ME 2354

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

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Unit - I T P 0 0

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http://www.the-crankshaft.info/ UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 9 Types of automobiles, vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and body, resistances to vehicle motion and need for a gearbox, components of engine-their forms, functions and materials UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9 Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system, Turbo chargers, Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system. UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS 9 Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel torque converter, propeller shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential, and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive. UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9 Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems, Antilock Braking System and Traction Control. UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 9 Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell. Note: A Practical Training in dismantling and assembling of engine parts and transmission systems may be given to the students. TOTAL: 45 PERIODS TEXT BOOKS: 1. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering Vols 1 & 2 , Standard Publishers, Seventh Edition ,1997, New Delhi 2. Jain,K.K.,and Asthana .R.B, Automobile Engineering Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2002 REFERENCES: 1. Newton ,Steeds and Garet, Motor Vehicles , Butterworth Publishers,1989 2. Joseph Heitner, Automotive Mechanics,, Second Edition ,East-West Press ,1999 3. Martin W. Stockel and Martin T Stockle , Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals, The Goodheart Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978 4. Heinz Heisler , Advanced Engine Technology, SAE International Publications USA,1998 5. Ganesan V.. Internal Combustion Engines , Third Edition, Tata Mcgraw-Hill ,2007

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ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Unit - I Development of the Automobile The progress of means for transportation has been intimately associated with the progress of civilization. Transportation on land has evolved from the slow moving oxcart to the high-speed automobile. A self-propelled vehicle used for transportation of goods and passengers on land is called an automobile or automotive or motor vehicle. In general, modern automobile is a complex piece of machinery performing in a safe, economical and efficient manner. It is comprised of a chassis and a body. The chassis is made up of a frame supporting body, power unit, clutch or fluid coupling, transmission system and control systems. Wheels and tyres through suspension system and axles, support the frame. The power delivered by the power unit (engine) is transmitted through the clutch or fluid coupling, transmission system, and axles to the wheels. The automobile is propelled on road due to friction between the tyre and road surface. The various sub-systems are properly designed and held together for efficient functioning individually as well as whole unit. The protection and comfort is provided by the body and the suspension system. The automobile has its limitations in regard to the load it can carry and the speed as well as the distance it can carry the load. Types of Automobiles: The different types of automobiles found on roads are presented in Chart in a comprehensive manner. There are in general three main classifications of the various types of vehicle. Based on the Purpose : 1) Passenger Vehicles Car, Jeep, Bus 2) Goods Vehicles Truck Based on the Capacity: 1) Light Motor vehicles Car, Motor cycle, scooter 2) Heavy Motor vehicles Bus, coach, and tractor. Based on the Fuel Used: 1) Petrol vehicles, 2) Diesel vehicles, 3) Alternate fuel Based on the No. of wheels: 1) Two wheelers 2) Three wheelers 3) Four wheelers 4) Six wheelers 5) Ten wheelers etc. Based on the Drive of the vehicles: 1) Single wheel drive 2) Two wheel drive 3) four wheel drive. Also Front wheel drive, rear wheel drive and all wheel drive. Based on the body style: closed cars, open cars and special styles Based on the transmission: Conventional, semi-automatic, fully automatic They are: (i) The single-unit vehicles or load carriers. (ii) The articulated vehicles. {iii)The heavy tractor vehicles. Classification of vehicles:

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ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Unit - I

Construction of an Automobile: Basic structure, The Power plant, The transmission system, The auxiliaries, The controls, The superstructure Basic Structure: This is the unit on which are to be built the remainder of the units required to turn it into a power operated vehicle. It consists of the frame, the suspension systems, axles, wheels and tyres Power Plant: It provides the motive power for all the various functions which the vehicle or any part of it, may be called upon to perform. It generally consists of an IC engine which may be either of spark-ignition, or of compression ignition type. The Transmission system: It consists of a clutch, a gear box, a transfer case, a propeller shaft, universal joints, final drive, and differential gear. The auxiliaries: It consists of supply system (Battery and generator), the starter, the ignition system, and ancillary devices ( Driving lights, signaling, other lights, Miscellaneous items like radio, heater, fans, electric fuel pump, windscreen wipers, etc.) The Controls It consists of steering system and brakes. The superstructure It may be body attached with frame, frameless construction. Layouts of Automobile:

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ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Unit - I Main Parts of the Automobile: The modern automobile can be categorized into two distinct sub-assemblies, the body and the chassis. The body: The main function of the body is to provide comfort and protection to the passengers besides giving a good look. The body includes the passenger compartment, the trunk, the bumpers, the fenders, the radiator grill, the hood, interior trim, glass and paint. A wide variety of body styles, like two doors or four doors, sedans or hardtop, convertible or station wagons are available for each chassis model.

A car body.

A car chassis.

The chassis: The chassis forms the complete operating unit and is capable of running with its own power. It is an assembly of a vehicle without body. The chassis includes frame, wheels, axles, springs, shock absorbers, engine, clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft and universal joints, differential and half shafts, steering, brakes and accelerator, fuel tank, storage battery, radiator, and silencer. The engine is generally located at the front of the vehicle, followed by clutch, gear box, propeller shaft, universal joint, differential, rear axle etc. The drive from the gearbox is transmitted through a short shaft to the front universal joint of the propeller shaft. From the propeller shaft it is conveyed to the rear wheels through a sliding splined type of universal joint. The bevel gear of the short shaft is driven by the rear universal joint. This bevel gear meshes with a large bevel gear, which drives the two rear axle shafts through the differential gear. There are two methods of body and chassis construction, the separate body and chassis construction and the integral construction. In the separate body and chassis construction, the body is fitted to the chassis frame by means of a number of body bolts, passing through the base of the body and the frame. Pads of anti-quake or vibration materials such as rubbers are placed between the body and the frame at the bolts to prevent quakes and rattles.

PEC DoME

ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Unit - I

Integral body construction In the integral construction, the body and the chassis frame are combined as one eliminating the mountings. The integral construction is also called as chassis-less or unibody construction. Unlike commercial vehicles, which have a separate cab attached to a chassis, car bodies are now mostly of integral construction, which is frameless mono-box construction. These body shells are made up from pillars, rails, sills, and panels all welded together, and a reinforcing channel-section under-frame with an extended sub-frame at the front is provided to replace the chassis.

Vehicle Assemblies The main components of an automobile can be sub-grouped in the following assemblies: (i) Engine or power plant, (ii) Running gear or basic structure, (iii) Driving system, (iv) Basic Control system, (v) Electrical system, (vi) Accessories

Vehicle Assemblies Engine: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 5

Unit - I The prime movers used in almost all vehicles are either gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines. Some specialty automobiles use a different type of engine. The diesel engine consumes considerably less fuel than the gasoline engine, when operated at low speeds.

An automobile engine with clutch and gearbox. The rotating combustion chamber engine is gaining popularity in small cars, and its use will probably increase. Turbine engines show promise, especially in commercial vehicles. They are powerful, light weight and produce less hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides. They are ideally suited to replace diesel engines in over-the-road load carrying vehicles. Battery or electric vehicles are also being introduced to conserve fossil fuels and to minimise pollution. The engine is located either in the front, mid-ship or rear. Front mounted engines are more common in automobiles. The engine contains mechanical parts, fuel system, cooling system, lubricating system and exhaust system. Figure shows an automobile engine with its clutch and gearbox. The radiator is located at the front of the engine.

Running Gear: The running gear comprises of the frame, suspension, springs, shock absorbers, wheels, rims and tyres. The tyres are the only place where the automobile touches the road. All of the engine power, steering and braking forces must operate through these tyre-to road contact areas. Control of the vehicle is reduced or lost when the tyre does not contact the road or when skidding begins. The suspension keeps the tyre in contact with the road as much as possible in all road conditions. The suspension system must be strong enough to resist axle twisting from high engine power and from brake reaction. The suspension system consists of springs, shock absorbers and linkages or arms. The frame is a rigid structure that forms a skeleton to hold all the major units together. The wheels and tyre assemblies support the frame and the units are attached to it, through front and rear suspension systems so as to follow the road irregularities. Driving System: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 6

Unit - I The driving system comprises of the clutch, transmission, driveline, differential and rear axle. The driving system carries power to the driving wheels from the engine. A clutch or torque converter is connected to the engine crankshaft to effectively disconnect or connect the engine with the driveline. The function of the transmission is to provide gear reduction, which produces high torque to start the automobile from rest and drive it up the steep grades. It also provides a reverse gear for backing the automobile. A propeller shaft is required to transmit the engine power to the rear axle. It has universal joints on each end to provide flexibility as the suspension position changes. A differential incorporated with a rear axle, splits the incoming power to each drive wheel. This also allows the drive wheels to turn at different speeds as they go over bumps and round corners.

Control System: The steering and braking systems form the basic control system. The steering gear controls the direction in which the front wheels are pointed. The steering systems have some parts (i.e. the steering gear) bolted to the frame, some parts (i.e. the steering column) bolted to the body and some parts closely integrated with the front suspension system. The brake system slows down the speed of the vehicle or stops it at the driver's will. The entire brake system is located in the chassis. The brakes are mounted inside the wheels. The brake designs are either drum type or disc type. Four-wheel disc brakes are more common in use. Electrical System: The electrical system is a part of both chassis and body. The system includes the starting, charging, ignition, lighting and horn circuit. Some electrical circuits are for engine operation, some for power transmission and others for lighting and operation of protective devices and accessories. Accessories: Accessories are used to make driving more pleasant. They include car heater, air-conditioner, radio, windscreen wiper, indicators etc. Engine Position: Front Engine: There are a number of reasons for locating the engine at the front of a car as shown in Fig. The large mass of an engine at the front of the car provides the driver protection in the event of a headon collision, and engine-cooling system becomes simpler. Also the cornering ability of a vehicle becomes better due to concentration of weight at the front.

Front-engine car Rear Engine: With the engines mounted at the rear of the vehicle the components like the clutch, gearbox and final drive assembly can be installed as a single unit. This arrangement requires the use of some form of independent rear suspension. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 7

Unit - I Rear-engine layout is mostly confined to small cars, as this adversely effects on the handling of the car. Also it takes up a larger space in comparison to the front-engine car for carrying luggage. However, a rear-engine layout increases the load on the rear driving wheels, providing better grip on the road. Figure presents one of the rear-engine cars. The front seats are close to the front wheels than a front-engine car, and the floor is quite flat.

Rear-engine car

Mid-engine car

Central and Mid-engine: This engine location is generally confined to sports cars because this provides both good handling and maximum traction from the driving wheels. This arrangement, however, is not convenient for everyday cars as the engine takes up space that is normally occupied by passengers. The mid-engine layout, shown in Fig., combines the engine and transmission components in one unit. Drive Arrangements Rear-wheel Drive. In this layout (Fig.) the rear wheels act as the driving wheels and the front wheels swivel for steering of the vehicle. The location of the main components in this arrangement makes each unit accessible. A major drawback is the protrusion of the transmission components into the passenger compartment due to which a larger bulge is produced in the region of the gearbox and a raised long tunnel down to the centre of the car floor is formed to accommodate the propeller shaft. In this driving arrangement, the load transfer takes place from the front to rear of the vehicle during hill climbing or acceleration providing good traction. However, if the wheels lose adhesion, the driving wheels move the rear of the car sideways causing the car to 'snake'.

Rear-wheel drive.

Front-wheel drive

Four-wheel drive

Front-wheel Drive: This layout (Fig) is compact as the engine is mounted transversely and hence very popular for use on cars. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 8

Unit - I From space considerations the length of the engine is the critical, but the use of V-type engines for larger power units has enabled to place the engine transversely. Consequently, the placement of all the main components under the bonnet (hood), and the removal of floor bulges and tunnel provide maximum space for the rear passengers. Transverse mounting of the engine also simplifies the transmission. The use of bevel-type final drive is eliminated; instead a simple reduction gear along with a differential transmits the power through short drive shafts to the road wheels. Each drive shaft is fitted with an inner and outer universal joint. The outer joint accommodates the steering action and is specially designed to transmit the drive through a large angle. When the front wheels are used for steering, the driving force acts in the same direction as the wheel is pointing. Also the vehicle is being 'dragged' behind the front driving wheels. These features improve vehicle handling especially in slippery conditions. Mounting the main units in one-assembly some-times makes it difficult to gain access to some parts, but this problem has largely been overcome now a days. One disadvantage is that the driving wheels have fewer grips on the road when the vehicle is accelerating and negotiating a gradient. This problem can be partly rectified by placing the engine well forward to increase the load on the driving wheels, but the car is then liable to become 'nose-heavy' causing the steering more arduous. In cases where the driver's steering effort becomes excessive, the car is often fitted with power-assisted steering.

