa(2003)[1960].al-Bbal-maft.Cairo:Maktbatal-Usra

6.2 SecondaryLiterature
Allen,Roger(1995). The ArabicNovel: AnHistorical and CriticalIntroduction.New York:SyracuseUniversityPress Amireh, Amal (1996). Remembering Latifa al-Zayyat, Al Jadid. Vol. 2, No 12 (October1996) (2002). FramingNawal El Saadawi: ArabFeminism in a Transnational World in Suhair Majaj, Lisa Sundeman, Paula W. Saliba, Therese (eds.) (2002). Intersections:Gender,Nation,andCommunityinArabWomensNovels.Syracuse: SyracuseUniversityPress Badran,Margot - Cooke,Miriam (2004) [1990].Opening theGates: AnAnthology of ArabFeministWriting.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress Beinin,Joel(2010).EgyptianTextile Workers:FromCraft ArtisansFacingEuropean CompetitiontoProletariansContendingwiththeStateinHeermavanVoss,Lex- Hiemstra-Kuperus,Els-NederveenMeerkerk,Elise van(eds.)(2010).TheAshgate CompaniontotheHistoryofTextileWorkers,1650-2000.Farnham:AshgatePress Bennett,Sophie(1998).ALifeofOnesOwn?inOstle,Robin-Moor,Edde-Wild, Stefan(eds.)(1998).WritingtheSelf:Autobiographical Writingin Modern Arabic Literature.London:SaqiBooks Booth, Marilyn (2002). Translators Introduction in Al-Zayyt, Lafa (2002). The OpenDoor.Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityinCairoPress Elsadda, Hoda (2008). Egypt in Ashour, Radwa Ghazoul, Ferial J. RedaMekdashi, Hasna (eds.)(2008). Arab WomenWriters:A Critical Reference Guide 1873-1999.Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityinCairoPress Esaiasson, Peter Gilljam, Mikael Oscarsson, Henrik Wngnerud, Lena (eds.) (2007) (3rd ed.). Metodpraktikan konsten att studera samhlle, individ och marknad.Vllingby:ElandersGotab Hafez,Sabry(1976).TheEgyptianNovelintheSixties,JournalofArabicLiterature, Vol.7,pp.68-84 Holmberg,Claes-Gran-Ohlsson,Anders(2007)[1999].Epikanalys:Enintroduktion. Lund:Studentlitteratur 28

Jonsson,Bibi -Sjberg, Birthe(eds.)(2005).Att granskaochdiskutera:Epikanalyser. Lund:Studentlitteratur McLarney, Ellen (2009). The Socialist Romance of the Postcolonial Arabic Novel, ResearchinAfricanLiteratures,Vol.40,No.3(Fall2009) Mehrez,Samia (1996). Kitbat al-waan: Lafa al-Zayyt bayn al-Bb al-maft wa amlat taft:awrq aiyya in al-Barw, Sayid (1996). Lafaal-Zayyt: aladab wa-l-waan. Cairo: Nr - Dr al-mara al-arabiyya, Markaz al-bu alarabiyya Morgan,Maggie M.(1998).TheSelf andtheNation:FourEgyptianAutobiographies. Cairo:SchoolofHumanitiesandSocialSciences,TheAmericanUniversityinCairo Muqbala = awla al-iltizm al-siysiyy wa-al-kitba al-nisiya: muqbala maa Lafaal-Zayyt,Alif:JournalofComparativePoetics(1990),No.10,pp.163-165 Naaman, Mara (2008). The Anti-Romance Antidote: Revisiting Allegories of the Nation in Hammond, Marl (ed.) - Sajdi,Dana (ed.); (2008). Transforming Loss into Beauty: Essays on Arabic Literature and Culture in Honor of Magda AlNowaihi.Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityinCairoPress Al-Nowaihi,MagdaM.(2001).ResistingSilenceinArabWomensAutobiographies, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Nov. 2001), pp. 477-502 Rizk, Yunan Labib (Nov. 2004). Courting our Cotton, Al Ahram Weekly. http:// weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/717/chrncls.htm(2010-04-15) Sommer, Doris (1990). Love and Country in Latin America: An Allegorical Speculation,CulturalCritique,No.16,pp.109-128 Wehr,Hans-Cowan,J. Milton (ed.)(1994).A Dictionary of ModernWrittenArabic. NewYork:SpokenLanguageServices Al-Zayyat,Latifa(1994).OnPoliticalCommitmentandFeministWritinginGhazoul, FerialJ.Harlow,Barbara(eds.)(1994).TheViewfromWithin:WritersandCritics onContemporaryArabicLiterature.Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityinCairoPress (1996). The Search: Personal Papers. Transl. Sophie Bennett. London: Quartet BooksLimited Zeidan, JosephT. (1995). ArabWomen Novelists: The Formative Years and Beyond. Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress

29

AppendixA:TheNovelsofLafaal-Zayyt

(1960)al-Bbal-maft TranslatedbyMarilynBooth:TheOpenDoor(2002) (1986) al-aya:waqiaura (OldAgeandOtherStories) (1992)amlattaft:awrqaiyya(sratiyya) TranslatedbySophieBennett:TheSearch:PersonalPapers(1996) (1994)ibal-bat TranslatiedbySophieBennett:TheOwneroftheHouse(1997) (1995) al-Raulalariftuhmathu:riwyaqara (TheManWhoKnewHisAccusation)

30

AppendixB:EnglishTranslations

TranslationstakenfromTheOpenDoor(2002)
p.16 [...]shefeltanembarrassedshynessaboutherfullbodyandwassurethateverypairofeyesonthestreet wasfocusing on her.[...] Applause, the watchingwomens trillingzard, allof those hands waving, hundreds of eyessparkling,bodies everywhere,rising and fallingin mad leaps.Mouthsopen wide to shout,drops of sweat glinting on a broad forehead, feet pounding, flags and banners fluttering, tears streamingdown,andalwaysthepushing,thepushing,onandon. Blood pulsedinto Laylas head and she felt a surge of energy. She felt alive, at once strong and weightless, as if she were one of those birds circling above.She pushed through the lines and found herself scrambling onto classmates shoulders,heard herself calling out with a voice that wasnot her own.Itseemedavoicethatsummonedherwholebeing,thatunitedtheoldLaylawithherfutureselfand withthecollectivebeingofthesethousandsofpeople.(50f)

p.17 The girlhastohavea properdress,onethatrevealsher shape,andshe needs acorsettoliftherbreasts and keep hermiddlein.[...] Thisgirlison the brinkof marriagenow.Andlikeanygirlifshedoesnt dressright,shewontbringanysortofpriceinthemarket.(41)

p.18 [Shestands] motionlessasastatue in herwhite dress,her back to the sky,a portraitframedinthe ropy, uglymassesofsmoke.(155)

p.18 For the principles he had been taughtan in which he believeddecreed that two types of women existedinthe world.Therewasthesortinthestreet,the sortthatsparkeddesire,andthereweremothers, sisters,wives.Anywomanfor whomhe feltdesiremustbecheap,somethingtobe hadthatlostitsvalue as that desire vanished. Such a female was prey to be hunted, a thing that a man would pursue and triumphover,takinghis booty ashappened in anywar andparadinghispridebefore others.A mandid notfeeldesireforhisauntsdaughter,notevenforafriendssister,notifonewasaproper,politeperson. Desirewastodowiththebody,andbodiesweresoiled.Nothing,infact,couldbefilthierorlower.(72)

p.18 [Layla]grewtotherealizationthattoreachwomanhoodwastoenteraprisonwheretheconfinesofones lifewereclearlyanddecisivelyfixed.Atitsdoorstoodherfather,herbrother,andhermother.Prisonlife, shediscovered,ispainfulforboththe wardenand the womanhe imprisons.The wardencannotsleepat night,fearfulthattheprisonerwillfly,anxiouslestthatprisonerescapestheconfines.Thoseprisonlimits are markedbytrenches,deeply dregedby ordinaryfolk,by allof them;bypeoplewhoheedthe limits

31

and have made themselvessentries.Yet the prisoner feels inher bones thatshe is strong,that she has powerswithin her,onesshe hasneverbefore sensed;she knowstheabruptandshockingstrengthofher bodydeveloping,growing.She findsherself heldby powersthat sweepallbeforethem,thatimpelher towardfreedom.Sheseesforcesinher bodythatthose border trenchesworktoencloseandcontain;and she knows powers in her mind that the confinesthemselves worktoimpound.For they are insensible limitsthatneitherhear,norsee,norperceive.(24)

p.19 Thetruebetrayalisthe betrayalofthosefolkswholoveEgyptwiththeirheartsandmouthsbutnotwith theirlimbsandblood.(139)

pp.19-20 Dr.Ramzwentondrinking herblood,hiswordslikeahammerina workersfist,demolishingwhatever existed,dayafter day.His presence filledher with a fear thatparalyzedher senses andyetat the same time attracted her. [...] Dr.Ramzsauthority seemed to extend into areas she had considered her own personalprovince.[...]Hiseyesfollowedhereverywhere.He wouldappearsuddenly,asiftheearthhad splittolethimemerge,andhiseyeswouldroveacrossherbefore fixing intentlyonher,asiftakingher measure,asif weighingher. There was nodesire in hisgaze; hiscalculationwas slow and precise,an inspector evaluatinga coin for possible forgery.Under Dr. Ramzs gaze Layla shivered [...] and she alwaysletoutasighofreliefthemomenthepulledhiseyesfromher. Evenwhenhewasnotinsighthispresenceseemedtocorralher.(231ff)