Four-wheel Drive: This arrangement (Fig.) is safer because of distribution of the drive to all four wheels. The sharing of the load between the four wheels during acceleration reduces the risks of wheel spin specifically on slippery surfaces like snow and mud. In addition the positive drive to each wheel during braking minimizes the possibility of wheel lock- up. On an icy road or across off-highway a two-wheel-drive vehicle soon becomes non-drivable due to the loss of grip of one of the driving wheels which causes the wheel to spin. Specifying an Automobile For describing an automobile, the various factors taken into consideration are: (a) Type: Whether scooter, motor cycle, car, lorry, truck etc. (b) Carriage capacity: Whether 1/4 tonne, 1 tonne, 3 tones, etc. or 2 seater, 4 seater, 6 seater, 30 seater, 40 seater etc. (c) Make. The name allotted by the manufacturer. It is generally the name of the power unit indicating kW or number of cylinders or shape of the engine block. (d) Model: The year of manufacture or a specific code number allotted by the manufacturer. (e) Drive, (i) Whether left hand or right hand drive, i.e. the steering is fitted on the left hand side or right hand side. (ii) Two wheel drive, four wheel drive, or six wheel drive. As an example for specifying a truck, the typical specifications are given below: (i) Type : Truck 312 L (ii) Capacity : 17,025 kg (iii) Drive: Right hand, 6x4 wheels, (iv) Make: Tata Mercedes-Benz (v) Model: OM 312 The Single-unit Vehicles or Load Carriers: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Unit - I These vehicles are conventional four-wheel types with two-axle design in which the front axle is a steering non-driving axle and the rear axle is the driving axle. With the advancement, many changes have been incorporated in the number of axles as well as the driving system.

The Articulated Vehicles A larger powered three-wheeler with single steering wheel in front and a conventional rear-driving axle falls in this category. It can be turned about its own tail due to the three-wheel construction and has a greater handling ability in unusual places. The coupling mechanism between semi-trailer and tractor in most of these vehicles is designed for automatic connection and coupling up. A lever is provided within the driver's approach for coupling operation. A pair of retractable wheels in front can be raised or lowered automatically along with the coupling and uncoupling operation. The Heavy-tractor Vehicles To move heavy loads tractor or independent tractor vehicles are used. They commonly operate in pair either in tendon or as puller or pusher. The latter arrangement provides stability while descending appreciable gradients. The digital figures like 4x2, 4x4, 6x4 etc. are commonly used in the classification of vehicles, where the first figure represents the total number of wheels and the second figure the number of driving wheels. By increasing the number of axles, the load per axle can be reduced, which protects the tyres from overloading and the road surface from damage. Wheel axles are called "live" if drive and called "dead" if non-drive. A live axle supports the payload and provides driving tractive effort, whereas a dead axle just supports the load. The Motor Car The motorcar carries passengers in the sitting position and also accommodates their luggage. Space is also provided for the engine, the transmission system, the steering, the suspension layout, and the braking system. Finally, consideration is given to the styling of the body to meet various aesthetics and application requirements. The light motor vehicles designed to carry passengers and sometimes goods are broadly classified as follows: (i) Saloon car (ii) Coupe (iii) Convertible (iv) Estate car (v) Pick-up. Saloon Car: Saloon cars have an enclosed compartment to accommodate a row of front and row of rear seats without any partition between the driver and rear-passenger seats.

Saloon car. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

Hatchback car. 10

Unit - I A separate luggage space is made either at the front or the rear, based on the location of the engine. One or two doors are provided on each side of the car, but if the car is a hatchback, a door replaces the luggage space.

Coupe: The couple is the outcome of changes is saloon-car design and has two doors, two front seats, and a hard roof. When two additional small seats are provided at the rear, the layout is known as "two-plus-two".

Coupe car.

Convertible car.

Convertible : Normally cars of this type have two doors and two seats, but sometimes two extra seats are also provided. Generally these have a soft folding roof and wind-up windows to make the compartment either open or closed. Estate Car: In this type, the passenger roof of saloon is completely extended to the back end so that rear space is increased. For access a rear door is provided and sometimes the rear seats are designed to collapse to provide additional space for carrying goods.

Estate car.

Pick-up.

Pick-up: This type of vehicle is generally classified as a two-door front-seating van with an open back (with or without canvas roof) to carry mixed collection of goods. Vans Vans are light goods vehicles used for long distances or door-to-door delivery. They have seats in the front for the driver and for only one or two passengers. The engine is usually located over or just in front of the front axle.

Medium-sized van. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 11

Unit - I Hinged or sliding type doors are located on each side opposite the seats. There are double doors at the rear of the van, which open outwards for easy loading. Small vans combine the cab and the body with integral or nomo-box construction. Large vans sometimes have separate cab and body, mounted on an independent chassis frame. The rear axle may have twin road- wheels to have higher load carrying capacity.

Coaches Coaches carry passengers traveling on long distance, and hence the interior is designed to provide the best possible comfort and to minimize fatigue. Seats are located facing the front to provide passengers the benefit of looking ahead. For better visibility of passengers large paneled windows are provided on either side extending the full length of the vehicle and across the back seats. There is a door adjacent to the driver. The passenger's doors are located opposite side of the driver's seat one towards the front and the other towards the rear. An emergency door is usually provided towards the centre on the opposite side of passenger's doors. Most coaches have the two-axle arrangement, but sometimes an extra axle is also used. As shown in the figure, engines may be mounted longitudinally in the front (Position 1), or in the midposition horizontally (Position 2) or at the rear transversely (Position 3). The location of the engine and transmission depends much on the length of the coach, the number of passenger seats, the luggage space, and high or low floorboard and seat-mounting requirements.

Coach Double-decker bus Double-decker Bus These buses are used to transport large numbers of people having little luggage for short distances, usually in high-density traffic. The double-decker bus occupies the minimum amount of road space. These vehicles require a stair space for people to climb up to the upper deck (first floor). The ground floor of the bus is arranged for seating and standing provision of the passengers. The size and quality of seats are normally minimal due to short journeys. Visibility for passengers inside the bus is provided sufficiently so that they can see where they are and where to get off. Most modern buses have two sets of doors. Passengers can enter through the front side door and pay their fare, and can disembark by the rear side door. The engine is normally located transversely across the back of the bus or sometimes longitudinally to one side at the back. Lorries Commercial vehicles used for the transportation of heavy goods are generally referred to as lorries. These vehicles are grouped into two categories such as rigid trucks and articulated vehicles. Rigid Trucks PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 12

Unit - I These vehicles unlike articulated vehicles are constructed to have all the axles attached to a single chassis frame. A simple truck has two axles and four wheels. More number of axles and wheels are added to increase load-carrying capacity.

Classification of a Rigid Truck. The number of wheel hubs and the number of drive axle hubs classify the rigid trucks as follows : 1. A four-wheeler (4 x 2) truck with two driving wheels 2. A six-wheeler (6 x 4) truck with four driving wheels 3. A six-wheeler (6 x 2) truck with two driving wheels. 4. An eight-wheeler (8 x 4) truck with four driving wheels

Rigid4x2 truck.

Rigid 6x4 truck.

Rigid 8x4 truck.

Articulated Tractor and Semi-trailer: Articulated vehicles use a tractor unit for providing the propulsive power and a semi-trailer for carrying the payload. The tractor uses a short rigid chassis and two or three axles. The front axle carries the steered road-wheels, and the rear axle is the driving (live) one. The middle axle may either function as an additional drive axle or for dual steering. The semi-trailer has a long rigid chassis with a single-axle, tandem-axle, or tri-axle layout at the rear end. All the trailer axles are dead axles. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 13

Unit - I The front end of the trailer chassis is supported on the rear of the tractor chassis. At this point it is free to swivel about a pivot known as the fifth wheel coupling. The fifth-wheel coupling is the swivel mechanism used to attach the trailer to the tractor unit. It contains a turntable, fixed to the rear of the tractor unit, to support the underside front end of the trailer with a kingpin, which pivots between two half jaws. For hitching and unhitching of the trailer and the tractor, the half jaws are moved either together to secure the kingpin or apart to release it.

Rigid 4x2 tractor and single-axle 2 articulated trailers.

Rigid 6x4 tractor and tandem-axle 4 articulated trailers.

Rigid 6x2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated trailers. Classification of Articulated Vehicle: Different sizes of articulated tractor and trailer are available which can be classified as follows. 1. Four-wheeler and two-wheel trailer (rigid 4x2 tractor and single-axle 2 articulated trailer) 2. Six-wheeler tandem-drive-axle tractor and four-wheel trailer (rigid 6x4 tractor and tandem-axle 4 articulated trailer) 3. Six-wheeler dual-steer-axle tractor and six wheel trailer (rigid 6x2 tractor and tri-axle 6 articulated trailer) Articulated Vehicles Compared with Rigid Trucks: Advantages: The trailer and tractor units are interchangeable and a tractor can be immediately coupled to another loaded trailer unit. Articulated vehicles have much smaller turning circles than rigid trucks of the same length. Disadvantages: Less traction is available, because only the front end of the semi-trailer is supported by the tractor. Tractor-and-trailer assembly have a tendency to jack about the fifth wheel under certain steered and barking conditions. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 14

Unit - I The tractor and trailer have only a small degree of pivoting in the vertical plane due to which they behave unstable over rough ground. Articulated-trailer wheels do not follow the same path as the tractor wheels, and tend to cut in or across the road while turning a corner.

Body and Chassis Automobile chassis and frame (structure) support various components and body of the vehicle in addition to loads it is supposed to carry. There are two principal types of auto body construction. The unibody construction, and the body and chassis frame construction. In the unibody or integral construction, individual metal parts are welded together to make up the body assembly and provide overall body rigidity through an integral all steel welded construction. The attachment provisions for the power train and suspension systems are provided by the under body area, which also contributes to the strength of the vehicle. The floor plan and related sections become an integral part of the chassis frame. Although a separate frame is used on commercial vehicles, the majority of modern cars use integral construction, which produces a stronger and lighter vehicle and is cheaper on mass production. Whether it is a car or a truck, the automobile structure has to withstand various static and dynamic loads. To appreciate the design and construction of a vehicles chassis, an understanding of the operating environment is necessary. The chapter presents the automobile structure as a whole. The Chassis The chassis frame supports the various components and the body, and keeps them in correct positions. The frame must be light, but sufficiently strong to withstand the weight and rated load of the vehicle without having appreciable distortion. It must also be rigid enough to safeguard the components against the action of different forces. The chassis design includes the selection of suitable shapes and cross-section of chassis-members. Moreover the design looks into the reinforcement of the chassis side- and cross-member joints, and the various methods of fastening them together. The materials most commonly used for frame construction is cold-rolled open-hearth steel, but sometimes heat treated alloy steel that has equivalent strength with less weight is also used. The steel is usually cold-pressed into channel sections so that the frame becomes strong and light. Heavy-duty trucks sometimes use frames made from I-sections and other structural forms. Figure illustrates the two views of a typical frame.

A typical vehicle frame Chassis Operating Conditions PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 15

Unit - I The design of an automobile chassis requires prior understanding of the kind of conditions the chassis is likely to face on the road. The chassis generally experiences four major loading situations that include, (i) vertical bending, (ii) longitudinal torsion, (iii) lateral bending, and (iv) horizontal lozenging.

Vertical Bending: Considering a chassis frame is supported at its ends by the wheel axles and a weight equivalent to the vehicle's equipment, passengers and luggage is concentrated around the middle of its wheelbase, then the side-members are subjected to vertical bending causing them to sag in the central region. Longitudinal Torsion: When diagonally opposite front and rear road-wheels roll over bumps simultaneously, the two ends of the chassis are twisted in opposite directions so that both the side and the cross-members are subjected to longitudinal torsion (Fig.), which distorts the chassis.

Longitudinal torsion

Lateral bending

Lozenging.

Lateral Bending. The chassis is exposed to lateral (side) force that may be due to the camber of the road, side wind, centrifugal force while turning a corner, or collision with some object. The adhesion reaction of the road-wheel tyres opposes these lateral forces. As a net result a bending moment (Fig.) acts on the chassis side members so that the chassis frame tends to bow in the direction of the force. Horizontal Lozenging: A chassis frame if driven forward or backwards is continuously subjected to wheel impact with road obstacles such as pot-holes, road joints, surface humps, and curbs while other wheels produce the propelling thrust. These conditions cause the rectangular chassis frame to distort to a parallelogram shape, known as 'lozenging' (Fig.). Chassis Frame Sections During movement of a vehicle over normal road surfaces, the chassis frame, is subjected to both bending and torsional distortion as discussed in the previous section. Under such running conditions, the various chassis-member cross-section shapes, which find application, include. (i) Solid round or rectangular cross-sections, (ii) Enclosed thin-wall hollow round or rectangular box-sections, (iii) Open thin-wall rectangular channeling such as 'C, T, or 'top-hat' sections.

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ME1353 Automobile Engineering

16

Unit - I

Chassis-member sections.
(A) Square solid bar (B) Round solid bar (C) Circular tube with longitudinal slit (D) Circular closed tube (E) C-section (F) Rectangular box section (G) Top-hat-section (H) I-section (I) Channel flitch plate.

Side-member Bending Resistance: The chassis side-members, which span the wheelbase between the front and rear axles must be able to take the maximum of the sprung weight. The sprung weight is the weight of the part of the vehicle supported by the suspension system. The binding stiffness of these members must resist their natural tendency to sag. The use of either pressed-out open-channel sections or enclosed thin-wall hollow round or rectangular box-sections can provide the maximum possible bending stiffness of chassis members relative to their weight. A comparison of the bending stiffness of different cross-sections having the same cross-sectional area and wall thickness is presented in Fig. Considering a stiffness of 1 for the solid square section, the relative bending stiffness for other sections are, Square bar 1.0 Round bar 0.95 Round hollow tube 4.3 Rectangular C-channel 6.5 Square hollow section 7.2 Practically, a 4 mm thick C-section channel having a ratio of channel web depth to flange width of about 3:1 are used as chassis side-members. This provides a bending resistance of 15 times greater than that for a solid square section with the same cross sectional area. For heavy-duty applications, two C-section channels may be placed back to back to form a rigid loadsupporting member of I-section (Fig. H). To provide additional strength and support for an existing chassis over a highly loaded region (for example, part of the side-member spanning a rear tandem-axle suspension), the side-members may have a double-section channel. This second skin is known as a flitch frame or plate (Fig. I). PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 17

Unit - I Side-and Cross-member Torsional Resistance: The open-channel sections exhibit excellent resistance to bending, but have very little resistance to twist. Therefore, both side and cross-members of the chassis must be designed to resist torsional distortion along their length. Figure C to F illustrates the relative torsional stiffness between open-channel sections and closed thinwall box-sections. Comparisons firstly between the open and closed circular sections and secondly between the rectangular sections are made, considering the open section has a resistance of 1 in each case. Longitudinal split tube = 1.0 Enclosed hollow tube = 62.0 Open rectangular C-channel = 1.0 Closed rectangular box-section = 105.0 This clearly explains the advantages of using channel sections over the hollow tube due to high torsional stiffness. The chassis frame, however, is not designed for complete rigidity, but for the combination of both strength and flexibility to some degree. Chassis Frame Design A frame suitable for a light truck or minibus is shown in Fig. The frame uses a non-independent suspension system and is consisted of two channel-shaped sidemembers, which are joined together with the help of a series of cross-members. These cross-members are placed at points of high stress and are cold-riveted to the side-members. The channel section must be chosen to minimize deflection. Most frames of light vehicles are made of low-carbon steel having the carbon content of 0.15 - 0.25 percent. Since the load varies at each point of the frame, so to reduce its weight either the depth of channel is to be decreased, or a series of holes are to be drilled along the neutral axis in the regions where the load is relatively less.

Frame for light truck. To safeguard the frame against lozenging, gusset plates are fitted to reinforce the joins between the side- and cross-members, or an *X' type bracing is placed between two or more of the cross members. The frame shown in Fig. does not have sufficient rigidity against torsion, so the body has to meet this requirement. If the body is not designed to resist these stresses, the problems like movement between doors and pillars, broken windscreens and cracking of the body panels may occur. Since body jigs for pressing the integral bodies are generally very expensive, it is usual to use a separate chassis frame when the production of a given model is not large in number. Most of the cars have independent suspension, so the frame must be extremely rigid at the points of joining the main components with the body. To achieve this, box-section members are welded together and suitably reinforced in the regions of high stress (Fig.) Figure presents a backbone frame, an alternative construction to the conventional rectangular frame. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 18

Unit - I In this construction two longitudinal box section members are welded together at the centre and separated at the front and rear to accommodate the main components. A series of out-rigger frame members are welded to the spine to support the floor of the body.

Box section frame.

Backbone-type frame.

Energy-absorbing Frame: The chassis frames in older designs were made very stiff in order to improve safety for the occupants of a car when involved in a collision. This is not truly correct because on impact the structure provides the occupants an extremely high deceleration and the force acting on the human body as it dashes against a hard surface is likely to cause serious injury or death.

Energy-absorbing frame This problem has been overcome in most modern frames by constructing the front- and rear-end of the frame in a manner so that it crumples in a concertina manner during collision and absorb the main shock of the impact. Actually the body panel in the vicinity of these crumple zones are generally damaged beyond repair, but this is a small price to pay to minimize the injury to the occupants. Figure 21.9 illustrates the principle of designing a frame to absorb the energy of front-end and rear-end impacts.

Chassis Side- and Cross-member Joints Cross- and side-members are joined together to form a rectangular one-piece frame. Open-channel sections are commonly used for cross members, but for special applications some times tube sections are also used. The individual channel members do not have adequate stiffness against twist, but when joined together they form a relatively rigid structure capable of withstanding both bending the torsional loading. The attachment of the cross-members to the side channels needs special attention, because the junction points are subjected to maximum bending as well as torsional stresses. Commercial-vehicle side-members are generally made from flat strip pressed into C-channel of appropriate section.

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Unit - I

Chassis side- and cross-member reinforcement joints

(A) Top-hat-section cross-member joined to side-member flanges and web (B) C-section cross-member with extended flanges joined to side-member flanges (C) C-section cross-member with reinforcement gussets joined to side-member web (D) 'Top-hat'-section cross-member with alligator-jawed enforcement joined to both flanges and web (E) Tubular-section cross-member with reinforcement flat bracket joined to side-member web.

The web section of C-channel resists any vertical bending and the top and bottom flanges prevent the web from buckling along its length and provide additional resistance to both bending and torsional stresses. Since the flanges or the outer regions of the web are the maximum stressed parts of the channel, any attachment should, therefore, preferably be in the web section. In actual practice, joints are made between flanges or a combination of both web and flange joints for convenience. Figure A shows a cross-member of 'top-hat' section joined between the web and both flanges. Sometimes just the web alone is joined, or alternatively the upper and lower flanges from the attachments. These joints are mostly used for light and medium-duty work. Figure B shows a pure channel-section flange joint and the cross-member flanges have been widened to provide reinforcement to the joint. This joint is used only for medium duty work. Figure C shows side- and cross-member joint where the cross-member has a lap-welded end gusset (triangular) bracket, joined to the side channel web only. This method of joint reinforcement allows the flange to be out of holes, which generally serve as a point for stress concentration. These joints are widely used for heavy-duty trucks. Figure D shows a pressed-out two-piece cross-member that opens up at the end to form an alligator-jaw flange-and-web reinforced joint. This form of cross-member and attachment is often used when it is necessary to have an under slung bridging member to clear the engine's sump-pan. Figure E shows a round tube-section cross-member with a fillet-welded rectangular end bracket joined directly to the side-member web. Tubular-section cross-members are specifically suitable for withstanding both bending and torsional stresses at concentrated points, such as spring shackle-hangers and tandem-axle suspension pivoting supports.

Chassis Side- and Cross-member fastening: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 20

Unit - I The service life of a chassis structure also depends on the type of joints in which the various members are fixed together. Riveting, bolting, and lap welding are the three different methods of joining available.

Chassis-member joint (A) Riveted joint (B) Bolted joint (C) Lap-welded joint. Riveted Joints: Cold-riveted joints (Fig. A) are most commonly used to join two chassis members. The unformed rivet has a shank and a set head. In the process of cold forging the second head, the shank spreads out in a pair of holes in the members to be joined, and occupies any clearance existing in the hole. These joints provide a moderately large compressive force between the plates so that relative movement is prevented. Bolted Joints: For heavy-duty applications, the bolted joints (Fig. B) are preferred, specifically if additional components are to be fastened. The tightening of nuts and bolts sets up compressive forces between the plates, so that the corresponding friction forces generated prevent relative movement. If the nuts are not adequately tightened, or if they become loose due to continuous flexing and vibration of the chassis, relative movement between the joined plates due to any clearance may cause to fretting, noise, corrosion and finally fatigue failure. Welded Joints: Generally chassis side- and cross-members are not welded together. However subsections are frequently joined by lap welding. The problem with welded joints (Fig. C) is that they produce thermal distortion and, in case of the rigid frame, high stress concentration develops at the joints, which may eventually crack. Additionally, welding destroys any previous heat treatment around the joint thereby weakening the structure. Although precautions are available to prevent these problems but they are expensive to apply. Body work and Integral Construction: Some Terminology Pertaining to Body: Cab: It is the driver's cabin, which may be a closed region separated from the rest of the body (as in truck) or may be an open region being a part of the body (as in car). Fascia. It is the frontage of the vehicle visible to the driver. It includes the dash board (instrument board), tape recorder housing, globe box etc. Dash board. It houses various indicators such as fuel level indicator, engine temperature indicator, speedometer, voltmeter, ammeter, odometer, air-conditioner's control panel, ignition switch, light switches, side indicator switch, various controls switches, automatic operation switches, etc. Legroom. It is the space provided for the movement of legs of the driver and passengers. Sufficient legroom is essential for a comfortable driving, riding and traveling. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 21

Unit - I Headroom. It is the vertical distance inside the body between the floor to ceiling. This dimension is based on the stability consideration of the vehicle, as position of CG from the ground level depends on this height. Shoulder Room. It is the clear horizontal distance available inside the body. Boot Space. This is the storing space available below the rear hood.

Body Work: Requirements: The body work has to be structurally strong, easily accessible and of good finish. Some of the important considerations for a good body work include the following : 1. Attractive body styling. 2. Upholstery work should be well trimmed and comfortable. 3. Body structure should be rust preventing. 4. Paint work and other finishing should be appealing. 5. Body should be structurally strong and light. Therefore, construction material should be of light weight, strong and cheap. 6. Doors and windows should be conveniently located, and easier to operate. 7. Controls should be located at convenient positions and should be easily approachable. 8. Arrangement of hand controls and foot pedals should be fool proof and untiring. 9. Provision of sufficient space for accommodating accessories, instruments and controls. 10. Driver's and passengers seats should be comfortable and adjustable, and should be conveniently located. 11. Interior cabin should be dust proof and sound proof. 12. Body should be equipped with sufficient safety provisions. Main Parts: The body work includes the following main parts. 1. Body safety, 2. Bonnet, 3. Side pillars, 4. Rear hood, 5. Front side panel, 6. Rear side panel, 7. Door pillars, 8. Windshield pillar, 9. Rear quarter pillar, 10. Body sill, 11. Roof, 12. Door Panels, 13. Front bumper, 14. Rear bumper Integral Construction: Around 1934, the all-steel body construction was introduced so that a separate frame could be eliminated. This frameless or integral construction provides a stiff, light construction, which is specifically suitable for mass-produced vehicles. Since 1945 light cars have used integral construction. When suitably designed the body shell is capable of withstanding the various frame stresses. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 22

Unit - I

Integral body construction. Figure illustrates some of the forces that act on a car body and the arrangement of the various body panels to form a unitary structure of sufficient strength to resist these forces. The floor and roof panels resist the sagging effect caused by the weight of the occupants. Since these two members are widely spaced, thin sheet metal is used to form a strong and lightweight box like structure. To increase torsional stiffness of the body the scuttle at the front is strengthened and behind the rear seat squab cross ties are used or a ribbed metal panel is fitted. The thickness of the sheet metal depends on the stress to be taken by the panel. Structural members such as sills, rails and pillars are often about 1.1 mm thick, whereas panels such as the roof are 0.9 mm thick. Component attachment points are reinforced with thicker section. Some cases use a separate sub-frame to mount engine and other members. Sometimes this sub-frame is connected to the body by rubber insulation mountings. Very low (0.1 percent) carbon steel is used to provide extremely good ductility required for the pressing of the panels. The low strength, 278 MPa, of this steel requires stiffening of the structural members, which is achieved by spot welding into position of intricate sections, formed out of thin steel sheet. A modified construction is necessary in case the roof cannot be fully utilized as a compression member. This situation occurs on drop-head coupe models and where a sunshine roof, or very thin door pillars are used. To achieve the required strength in these cases a strong underbody frame is used. In addition, the body-shell parts, which are subjected to torsion, are provided with extra stiffness. A body-shell is normally fabricated either by spot-welding the panels, pillars and pressings together to form a strong box, or by buildings a skeleton or space frame (Fig.), which provides a high structural strength. To this frame is attached the shell, aluminium or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body panels, doors, roof, etc. Steel is the most common material used for manufacturing of vehicle in high volume, because production costs become lower once the initial investment on body jigs and other facilities has been recovered. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 23

Unit - I The vibration of the panels, which produces an unwanted noise called drumming, is avoided by fixing a sound-damping material on the inside of the panels. The driver and passengers are enclosed in a rigid cell for their safety.