p.21 DearLayla, I say Dear Layla even though I wouldrather use another wordthatbetter expresses the truth of my feelingsfor you.But I am afraid I mightscare you;I know how easily you are frightenedpainfully easily.Itispainfultome,anyway. Forthesamereason,Ihesitatedtowrite toyou.Butmyoverpoweringlonging forthehomelandleft menochoice.Foryouhave becomeasymbolofeverythingIloveinmynation.WhenIthink ofEgypt,I thinkofyou;whenIlongforEgypt,Ilongforyou.Andtobehonest,IneverstoplongingforEgypt. I can almostpictureyou smiling.Youdonotbelieve me,doyou? Youdo nottrustme;youputup barriersbetweenyourselfandme.Youarenotwillingtoletgo,toletyourtrue nature haveitsway.You areafraidthatyoumightreallybecome attachedtomemightloose yourselfinme.Youareafraidthat fromme youmightdevelop some confidence in yourself andin life,andthat thenyou mightdiscover yourselfspilled,likecoffee,inmyroom. Ilove you,andIwantyoutolove me.ButIdo notwantyoutoloose yourself inme,or inanyone. NordoIwantyoutodrawyourself-confidenceandyourtrustinlifefrommeorfromanyoneelse.Iwant youtohaveyourownindividual,independentself,andtheconfidence thatcanonlyspring fromtheself, notfromothers.Thenwhen youhaveachievedthatnoone willeverbe able tocrushyou.NotI,nor anycreature.Onlythenwillyoubeabletovolleybackwhateverblowscometoyou,andgoonyourway. Onlythenwillyoubeable tolink your ownexistence,thecoreofyourself,toothers,sothattherealyou willflourishandbloomandrenewitself.Onlythenwillyoubehappy.Youaremiserable now,mylove. You triedto hidethatfromme,butI saw it.Youhave imprisonedyourselfin the minute space within which most people of our class keep themselves: the the province of the I, of apprehension and stagnation,ofsocialrules,thesame rulesthatmadeImbetrayyou,andmade Mamdfeelisolatedin the struggle for the Canal, and has made our class, as a class, stand motionless for so long, on the

32

sidelines,merelyobserverstothe nationalistmovement.Theverysame rulesthatyoudespise andthatI dotoo,andallwholooktowardabetterfutureforourpeopleandournation. In the space of the I you have been living, miserable, because deep down you do believe in liberation,inlettinggo,insacrificing yourselfishdesiresforalargerwhole,inlove,inanever-renewing, fertile life.Youhavebeenmiserablebecausethecurrentoflifeinsideyouhasnotdiedbuthasremained alive,fightingto get out.Dontlet yourself stay imprisonedinthatnarrow sphere,mylove; thatsmall spacewillcloseinonyoumoreandmore untiliteitherstranglesyouortransformsyouintoacompletely unfeeling and unthinking creature. Let go, my love, run forward, connect yourself to others, to the millionsofothers,to thatgoodland,ourland,tothe goodpeople,ours.Thenyouwillfindlove,a love biggerthanyouandme,abeautifullovethatnoonecaneversteelfromyou.Alovewhoseechoyouwill alwaysfindresounding inyour ear,reflected in the heart.Itisa love thatmakesone grow:love for the nation,loveforitspeople. Soletgo,my love,runforward,flingthe dooropenwide,and leave itopen.Andonthe openroad youwillfindme,mylove.Iwillbewaiting foryou,because Ihaveconfidenceinyou.Iknow youcan getout.AndbecauseallIcanholdontoistowait,towaitforyou. ussaynAmr (217ff)

p.22 Somethinginside her was responding, [...] something new and powerful that would not leave her be, something stronger than the fire that burnedin her chest,than the iciness thatshuddered in her limbs, stronger thanthat overwhelmingdesire to letgo,than the dirt,thandeath.(339) The affectionshe had buriedforsolong sailedfromhereyes.Shecouldshowtheprouddelightshefeltinthosefeelingsnow, andherjoyburstfromhereyesandshowedonherlips,hercheeks,tothe tipsofher fingers,everyatom inherbody,asifthosefeelingscomposedatranslucentlightrunningwiththebloodinherveins.(356)

p.22 Beforeher eyesflashedtheimageofherselfpushing forwardontothe battlefield,the enemyretreatingin frontof her.She must, she must see the enemy retreat fromPort Said.And she could. She could do anything.Nothingseemedimpossible now.[...] Butussaynwaswithher,ashehadneverbeforebeen, as if he had suddenly become a reality, a tangible presence to which she could extend her grasp, a presenceshecouldembrace.(354)

p.23 Itsnojoke,Adla[...]areyoujustlike yourmother?Doyouthink exactlywhatshe does?Your mother married without love because she could notdo anything else.She wasntina positionto choose. And anyway,if shehadchosen,shewouldnthavebeenabletomarrythemanshechose.Ourmotherswere the[arm]thingspossessedbytheirfathers,whopassedthemontohusbands.Butus?wedonthave anyexcuses.Educationwevegottenthat,andweunderstandeverything,andwe aretheoneswhohave todecideourownfutures.Evenanimalschoosetheirmates!(77)

p.23 No,itwasnotthesameglowasbefore.Itwasnew.Therehadbeenthatflashof lightthathadgone out, thesunonanovercastday.Thiswasquietandwarmandsteady,alightthatemanatedfromwithin.(364)

33