Space frame

Crumple zones

The front and rear of this rigid compartment are fixed with sub-frames, which are designed to concertina on impact (Fig.). The crumple zones of the body absorb the shock of a collision so that the rate of deceleration experienced by the occupants is reduced. Nowadays, it is mandatory to obtain an impact test certificate from an approved centre before vehicles can be sold. The vehicle can pass this severe destructive test, provided a required standard on the level of safety of the occupants is witnessed. The doors must remain closed during impact and must open after the test. The inclusion of this test feature justifies the common use of special anti-burst locks at present. The vehicles safety belts, or some other approved body restraint system, must be provided for the driver and all passengers. These belts must be securely anchored to suitable strengthened parts of the body. Internal body trim, fittings and controls must all conform to safety standards. The improvements made during recent years in the design of parts such as steering wheels and control knobs have considerably increased the safety of the occupants.

Body Shape Body shape depends on a number of factors; these include appealing shape to the buyer, providing comfort, and a good performance during its movement through the air. A car body with the aerodynamic shape passes with least resistance through the air; as a consequence the fuel economy is improved. For a vehicle without aerodynamic shape of the body, a lot of engine power is required to drive through the air.

This expression shows that the air resistance increases very fast as the velocity of the vehicle relative to the air becomes high (Fig.). ME1353 Automobile Engineering 24

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Unit - I The air resistance of a vehicle is measured through wind tunnel tests. Knowing the cross-sectional area of the vehicle and its velocity relative to the air, aerodynamic drag coefficient (Cd) can be determined. Values of Cd for different types of vehicle are given in Table.

Force required for overcoming air resistance A streamlined body has a low Cd so that it provides minimum resistance when passes through the air. Since most of the resistance is caused by the low-pressure region at the rear of the vehicle, the body shape returns the air to this region with the minimum of turbulence after the air has flowed over the body. Since resistance is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area, a low and sleek sports-type car can provide good performance. Table: Aerodynamic drag coefficient for different types of vehicles. Cd Types of Vehicles (dimensionless) Racing Car 0.25 - 0.30 Passenger Car 0.30 - 0.60 Convertible 0.40 - 0.65 Bus 0.60 - 0.70 Truck 0.80 -1.00 Tractor and Trailers 1.25-1.35 Motor Cycle 1.75-1.85 Separation of flow at the downstream side of the vehicle, and the difference in pressure on the up stream and down stream side of the vehicle give rise to the phenomenon called wake. As wake is undesirable, it should be avoided or minimized by proper profiling of the body. The contour of body should be such that in addition to minimizing drag coefficient, the separation of flow on any part of the body should not occur and the above pressure difference should be minimum. Wake depends on the body shape and drag coefficient depends on wake. To minimize wake rear spoiler is added to aerodynamic styling of the body. Several improvements are incorporated in the body to reduce air drag.

Air dam and spoiler. (A) Air dam. (B) Rear spoiler. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 25

Unit - I These include the recessing of protruding items such as door handles and the shaping of the body below the front bumper to form an air dam (Fig. A). Airflow control devices are sometimes fitted to the rear of the vehicle. These devices, depending on their shape and location, smooth out the air flow to reduce the disturbance, or act as a spoiler to deflect the air upwards so that the adhesive force acting on the rear wheels is increased (Fig. B). Although these arrangements are beneficial on racing cars, their usage on domestic cars may be regarded as 'image creation' embellishments.

Vehicle Components Attachment and Location The automobile has the following essential components and it is important to have knowledge of their mountings and locations: (a) engine (b) gearbox (c) clutch (d) propeller shaft and universal joints, (e) drive shafts, (f) final drive, (g) steering, and (h) brakes. Engine, Clutch, Gearbox, and Final-drive Support Mountings The engine, clutch, and gearbox combination and (with front-wheel drive layouts) the final drives are usually supported on a three-point mounting system. This configuration permits the best possible freedom of movement about an imaginary roll-centre axis. However this arrangement provides certain rigidity for withstanding the torque reaction when the engine is developing power. To mount various components, rubber blocks bonded on to steel plates are generally used. Sometimes these mounts are positioned at 45 degrees to the horizontal so that the rubber is subjected to a combination of both compression and shear elastic distortion. This method of loading the rubber provides a flexible mount, whose stiffness increases with increase in driving torque. Mountings are used to (a) absorb the torque reaction during transmission of power, (b) cushion the rocking movement created by the out-of balance forces of the engine, (c) prevent transmission of vibrations from engine and transmission systems to the body structure, and (d) accommodate any misalignment of the engine or transmission units relative to the body frame. Location and Mounting with Front-mounted Engine and Rear-wheel Drive: In this layout of the vehicle, the engine, clutch and gearbox are bolted together in series. The complete assembly is then supported between both the front-wheel suspensions by a three point mounting system. The gear box is connected to the final drive by the propeller shaft and universal joint. In case the final drive is unsprung, as with the rigid rear axle (Fig. A), the drive is transferred within the axle-casing to the road-wheels. On the other hand, if the final drive is sprung and mounted underneath the body structure by a threepoint rubber mounting (Fig. B), the drive is transferred through each drive shaft and universal joint to the independently suspended road wheel.

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Unit - I

Front-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive (A) Unsprung rigid rear axle (B) Independent rear suspensions and rear-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive. Advantages: 1. A front-mounted engine provides a forward centre of gravity, which tends to stabilize the car handling at speed. 2. Certain amount of safety is provided against crash to the driver and passengers with the engine mounted in front. 3. The radiator can be best located in the front to utilize the air-stream ramming effect as the car moves forward 4. A very small slope of the propeller shaft between the gearbox and the final drive permits the use of simple Hooke's universal joints. 5. While climbing a steep slope, a partial weight transfer to the rear wheels takes place improving tyreto-road grip. 6. The control linkages from the clutch, gearbox, and engine to the driver's cabin can be simple and direct. 7. The longitudinal-mounted engines at the front are easily accessible for routine maintenance. 8. Tyre wear on wheels, which only steer, is marginally less than on wheels, which both steer and drive. Disadvantages: 1. A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and supporting bearings between the frontmounted gearbox and the rear axle may generate vibration, drumming, howl, and other noises under certain operating conditions. 2. The floor tunnel, necessary to provide clearance for operation of the propeller-shaft system, may interfere with passenger leg-room. 3. In case of a rigid casing for the axle and final drive, more weight is not supported by the suspension system so that the quality of the suspension ride may be reduced. 4. Additional universal joints and drive shafts are required for independent rear suspension. 5. A rear-wheel-drive vehicle, when stuck in mud, tends to plough further into the ground when attempts are made to drive away.

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Unit - I

Fig. Front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive.

A. Transverse front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive. B. Longitudinal front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive.

Location and Mounting with Front-mounted Engine and Front-wheel Drive: This kind of layouts has the engine, clutch, gearbox, and final drive built together to form a single integral assembly. In the transverse engine arrangement (Fig. A), the engine, clutch, and gearbox are bolted together in series. The final drive forms part of the clutch bell housing and gearbox casing. The drive shafts and their respective universal joints are placed on each side of the final-drive housing, to transfer the propelling power to each front drive stub-axle and road-wheel. The longitudinal-mounted engine (Fig. 21.18B) has the engine, clutch, final drive, and gearbox bolted together in that order. The power from the final drive is transferred to each drive shaft and then to the road wheels through its universal joint. In both layouts, the complete power and transmission-unit assembly is supported by a three point rubber mounting arrangement. Advantages: (a) The road adhesion and acceleration are improved due to the concentration of engine, transmission, and final-drive components on the front driving wheels. (b) The elimination of the propeller shaft permits the use of a low floor profile and also in some cases the centre of gravity of vehicle is lowered. (c) The engine, gearbox, clutch, and final drive form a compact single assembly, which can be handled easily. (d) Front-wheel-drive steered wheels are capable of driving out of pot-holes, ditches, loose soil, and boggy ground. (e) Simplified rigid or independent rear suspension can be used requiring minimum service. (f) A transverse-mounted engine provides relatively more passenger room. (g) Fixing the final drive to the power and transmission unit reduces the unsprung weight, so that the quality of ride is improved. (h) Since steering and driving road-wheels are combined, the wheel traction and road holding on bends are improved. (i) Due to a forward centre of gravity, handling characteristics such as oversteer and understeer have a tendency towards more desirable understeer response. (j) The actuating linkages for engine, gearbox, and clutch become simple. Disadvantages: (a) To drive the live stub-axles, constant-velocity universal joints are required to be built into the front suspension and steering system. (b) Initial costs of the total arrangement are generally higher and also the maintenance, because of the replacement of components, is usually faster compared with the conventional rear-wheel-drive cars. (c) During hill-climbing the centre of gravity of the car is moved slightly backwards causing less weight to act on the front driving wheels so that reduction of tyre traction results. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 28

Unit - I (d) Because of all the power and transmission components positioned in front, the driver and passengers may be subjected to more noise, heat, and fumes. (e) The concentration of weight at the front gives rise too slightly heavier steering. Location and Mounting with Rear-mounted Engine and Rear-wheel Drive: In this case also the power and transmission assembly is supported on the three-point mounting. In one layout of this type of location and mounting, a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine is connected in series with the clutch, final drive, and gearbox (Fig. 21.19A). At the final drive housing the power is split and transferred by the drive shaft and coupling joints to the rear road-wheels.

Fig. Rear-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive. A. Longitudinal rear-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive. B. Transverse rear-mounted engine and rear-wheel drive. In an alternative layout, a transverse in-line four-cylinder engine is connected in series with the clutch, gearbox, the final drive, where the power flow is divided and transferred to each rear driving road-wheel through the respective couplings and drive shafts (Fig. 21.19B). Advantages: 1. Due to concentration of weight on the rear wheels, driving traction during climbing hills is improved. 2. The increased weight distribution at the rear end allows the rear wheels to be designed to take a larger proportion of braking. 3. Passengers do not experience excessive noise, heat, and fumes, as these are left behind during movement of vehicle in the forward direction. 4. With rear-wheel drive, the steering and suspension at front-wheels can be simplified and steering interference does not exist due to worn transmission components. 5. The weight on the front wheels being relatively less, steering is somewhat lighter than for other arrangements. 6. The exhaust pipe and silencer system can be short, direct, and compact. Disadvantages: 1. The control linkages for the engine, gearbox, and clutch are required to be extended to the driver's position. 2. To provide sufficient side-clearance for the front steered wheels the luggage-boot width reduces. The relatively large weight at the rear tends to make the car unstable at speed. 3. The relatively lighter front end tends to make the car over-steer and very sensitive to crosswinds. 4. Installation of the cooling-system radiator and arrangement of its effective air supply are difficult. 5. Provision of interior heating for the driver and front passenger may be more complicated. Servicing and repairs of the power and transmission units are more difficult, and time taking as they are not easily accessible. 6. In this layout the most convenient location for the petrol tank is in the front, which may tend to become a safety hazard in a collision. Performance Parameters: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 29

Unit - I In order to carry out effective performance calculations of the automobiles techniques have to be developed to cater for a number of performance parameters. The power delivered by the engine is finally made available at the drive wheels as propulsive force. The motion of a vehicle on a level road is resisted by air and rolling resistances. When tractive effort, the force available at the contact between driving wheels and road is more than the total resistance on level road, the surplus tractive effort contributes for acceleration, climbing gradients and draw-bar pull. Calculation of equivalent weight, transmission efficiency, the position of centre of gravity, stability of a vehicle on a gradient and dynamics of a vehicle moving on banked track are also equally important for the evaluation of vehicle performance. Vehicle Drag: Vehicle drag is a force, which resists motion and is due to the deformation of the wheel and the ground (the later being negligible for vehicles on normal road) and the aerodynamic effects of air flow over the vehicle. The motion of vehicle for the straight-ahead position is considered, ignoring the effect of cornering for simplicity. Deformation of the Wheel: The pneumatic tyre is particularly suitable for use in road vehicles because of its contribution to comfort, its excellent adhesion properties and because it does not break up the road surface to the extent of a more rigid wheel. However, the vehicle load and tractive effect are not carried without deformation. In the case of a pneumatic tyre on the hard surface of a modern road, the deformation of the tyre accounts for 90 - 95% of the rolling resistance of a vehicle. The term rolling resistance is the drag force of the vehicle excluding that caused by aerodynamic effects. Windage and slippage losses are small in comparison. The distortion, of the tyre tread as it passes through the contact area results in a hysteresis loss, which manifests itself as heat and a rise in the temperature of the tyre. The rolling resistance due to the hysteresis loss from the deformed tyre is primarily a function of tyre deflection, caused by the load carried by the tyre. Other parameters affecting the rolling resistance of a pneumatic tyre on a hard surface are tyre temperature, inflation pressure, vehicle speed, tread thickness, the number of plies, the mix of the rubber and the level of torque transmitted. The rolling resistance increases with vehicle speed if all other parameters are maintained constant. However, in practice, an increase in vehicle speed results in an increase in tyre temperature and pressure. The net result is, for a given tyre, a near constant rolling resistance with vehicle speed until such a speed is reached (Fig.) that a discernible standing wave sets in the tread in the wake of the contact area. The resistance to motion of the tyre increases very rapidly in this condition and the energy dissipated in the deformation caused by the standing wave is capable of destroying the tread in a very short time. It is usual, therefore, to specify a safe maximum speed for the particular tyre that is well below the speed at which the standing wave sets in.

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Unit - I

Fig. Vehicle speed vs. rolling resistance. Since there is direct relationship between load on a tyre, deflection and the hysteresis loss and since vehicle weight equates load on all the wheels, the rolling resistance, Rr, is expressed in terms of the nondimensional rolling coefficient, a, as, Rr = aW. Since the rolling resistance cannot be taken as constant throughout the speed range of the vehicle, it is usual to add another coefficient, b, such that, Rr = (a + bV)W, where V is the vehicle speed and W is the weight of the vehicle. Vehicle performance calculations are usually conducted at the full throttle condition with high and fairly constant torque level through out the lower vehicle speed range where the rolling resistance is important. The rolling resistance coefficients used, therefore, should be at the appropriate torque level.

Air Flow over the Vehicle: The moving vehicle, in displacing the surrounding air, has a resultant resisting force, called the aerodynamics drag (simply air resistance), and is imposed upon it. It is usual to express this drag non-dimensionally using the aerodynamic drag coefficient, Cd

where p is air density, usually taken as 1.23 kg/m3 and V is vehicle speed (m/s) relative to the air. In order to nominate a suitable characteristic area, detailed study of the composition of the aerodynamic drag is necessary, which is due to three separate types of aerodynamic effects. (i) The air flow in the boundary layer resulting in the loss of momentum of the main stream. This effect produces 'skin friction' drag. (ii) A component from the downstream of the trailing vortices behind the vehicle, resulting in the induced drag. (iii) The 'normal pressure' drag, which may be found by the integration of the product (normal pressure x area) around the vehicle. This produces a net force opposing the motion of the vehicle because the separation of flow at the rear of the vehicle results in a lowering of the pressure on the rearward facing surfaces. The skin friction drag and the induced drag are usually small in comparison to the normal pressure drag. However, the skin friction drag can reach significant proportions in the case of a long vehicle, such as a coach. Since the major contributor to the aerodynamic drag is the normal pressure drag, the relevant characteristic area is the 'projected frontal area', A, of the vehicle. A = 0.8 (vehicle height above ground level X body width). However, such an approximate expression is no real substitute for a precise measurement and its use should be avoided. The aerodynamic drag coefficient, Cd, for a particular vehicle can be considered as constant if side wind effects are ignored. ME1353 Automobile Engineering 31

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Unit - I Power for Propulsion: The motion of a vehicle moving on a road is resisted by aerodynamic forces, known as wind or air resistance, and road resistance which is generally termed as rolling resistance. In addition to these two types of resistances, the vehicle has to overcome grade resistance when it moves up on a gradient, because the weight of the vehicle is to be lifted through a vertical distance. Hence, the power required to propel a vehicle is proportional to the total resistance to its motion and the speed.

The calculation of engine power takes into account the losses in transmission. Hence required engine power,

Air Resistance This is the resistance offered by air to the movement of a vehicle. The air resistance has an influence on the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the size and shape of the body of the vehicle, its speed and the wind velocity. The last term should be taken into account when indicated, otherwise it can be neglected. Hence in general, air resistance,

Rolling Resistance: The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on (a) the nature of road surface, (b) the types of tyre viz. pneumatic or solid rubber type, (c) the weight of the vehicle, and (d) the speed of the vehicle. The rolling resistance is expressed as , where W = total weight of the vehicle, N and K = constant of rolling resistance and depends on the nature of road surface and types of tyres = 0.0059 for good roads = 0.18 for loose sand roads = 0.015, a representative value. ME1353 Automobile Engineering 32

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Unit - I A more widely accepted expression for the rolling resistance is given by where V = speed of the vehicle, km/hr and Mean values of a and b are 0.015 and 0.00016 respectively. Grade Resistance: The component of the weight of the vehicle parallel to the gradient or the slope on which it moves is termed as 'grade resistance'. Thus it depends upon the steepness of the grade. If the gradient is expressed as 1 in 5, it means that for every 5 metres the vehicle moves, it is lifted up by 1 metre. Hence, grade resistance is expressed as

Traction and Tractive Effort: The force available at the contact between the drive wheel tyres and road is known as 'tractive effort'. The ability of the drive wheels to transmit this effort without slipping is known as 'traction'. Hence usable tractive effort never exceeds traction. The tractive effort relate to engine power as follows.

When the tractive effort F>R, the total resistance on level road, the surplus tractive effort is utilized for acceleration, hill climbing and draw-bar pull.

Relation Between Engine Revolutions (N) and Vehicle Speed (V)

Thus, N/V ratio depends upon the overall gear ratio and wheel diameter. A vehicle with four different gears has four different values of N/V ratio. The N/V ratio increases as the wheel diameter increases, the overall gear ratio remaining constant.

Acceleration PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 33

Unit - I When the vehicle is accelerated, its rotating parts are also accelerated depending upon their moments of inertia and the gear ratio in the drive line. Due to this, weight of vehicle is increased from W to We. This increased weight, We, is called the 'effective weight' of the vehicle. When surplus power, i.e. surplus tractive effort is fully utilized to acceleration, then

Gradability: The maximum percentage grade, which a vehicle can negotiate with full rated condition, is known as 'gradability'. Hence,

Drawbar Pull: When the excess power is fully utilized for pulling extra load attached to vehicle then, Maximum drawbar pull = Tractive effortRoad resistance = (F R). Road resistance in this section is made up of rolling resistance and air resistance. Need for a Gearing System and Determination of Gear Ratios (Automobile): Transmission The internal combustion engine used on a vehicle operates over a limited effective speed range of 15005000 rpm. At low engine speed, a reciprocating-piston engine does not develop sufficient turning-effort or torque to propel a vehicle forward from standstill. Even the greater torque produced at higher engine speed would be insufficient to accelerate the vehicle at a reasonable rate. The gearbox provides a way of varying the engine's output torque and speed to match the vehicle's speed and load. In order to achieve a high maximum vehicle speed, combined with good acceleration and economy over the whole speed range, a gearing system is required, which permits the engine to operate at the speeds corresponding to its best performance. Maximum engine power, torque and economy all occur at different engine speeds. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 34

Unit - I As a result it becomes difficult to match the gear ratio for best performance, especially when variable operating conditions and driver demands are also to be considered. The engine requirement to suit a given operating condition is as follows. Operating condition Engine requirement Maximum traction Maximum vehicle Maximum engine torque Maximum engine power speed Maximum acceleration Maximum engine torque Maximum economy Engine at mid-range speed and under light load with a small throttle opening. The type of engine fitted nowadays to a light vehicle generally requires a gearbox capable of providing four forward speeds and a reverse. This provides a reasonable performance to suit all the driving conditions except economy, which normally needs an extra ratio, a fifth gear, that is higher than the conventional top gear. A high gear ratio means the lower is the reduction between the engine and road wheels. Conversely the lower the gear ratio means the greater is the reduction between the engine and road wheels.

Maximum Vehicle Speed. Maximum vehicle speed is attained when the gear is set in top and the throttle is held fully open. A ratio of 1: 1 (direct drive) is chosen for top gear to keep the friction losses to minimum value. Consequently, the setting of top gear becomes the choice of a final drive ratio to suit the diameter of road wheel and engine characteristic.

Fig. Power balance. A. Power required for driving the vehicle. B. Power available to drive the vehicle. C. Balance between power available and power required. Figure illustrates the balance between the power required and the power available. Data for the power required are obtained from the brake power curve of the engine, and for the power available are based on the calculation of the power needed to overcome the tractive resistance of the vehicle when it is moving along a level road. The tractive resistance, sometimes called total resistance, includes : 1. Air resistance which is due to movement of the vehicle through the air. 2. Rolling resistance which is due to friction between the tyre and road, and largely influenced by the type of road surface. 3. Gradient resistance occurs when the weight of the vehicle acts against the vehicle motion during movement up a hill. The power needed to propel a vehicle (Fig. A) increases with the cube of the speed. In this example, a power of 150 kW is needed to drive the vehicle at 200 km/h. The power output curve of the engine installed in this vehicle (Fig. B) indicates that the engine produces a peak brake power of 150 kW at 5000 rpm.

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Unit - I To attain maximum road speed, the overall gear ratio {i.e. gear box ratio x final drive) of this vehicle must be set so that the peak of the power 150 kW occurs at a road speed of 200 km/h and an engine speed of 5000 rpm. Once the relative positions of the two curves have been established, the vertical difference between the two curves gives the surplus power available for acceleration. This can be plotted as a separate curve to show the speed at which maximum acceleration is achieved. If friction is neglected, the power output from a transmission system is similar to the engine brake power irrespective of the gear ratio. Therefore, a change in the gear ratio of the vehicle causes the peak power, P to move horizontally from the position if occupied in Fig. C. Lowering or raising the gear ratio moves the power available curve to the left (curve A) or to the right (curve C). These two conditions are called under-gear and over-gear respectively.

Fig. Under-gear and over-gear. In both of these gearing conditions the maximum possible speed is reduced. But, when compared with the optimum gearing needed to obtain the ideal maximum speed, the advantages of these two situations are as follows.

Undergear: Since more power is available for acceleration in under-gearing, vehicle is livelier. Top gear performance being flexible, less gear changing is necessary when the vehicle encounters higher tractive resistances. Overgear: Due to lower engine speed for a given road speed, better economy, lower engine noise level and less engine wear are achieved in over-gearing. A comparison of these two conditions indicates that under-gearing is more suitable for the average car, and hence under-gearing to the extent of about 10-20 percent is quite common. Therefore, the engine power peak occurs during 10-20 percent prior to the attainment of the maximum possible vehicle speeds. Maximum Traction: Once the overall top gear ratio in set, the bottom gear (1st gear) is then decided. This gear is used when vehicle starts and is also needed when maximum tractive effort is required. Since tractive effort depends on the engine torque, the maximum tractive effort in a particular gear occurs when the engine delivers its maximum torque. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 36

Unit - I The top gear performance, which was previously plotted as a difference in power in Fig. A, now indicates as a balance of forces. The driving force curve is similar in shape to the engine torque curve. The peak of the tractive effort curve occurs at a road speed controlled by the overall gear ratio and effective diameter of the road wheel. The difference between the effort and resistance curves represents the force available for acceleration. Figure B represents the effect of lowering the gear ratio on the tractive effort curve. A bottom gearbox ratio of 4:1 is used to produce sufficient tractive effort to meet the hill-climbing requirement. The gradual engagement of the clutch is necessary for sufficient building up of tractive effort. Once the clutch is fully engaged, and the engine is operating in the region of maximum torque, a small acceleration is possible provided the engine speed does not drop too low. The bottom gearbox ratio is obtained by the ratio of the maximum effort required and the maximum effort available in top gear.

Fig. Tractive effort curves. Intermediate Gear(s): Once the top and bottom gear ratios are set, the intermediate ratios are then determined to form geometric progression (GP). Therefore, all the individual ratios advance by common ratio. For example, if the top and bottom overall ratios are 4:1 and 16:1 respectively, then the sets of overall ratios for the 3 and 4 speed gearbox are 4, 8 and 16 (common ratio 2) and 4, 6.35, 10 and 16 (common ratio 1.59) respectively. For optimum speed and acceleration performance, the engine should be operated in the speed range between the limits of maximum torque and maximum power. The wider this operating range, the smaller is the number of gear ratios required. Most modern car engines have a narrow range, so gearboxes fitted in conjunction with these engines normally have at least four forward ratios. Since most cars are under-geared, it is now common to use an extra gear, called a fifth gear, to offset some of the disadvantages associated with the under-gear condition. Normally, this gear is an overdrive, which is a ratio that drives the output shaft faster than the engine. Automobile Engines: Among all the automobile engines the gasoline (petrol)-fueled engine has dominated the automobile field. In 1900 this power plant was in third position, behind the steam engine and the battery electric system. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 37

The steam and electrically powered automobiles do not transmission system due to availability of large power at low speeds. The greatest disadvantage for these power units are respectively, the danger of high pressure in the steam boiler and the inconvenience of recharging the batteries, which reduced their popularity. The gasoline engine, despite the necessity of transmission, has the advantage of producing large amount of power from a small quantity of fuel that can be replenished easily. The diesel engine was introduced due to its additional advantages, such as lower fuel costs, reduced maintenance costs, low fire risk and more uniform torque over a wide range of speeds. Today both gasoline and diesel engines are widely used in automobiles. However, they are greatly responsible for harmful emissions that are causing environmental damage. Automobile engines are called internal combustion (IC) engines because the fuel is burned internally, or inside the engines. These are of two types, such as reciprocating and rotary. Almost all the automobile engines today, using gasoline and diesel engines, are of the reciprocating type. In these engines, pistons move up and down, or reciprocate. These engines are also called piston engines. Rotary engines have rotors that spin, or rotate. Two general types of rotary engines are the gas turbine and the Wankel engine. The Wankel engine is gaining popularity for small automobiles. The gas turbine has been used more in buses and trucks. The Wankel engine has some definite advantages over piston engines. It operates very smoothly; it produces a lot of power for its size compared to same size reciprocating engines; it can be muffled to operate very quietly because it has no noisy valve-train operation; and it operates on low-octane gasoline and produces small quantities of nitrogen oxides emissions. But other emissions are high and it does not operate as economically as the reciprocating engines producing similar power. The gas turbine produces high power for its size and weight as compared to reciprocating automobile engines. It requires no cooling system or torque converter on the transmission. The service life between overhauls is several times greater than the piston engine. It has low hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. The latest designs have been able to reduce nitrogen oxides emissions below the permissible value. The turbine engine operates best at a steady speed, so it is more suitable for trucks and buses than for passenger cars.

Unit - I require a

Automobile Engines Classification Automobile engines are classified in many several different ways as follows: 1. Types of Cycles: Two-stroke and four-stroke cycles. 2. Types of Fuel Used: Gasoline (petrol) and diesel. 3. Number of Cylinders: Passenger-car engines generally have three, four, five, six, eight and twelve cylinders. Twelve and sixteen cylinder engines have been used in buses and trucks. 4. Arrangement of Cylinders: The automobile engines vary according to the arrangement of cylinders in the cylinder block. 5. Firing Order: Firing order is the order in which the cylinders deliver their power strokes. This is a builtin part of the engine design. The strokes are divided along the crankshaft so that a well distributed PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 38

pattern results, minimising the strain on the crankshaft. firing order, manufacturers' service manual for the engine is to be consulted. 6. Arrangement of valves: Engines may be classified according to the location and type of valve system employed. 7. Type of Cooling: Most automobile engines use a liquid, usually water mixed with antifreeze, to maintain the engine at a constant operating temperature by transferring heat from the metal surrounding the combustion chamber to the liquid. This system is called a liquid cooling system. Some automobiles transfer the heat directly to the air without an intermediate liquid cooling medium. Cooling the engine by this method is called air cooling. 8. Reciprocating or Rotary Engines: Rotary engines are rotating combustion chamber engines (Wankel engine) and turbines. Engine Construction The major components of an automobile reciprocating piston engine are the cylinder block, oil pan, cylinder head, intake manifold, exhaust manifold, crankshaft, flywheel, camshaft, oil seals, bearings, connecting rod, piston, piston rings, valve train etc. Cylinder Block The cylinder block is the portion of the engine between the cylinder head and sump (oil pan) and is the supporting structure for the entire engine. All the engine parts are mounted on it or in it and this holds the parts in alignment. Large diameter holes in the block-castings form the cylinder bores required to guide the pistons. These holes are called bores as they are made by boring. The cylinders are provided with a web or bulkhead to support the crankshaft and head attachments. Each main bearing bulkhead supports both a cam bearing and a main bearing. The bulkhead is well ribbed to support and distribute loads applied to it. This gives the block structural rigidity and beam stiffness. The cylinders are surrounded by cooling passages. The block has drilled passages for the flow of coolant and lubricating oil separately. When a curved passage is needed, intersecting drilled holes are used. After oil holes are drilled the unneeded open ends are capped by pipe plugs, steel balls, or cup-type soft plugs. The head, pan, and timing cover are fixed to the block with sealed joints for eliminating leakage. Gaskets are used in the joints to take up machining irregularities and to absorb variations due to pressure and temperature extremities. Within the cylinder, combustion process produces rapid and periodic rises in temperature and pressure. These induce circumferential and longitudinal tensile stresses, which act around the cylinder and in the direction of the cylinder axis respectively. These induced stresses are of pulsating nature, so that the cylinder is continuously stretched and contracted while in operation. Combustion pressure loads are carried from the head to the crankshaft bearings through the block structure. Mounting pads or lugs on the block transfer the reaction loads caused by the engine torque to the vehicle frame. The cylinder head is fastened to the top surface of the block, called the block deck. The deck has a smooth surface to seal against the head gasket. Threaded bolt holes are provided around the cylinders to form an even holding pattern. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 39

Unit - I For finding

Unit - I These bolt holes go into reinforced areas within the block that carry the load to the main bearing bulkheads. The cylinders may be of a skirt-less design, flush with the top of the crankcase, or they may have a skirt that extends into the crankcase. Extended skirt cylinders are used on engines with short connecting rods. As a result a low overall engine height can be obtained since it has a small block size for its displacement. In most skirt less cylinder designs, the cooling passages extend nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. In skirted cylinder designs, the cooling passages are limited to the upper portion of the cylinder. Both spark-ignition cylinder blocks and compression-ignition cylinder blocks are similar, but latter blocks are relatively heavier and stronger to withstand high compression ratios and internal pressure.

Types of Block In-line Cylinders: The in-line cylinder block assembly is available with many variations. One type uses a single monoblock casting forming an integral cylinder block and crankcase (Fig.). Another type uses a separate casting for cylinder head, cylinder block and crankcase (Fig.). The monoblock cylinder block and crankcase is relatively easy to cast, is cheap to manufacture, and produces a very stiff combined structure. This type is commonly used for small and medium engines. The detachable bolt-on crankcase is used on some large diesel engines where an aluminium-alloy crankcase is bolted on to a cast-iron block to minimize weight. The combined head and cylinder block casting with a bolt-on crankcase has been used in heavy duty diesel engines to minimize thermal distortion.

Fig. Monoblock cylinder block and crankcase.

Fig. Cylinder block with detachable crankcase.

Horizontally Opposed Cylinders: Horizontally opposed cylinders generally have a separate crankcase with banks of two or three cylinders bolted on opposite sides (Fig.) or two half integral cylinder block and crankcase banks bolted together (Fig.).

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Unit - I There is either a central camshaft to actuate the valve push-rods, or twin camshafts, one for each bank.

Fig. Horizontally opposed cylinder with detachable crankcase.

Fig. Horizontally opposed cylinder with divided crankcase.

V-banked Cylinders: V-banked cylinders have compact and rigid arrangements and are common in engine of 2.5 liters or above. The angle between banks is generally 60 degrees for four- and six-cylinder engines, and 90 degrees for eight-cylinder engines. An integral cylinder block and crankcase is used with this block. In this arrangement a central camshaft actuates the valves in each cylinder block (Fig.). However, in some heavy-duty diesel engines a separate crankcase is used with a separate camshaft for each bank (Fig).

Fig. Monoblock V cylinder with block and crankcase.

Fig. 'V cylinder block with detachable crankcase.

The Coolant Passages: The coolant passages are cast in the cylinder block. These surround the cylinder walls circumferentially and lengthwise covering approximately the full depth of the cylinders. The coolant passages terminate near the bottom of the cylinders, where the cylinder walls merge with the crankcase.

Fig. Closed-deck cylinder block.

Fig. Open-deck cylinder block.

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Unit - I At the top of the cylinder, the coolant passages end either at the level of the block's joint face, called as an open deck (Fig.), or just below the block's machine face, known as a closed deck (Fig.). In the closed deck cylinder block, the vertical drillings, which communicate with corresponding holes in the cylinder head, provide coolant circulation. A closed deck has better joint reliability than an open deck. On the other hand, it is easier to cast an open-deck cylinder block.

The Crankcase: The crankcase supports the individual main journals and bearings of the crankshaft and also maintains the alignment of the journal axes of rotation as they are subjected to rotary and reciprocating inertia forces and the periodic torque impulses. A tunnel-roof construction of the crankcase is partitioned-off by bulkhead cross-webs, which mount and support the crankshaft main journals and bearings. This semicircular ceiling construction with spaced-out cross-webs offers a very stiff and relatively light crankcase structure. Over the underslung crankshaft, the crankcase walls from a skirt, which is either separately attached to the cylinder block's lower deck or merged into it as integral casting. The crankcase skirt may enclose the crankshaft from cylinder block to crankshaft-axis level. However, to provide extra rigidity the walls also extend well below the crankshaft. This is suitable for both high-performance and heavy-duty engines. Ribs run from the bottom of the cylinder block diagonally towards the main-bearing housings for additional support to the cross-webs. In some aluminium-alloy integral cylinder-blocks and crankcases, stiffening ribs are cast longitudinally and vertically downwards on the outside walls of the block and crankcase. The crankcase walls are flanged at the bottom to strengthen the casing and to attach the sump. Two types of lower block designs are in use, namely V-block and Y-block or deep block. The base of V-block is close to the crankshaft centre. This block is compact and lightweight. The Y-block improves the stiffness of the entire engine, which provides smooth and quite operation, and durability. Cylinder Block Material The cylinder blocks are cast in one piece from gray iron or iron alloy containing nickel or chromium for high strength and wear resistance. Some cylinder blocks are cast from a silicon aluminium alloy. The cylinder block is a complicated casting. When cast in a monoblock form, the cylinder block material should have adequate strength and rigidity in compression, bending, and torsion. This is necessary to resist the gas pressure loads and also for the components, which convert the reciprocating motion of individual piston into a single rotary motion. The cylinder-block material should (a) be relatively cheap, (b) readily produce castings with good impressions, (c) be easily machined, (d) be rigid and strong enough in both bending and torsion, (e) have good abrasion resistance, (f) have good corrosion resistance, PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 42

Unit - I (g) have high thermal expansion, (h) have a high thermal conductivity, (i) retain its strength at high operating temperatures, and (j) have a relatively low density. Although cast iron meets most of these requirements, it has a low thermal conductivity and is comparatively heavier. Due to these limitations, light aluminium alloys have been used as alternative cylinder-block materials for petrol engines. Cylinder liners are optional with cast-iron blocks; but are more essential with the relatively soft light aluminium alloy blocks, as they cannot directly withstand wear resistance. Because of the lower strength of the aluminium alloys, the blocks are cast with thicker sections and additional support ribs, so that their weight becomes about half of the equivalent cast-iron blocks. A typical cast iron is a gray cast iron, which contains 3.5% carbon, 2.25% silicon, 0.65% manganese, and the balance (93.6%) iron. The carbon improves lubrication property of graphite, the silicon controls the formation of a laminated structure, called pearlite, which has good wear resistance, and the manganese strengthens and toughens the iron structure. A common aluminium alloy composition is 11.5% silicon, 0.5% manganese, and 0.4% magnesium, with the balance (87.6%) aluminium. The high silicon content in this alloy reduces expansion but improves cast-ability, strength, and abrasion resistance, while the other two elements strengthen the aluminium structure. While this alloy provides a good corrosion resistance, it can absorb only moderate shock loads.

Advantages of cast iron cylinder blocks are; (i) Good casting properties. (ii) Free graphite helps to give good wearing properties. The cylinder bore, for example, can be machined directly in cast iron. (iii) Good sound damping properties. (iv) Tapped holes (i.e., cylinder head studs) are less easily stripped than with aluminium. Advantages of aluminium cylinder blocks are: (i) Lighter in weight. (ii) Attractive appearance. (iii) Easier machining during production. (iv) Better heat dissipation. Cylinder Liner The liner increases cylinder bore life, as this can be made of an iron suitable more for its wearing properties than for its casting properties. A single grade of cast iron used to cast cylinder block cannot have all the optimum individual mechanical properties such as strength, toughness, hardness, and corrosion and wear resistance. Separate cylinder liners are therefore used. These provide prolonged cylinder life, which outweighs the extra cost. The liners can be made from lightly alloyed cast iron. They are centrifugally cast into the cylindrical sleeve, machined, the then heat-treated to produce the optimum wear-resisting properties. These liners are of two classes: (i) Those, which are in direct contact with the cylinder bore walls of the cylinder block, are known as dry liners. (ii) Those, which are supported only at each end in the cylinder block and are elsewhere in direct contact with the engine coolant, are known as wet liners. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 43

Unit - I Dry Liners: Normally dry cylinder liners (Fig.) are provided under the following circumstances: (a) When the cylinder block is made from aluminium alloy, the cylinder bore wall should be stronger and of much harder wear resistant material. (b) For heavy duty operating conditions, the normal wear resistance of a cast-iron cylinder block can be improved through sleeves with superior properties. (c) When the cylinder block is designed with adjacent cylinder bores in order to reduce the over all length, then only dry liners are suitable. (d) When a cylinder block has been rebored two or three times, then dry liners are used to restore to the original size of the cylinder bore. (e) If both bending and torsional rigidities are of concern, a cylinder block with cast-in coolant passages and cylinder bores fitted with dry liners is more suitable than a block using wet liners. The three basic fits used with dry liners are (i) cast-in fit, (ii) force (press) fit, and (Hi) slip fit. Cast-in-fit Liner: For using dry cylinder liners in aluminium-alloy cylinder blocks, the outside cylindrical surface of the liner is machined to form a helical groove running from top to bottom. The liners are generally preheated to 473 K and are then placed correctly in the cylinder-block casting dies before casting starts. This forms a strong metallic bond between the aluminium-alloy block and the cast-iron sleeve after solidification. Force-fit (Press-fit) Liner: This liner is a plain cylindrical sleeve. The liner is positioned by drawing or pushing the sleeve into the cylinder block with force. This operation requires suitable end-plates and guides, and either a screw-and-nut draw-bar attachment or a hydraulic-press set-up. Typical interference fits between the sleeve and cast-iron cylinder block are 0.050 mm and 0.075 mm for bore diameters of 75 to 100 mm and 100 to 150mm respectively. Slip-fit Liner: This liner is a cylindrical sleeve, flanged at one end for positioning and securing in its location. There is little or no contact between the liner and the block walls. The liner is inserted by hand pressure. The flange projects above the block face by 0.05 to 0.125 mm to prevent vertical movement relative to the block while in use.

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Unit - I

Fig. Dry Cylinder liner A. Plain force-fit- B. Flanged slip-fit.

Wet Liners: Wet cylinder liners (Fig.) provide the following advantages if used in petrol engines with aluminium alloy cylinder block having a high coefficient of expansion. 1. Due to isolation of the bulk of the sleeve from the block, difficult expansion problems can be resolved at one or two locations only. 2. The use of wet liners simplifies the casting of the cylinder block. 3. With better outside surface finish and constant wall thickness the liner improves the thermal conductance and uniformity of cylinder cooling. Also, castings of suitable material can be used with an appropriate heat treatment for structural requirements, rather than the cylinder-bore wear-resistance treatments.

Fig. Wet cylinder liners. A. Single sleeve support with open-deck. B. Double sleeve support with closed-deck.

The wet liner is more rigid than a dry liner as the normal cylinder wall is eliminated in this case. Wet liners fit into the cylinder block at the top and near the bottom, and the remaining portion of the sleeve is unsupported. O-rings are used to prevent leakage of the coolant. Some wet liner sleeves have a flange at the top, which sits into a recess machined in the upper deck of the block. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 45

Sometimes a soft copper-asbestos or composite gasket is fitted and the block recess. To hold in position, the sleeve flange protrudes above the block's top join face by 0.05 mm for bores up to 100 mm diameter and by 0.175 mm for cylinder diameter ranging from 100 to 150 mm. The liner is sealed at the bottom by one or more rubber O-rings, usually fitted in grooves (Fig. A). Sometimes an inspection drain hole as shown in the figure is provided in the side of the block between the seals, to check any leakage through the seals. In another wet liner-sleeve arrangement, only the lower crankcase end of the liner is supported, which is flanged to have contact with the corresponding machined face in the block. A flat gasket is used between these two joint faces (Fig. B). Since the top of the liner sleeve has no side support, it depends totally on vertical compression of the liner caused by the cylinder head and gasket during tightening down. For correct compressive support, the liner's top face projects above the cylinder block's deck by 0.03 to 0.10 mm, depending on the diameter of the cylinder bore, and the tightening-down torque.

Unit - I between the flange

Liner Materials: Some commonly used liner materials are nitrided steels, nitrided cast irons, and heat treated chromium and other alloy cast irons. The wear resistance of these metals is at least 50% more than the cylinder block material. The typical specification of liner material is : Iron 93.92 to 92.22% , Carbon 3 to 3.5% , Silicon 1.8 to 2.4% ,Manganese 0.5 to 0.8%, Phosphorous 0.4 to 0.7%, Sulphur 0.08%, Chromium 0.3%. Gaskets: Gaskets or static seals are used between attaching engine parts to seal the joints for preventing either internal or external leakage. A gasket must withstand the high pressure and temperature of the engine. Therefore, the gasket 1. must be impermeable to the fluids in contact, 2. must conform to any existing surface imperfections, 3. must be resilient to maintain sealing pressure, even when the joints are slightly loosened as a result of temperature changes or vibration, 4. must be resistant to all expected changes in its environment due to temperature, pressure variations, and age, and 5. must be stable under compression conditions, avoiding excessive setting. The essential considerations of a gasket are 1. adequate shear and tensile strengths, particularly for use with narrow sections, 2. adequate provision for the cooling of the mating surfaces specifically the cylinder head and for minimizing the effect of differential thermal expansion, 3. maintenance of a gasket-thickness tolerance, and 4. a gasket of simple construction, easy to assemble, and not readily damaged. The gasket thickness and hardness must be chosen to match the degree of unevenness of either joint face due to large tolerances, distortion, surface roughness, or other factors such as lack of uniformity of bolt or stud loading. The following gaskets are commonly used in automobile engines. (a) Copper-asbestos gasket. (b) Steel-asbestos gasket. (c) Steel-asbestos-copper gasket. (d) Single steel ridged or corrugated gasket. (e) Stainless steel gasket. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 46

Unit - I (f) Asbestos-coated steel sheet with separate steel beading around bore. (g) Laminated steel and graphitized asbestos sheet with formed steel bore bead. (h) Asbestos impregnated rubber bonded with reinforced ferrule bead. (i) Asbestos/steel wire-reinforced tissue. The material used for gaskets depends on the sealing requirement and cost. Cork, one of the oldest gasket materials, has limited use only to lightly loaded joints having uneven surfaces such as rocker covers and oil pans. Aluminium coatings on cork gaskets help reduce heat deterioration. In some cases cork gaskets are rubber coated. Cork gaskets are often replaced by gaskets made of fibers such as cellulose, asbestos, or a mixture of two. Gasket fibers are bonded together with a binder, and the binder is impermeable to oil in some cases and other cases it swells on contact with oil, depending upon the use. Fiber gaskets require a better parting surface smoothness than is needed by cork gaskets. Molded oil-resistant synthetic rubber is often used where the sealing requirements dictate special seal designs such as oil pan corner joints and intake manifold ends. A new approach to gaskets is a plastic gasket material in a tube used in place of paper and fiber-based gaskets. Sealing of the cylinder head at the block parting surface is one of the most difficult sealing jobs. Earlier head gaskets were copper-coated asbestos. As engine design improved, copper on the gaskets was replaced by steel to withstand the higher pressures and temperatures. Steel rings, called fire rings, were applied to the gaskets around the cylinder openings to seal the combustion chambers A more recent head gasket development uses a thin steel core with a thin coating of asbestos rolled on the outside. This provides the gasket the desired resilient properties needed to withstand the head and block temperature changes and the pressure variations within each cycle. Most head gaskets must be installed in a specified direction because the gasket is often used to help control engine coolant flow. When this is required the gasket is marked top or front. Timing cover gaskets are usually made of thin fiber or paper. Cork, fiber and synthetic rubber are used in different parts of the oil pan. The intake manifold uses embossed steel or reinforced fiber gaskets. Cork or synthetic rubber sections are used on the lifter valley cover portion of the intake manifold. After use, a gasket loses most of its sealing properties. It is common practice to use a new gasket each time a part is assembled. Often, the gaskets are coated with a special varnish, which melts and seals all the smaller inter-sticks between the meeting surfaces when the engine warms up.

Cylinder Block Attachments: A number of parts are attached to the engine to enclose it and to adapt it to the vehicle. These include covers, housings, and mounts. Bell Housings: A bell housing enclosing the flywheel and clutch or torque converter is attached to the rear of the cylinder block. It is positioned with dowel pins for alignment. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 47

Unit - I Offset dowels and shims between the block and bell housing may be used to align the bell housing in standard transmission applications, so that the clutch shaft matches the pilot bearing. Alignment of the automatic transmission is simplified by using a flex plate transmission drive. Most automatic transmission cases from the bell housing, while standard transmission have separate bell housings with clutch lever attachments. Aluminium bell housings are normally used in passenger cars to minimize weight. Timing Covers: The simplest timing covers are made of stamped steel or cast steel and attached with cap screws. Its only purpose is to protect the gears from foreign objects and to keep the engine oil in. A cast cover also tends to muffle the timing drive noise. Some timing covers are die-cast. The die-cast process produces an almost finished cover at extra tooling cost, which balances the savings made in machining costs. In some designs the timing cover is made more complicated by including the oil pump and distribution drive along with the fuel pump and water pump. With this type of cover, the block contains no accessory drives. Engine Mount: Engines are mounted on the chassis through rubber insulators. The engine mounts are positioned close to vibration nodes, which are points of minimum vibration. The rubber used in engine mounts is especially compounded to absorb vibrations, characteristic to each specific engine model. The mounts are usually located about half way back on each side of the block. The latest mounts hold the engine even if the damper rubber breaks, in contrast to earlier mounts. Sump or Oil Pan The sump (Fig.) is attached to the bottom of the cylinder block underneath the crankcase. The functions of the sump are: o to store the engine's lubrication oil for circulation within the lubrication system; o to collect the oil draining from the sides of the crankcase walls and if ejected directly from the journal bearings; o to provide a centralized storage area for any contaminants like liquid fuel, water, combustion products blown past the piston ring, and worn metal particles ; o to provide a short recovery period for the hot churned-up and possibly aerated oil before it is recirculated in the lubrication system; and o to provide some inter-cooling between the hot oil inside and the air steam outside.

Fig. The oil pan.

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Unit - I The sump (Fig.) may be made from a single sheet-steel pressing or it may be an aluminium-alloy casting with cooling fins and strengthening ribs. Both the constructions have a flanged joint face, which matches with a corresponding joint face on the underside of the crankcase. A soft flexible gasket is used in between to seal the joint and is tightened down by set-screws. The sump generally has a shallow downward slope at one end, which changes into a relatively deep but narrow-walled reservoir at the other end. The incoming oil flows towards the deep end, where it submerges the pick-up pipe and strainer of the lubricating system. A drain plug is located at the lowest level in the sump for easy drainage of used oil. Generally the sump is not designed to add to crankcase rigidity, except in some transverse front-wheeldrive engines. Cast aluminium alloy sump dissipate heat much better than pressed steel sumps, and it does not promote resonant (vibration) noise specifically when it has strengthened ribs on the outside. On the other hand, the pressed-steel sump can withstand impact load without any serious damage, but the cast structure does not take any impact and can crack. Sometimes baffle plates are used inside the sump to stop oil surge due to bouncing, rolling, and pitching of the vehicle, or to guide and prevent splashing about of oil escaping from the journals and bearings of both the crankshaft and the camshaft. Also, a horizontal sheet supported in a steel frame is installed just below the sump flange joint to strain out draining contaminants generated by combustion-gas blow-by and to minimize oil splashing.

Cylinder Head:
The cylinder head is a casting bolted to the top of the cylinder block. It houses the inlet and exhaust poppet-valves, houses the spark-plug or injector location holes, forms the upper face of the combustion chamber, and takes the combustion-pressure reaction. The coolant passages, cavities, intake and exhaust ports, lubricating passages, and the spark plug or injector bosses (Fig.) are also located within the head casting. The cylinder head is detachable for easy access to the valves and piston tops and to facilitate machining of the cylinder bore, combustion chamber and valve ports. The mating faces of the cylinder head and block are ground flat, so that a sandwiched gasket is squeezed in between when the head is bolted down forming a liquid-tight and gas-tight joint.

Fig. Four-cylinder overhead-camshaft cylinder head.

Cylinder-head Materials: The cylinder head material should be readily cast with complicated internal shapes for both the coolant passages and for the inlet and exhaust ports. The material should be strong enough in compression and able to operate continuously under fluctuating gas pressures and temperatures when fixed rigidly to the cylinder block by bolts or studs. Although the gas-pressure loads are not excessive for the available materials, but prevailing temperature gradients produce non-uniform expansion and contraction of the metal in these regions. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 49

Unit - I As a result, thermal stresses are developed across the cylinder head eventually causing distortion or even cracks in the critical areas exposed to the heat of combustion. The ideal cylinder-head material should limit the temperature of the surface so that lubrication remains effective, combustible petrol-and-air mixtures do not overheat to cause detonation, hot spots that promote pre-ignition are not formed, and high cyclic thermal stresses are not developed. In particular, under various operating conditions like continuous full-load running on motorways or under part load operations with weak mixtures and late ignition, surface temperatures rise causing local thermal stresses, which can easily reach dangerously high values unless the heat is adequately dissipated. The materials generally used are grey cast iron and aluminium alloys. The common cylinder-head cast iron meets most of the requirements, such as cheapness, good castability, good machinability, good corrosion resistance, adequate rigidity, strength, and hardness, and low thermal expansion. But it has the disadvantages of high weight and low thermal conductivity. The aluminium alloy head, on the other hand, has half the weight of equivalent cast-iron heads. It also has a thermal conductivity three times better than that of cast iron due to which the possibility of thermal distortion is reduced and the head cooling system permits the use of higher compression-ratios. The disadvantages of aluminium alloy are that it is more expensive, it's corrosion resistance is inferior to cast iron, it is much softer than cast iron, and it has a high thermal expansion which causes fretting between an aluminium-alloy head and a cast-iron cylinder block during starting and stopping of engines, so that separate wear-resisting valve seats and guide inserts become necessary. The composition of the cast iron used in cylinder heads is similar to that used in cylinder blocks. In the case of aluminium alloys, however, slightly different compositions are preferred. Two commonly recommended aluminium-alloys are (i) 3.0% copper. 5% silicon, 0.5% manganese in a matrix of aluminium; and (ii) 4.5% silicon, 0.5% manganese, 0.5% magnesium in matrix of aluminium. The copper and silicon in the alloys reduces thermal expansion and contraction and improves the fluidity and castability properties of aluminium. Copper promotes age-hardening and silicon improves the abrasion resistance. Addition of manganese and magnesium improves the strength of the alloy. The corrosion resistance of the slightly superior alloy containing copper is inferior to that of the copperfree silicon-aluminium alloy.

Petrol Engine Combustion Chambers: The cylinder head forms the top of the combustion chamber. The combustion reactions in the combustion chamber vary depending on the type of fuel, combustion chamber shape, cooling system efficiency, locations of the spark plugs and valves, the compression ratio and the quality of the intake charge. The combustion chamber shape, one of the most important of these factors, primarily depends on the shape of the top of the piston and the shape of the pocket formed in the cylinder head. These shapes have a great effect on the control of combustion smoothness.

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Unit - I

(A) Hemispherical chamber. (B) Wedge chamber. Fig. Shapes of combustion chamber.

Combustion chambers are of two types such as non-turbulent hemispherical chamber (Fig. A) and turbulent wedge chamber (Fig. B). In non-turbulent hemispherical chambers, combustion radiates out from the centrally located spark plug and hence is completed in the least possible time. The end gases that cause abnormal combustion have little time to react and therefore knock is reduced to a minimum. The rapidly burning charge causes a high rate of pressure rise, which produces some engine roughness and noise under medium and heavy loads at low engine speeds. This may be objectionable to the passengers. The hemispherical chamber is best suited for racing cars. The turbulent wedge combustion chamber is designed to produce a uniform burning rate by controlling combustion through changes in the combustion chamber shape, resulting in smooth power production. The piston, towards end of the compression stroke, approaches a low or flat portion of the head called the squish area or quench area. Gases are squeezed out of this area into the larger portion of the combustion chamber producing turbulence within the charge. Since the spark plug is positioned in the highly turbulent part of the charge, ignition is followed by smooth and rapid burning. The end gases remaining in the squish area are squeezed to a very thin layer less than 0.25 mm thickness when the piston is at the top dead centre, and are cooled and hence do not react. The charge adjacent to the combustion chamber surface forms 0.005 mm to 0.050 mm thickness and doesn't burn as the temperature of the charge is below its ignition temperature. Hemispherical combustion chambers, with low surface area compared to their volume, emit less unburned hydrocarbons than the wedge combustion chamber, which has a relatively high surface area to volume ratio. Improvement in combustion chamber design has been added by changing the valves of the wedge head to divergent angles, repositioning the spark plug, reducing the quench area and reducing the combustion chamber surface area to volume ratio. Some examples of such modified chambers are the polyspherical, semi-wedge and kidney shapes.

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Unit - I

Fig. Cylinder head A. With turbulence generating pot. B. With precombustion chamber.

The cylinder head, shown in Fig. A, has a turbulent generating pot (TGP), which produces high turbulence or swirl of the air-fuel mixture during combustion. A part of the mixture is forced into the pot during compression. This burns first on ignition and streams out at high velocity. This helps rapid spread of the flame resulting in better combustion. In the precombustion chamber arrangement (Fig. B) there is a pot with a small valve and the spark plug. A lean mixture enters the main combustion chamber. A rich mixture enters the precombustion chamber where ignition takes place. The hot burning gases rush into the lean mixture, ignition it. This produces good turbulence and rapid burning of lean mixtures, and thus minimizes emissions.

Diesel Engine Combustion Chambers: In diesel engines the combustion chamber plays an important role in engine performance. The chamber must be designed to provide uniform mixing of the compressed air and injected fuel. There are many good designs of CI combustion chambers, where each one is shaped to achieve an effective swirl pattern. These designs can be divided broadly into two main following classes: (i) Direct injection (ii) Indirect injection In the former type, fuel is injected directly into the closed end of the cylinder, whereas in the latter type, fuel is sprayed into a separate small chamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a small passage or throat. Direct Injection:

Fig. Direct injection combustion chamber.

Figure illustrates the fundamentals of a direct injection (DI) type combustion chamber, which has been used in heavy vehicles since many years and, in a slightly modified form, is currently being used for car engines in the 2-litre capacity. ME1353 Automobile Engineering 52

PEC DoME

Unit - I Since at TDC the piston is very close to the flat cylinder head, a deep cavity, machined in the piston, contains most of the air. To obtain the necessary compression ratio, overhead valves are necessary. Shallow recesses in the piston crown provide clearance for the valve heads. However, inaccurate setting of the valve timing causes the valves to strike the piston. A multihole injector allows finely atomized fuel under high pressure (17 MPa) to penetrate the fast moving air and just enter the cavity of the piston. Swirl is generated in both vertical and horizontal planes. The ascending piston directs the air into the cavity, which moves in the manner shown in the figure. As the piston approaches TDC, this motion is speeded up because of the squish action of the air between piston and head. Horizontal or rotary swirl can be obtained by inclining the inlet port tangentially to the cylinder, or masking the inlet valve. Figure A illustrates the latter arrangement, which is the most popular. Combining both swirl movements produces a vortex air flow in the cavity, and ensures a good supply of oxygen to the combustion region.

Indirect Injection: Until the mid-1980s the indirect injection (IDI) type was commonly used in small CI engines fitted in light vehicles. Compared with the traditional heavy vehicle DI engine, the IDI runs more smoothly and since the IDI types uses lower injection pressures, the engine is able to operate over a large speed range.

Fig. Indirect injection combustion chamber (Swirl chamber).

Many IDI combustion chambers are shaped based on the Ricardo Comet design illustrated in Fig. In this arrangement a swirl chamber is connected to the main chamber by a throat, which operates at a higher temperature than the surrounding metal. Air is pushed through the hot throat into the chamber during compression, therefore by the end of this stroke the ante-chamber contains very hot air in a high state of swirl. Fuel, injected into this fast moving air mass, is quickly atomized into a very fine state. This atomization is extremely effective even though fuel is injected in the form of a 'soft' spray by a pintle or single-hole nozzle set at a comparatively low pressure of the order of 9.8 MPa. Once combustion is initiated in the swirl chamber, burning fuel together with the unburnt and partially burnt fuel is carried into the piston cavity in the main chamber. If the injection period is extended to produce a higher engine power, most of the fuel, injected towards the end of the spraying period, does not ignite until it mixes with the air in the main chamber. This ensures continuation of the burning for a relatively long time until it finally attains a stage at which the fuel cannot find sufficient oxygen. Beyond this point black smoke starts to emit from the exhaust. This point of start of smoke indicates the maximum quantity of fuel that can be injected without sacrificing economy and also represents the maximum power that can be obtained from the engine. In an IDI engine the combination of hot air and excellent atomization gives a short ignition delay. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 53

Unit - I Compared with the DI type, in IDI engines the intensity of diesel knock is lower, the engine runs more smoothly and the required cetane rating of the fuel can be lower. The DI engines have compression ratios of about 16:1, but the IDI engines use higher ratios of the order of 22:1 and in some cases as high as 30: 1. In addition to the cold-starting requirement, a high compression ratio in IDI engines also improves the thermal efficiency, i.e. economy, as compared to that of the DI engine. This feature also somewhat counteracts the greater heat loss due to the larger surface area of an IDI combustion chamber.

Cold Starting: All CI engines need some special arrangement for cold starting. Although the injection of a larger quantity of fuel and the greater percentage of easily ignitable fractions contained in the injected charge are generally sufficient to start a cold DI engine, the larger heat losses in IDI units require these engines to have additional cold-start facilities. For cold-starting of a CI engine, one or more of the following methods are used: o Heater plug, often called a glow plug or hot bulb in fitted is the swirl chamber. The air in the chamber is heated electrically for a few seconds prior to starting a cold engine. Now-a-days these plugs are often controlled automatically. o Manifold heaters, an electrical unit, are fitted to pre-heat the air as it passes through the inlet manifold to the cylinder. o Pintaux injector, a pintle-type injector, has an auxiliary hole to direct fuel down the throat of the chamber during the cranking period. A glow plug (Fig.) is installed in each precombustion chamber next to the injector. When the ignition key is turned on, the glow plug tips become cherry red with a temperature of about 1310 K. A glow indicator light turns off when the glow plugs are sufficiently warm to start the engine. Once the engine has started, a timer keeps the glow plugs to continue glowing (after-glow) until the engine reaches a certain temperature. After-glow helps to improve cold engine operation and reduce white smoke. A typical glow system wiring schematic is shown in Fig.

Fig. A glow plug.

Fig. A glow plug system wiring.

Intake and Exhaust Ports: The intake and exhaust systems are designed to meet the engine's maximum power requirements with minimum restriction. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 54

Unit - I At the same time, the intake system provides satisfactory charge distribution in the induction system at part throttle and idle speeds. The intake and exhaust ports are passages cast in the cylinder head leading from the manifolds to the respective valves. An optimum design is not always possible because of spade requirements for head bolt bosses, valves guides, cooling passages, and push-rod opening clearance. In-line engines have both intake and exhaust ports located on the same side of the engine. Therefore, often two of the cylinders share the same port because of the restricted space available.

Fig. Cylinder head with Siamesed ports.

These ports are called Siamesed ports (Fig.). Siamese intake ports are common in in-line engines but rare in V-type engines. Larger ports and better breathing is possible in engines that have the intake port on one side of the head and the exhaust port on the opposite side. In these engines, a separate port is usually provided for each cylinder (Fig.)

Fig. Cylinder head with individual ports.

Coolant Passages: Coolant flows from the coolest portion of the engine to the warmest portion. Coolant is fed into the block where it is directed all around the cylinders, after which it flows upward through the gasket to the cooling passages cast into the cylinder head. The heated coolant is collected at a common point and returned to the radiator for cooling before it is recycled. Relatively large openings are provided in the gasket surface of the head into the head cooling passages. They are necessary because the cooling passage core is supported through these openings during casting of the head. The openings between the head and the block are normally too large for the correct coolant flow.

Fig. Coolant flow control.

In this case, the head gasket performs an important role by providing a calibrated restriction with punched holes for correct flow of coolant at each opening (Fig.). Therefore, the head gasket must be installed correctly for proper engine cooling. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 55

Unit - I Special cooling nozzles or deflectors are incorporated into the head to direct coolant to the portion of the head where localized heat is required to be removed, for example the area of the exhaust valve. Some of the deflectors are cast in the cooling system, while others are pressed-in sheet metal nozzles.

Lubricating Passages: Lubricating oil is supplied to the over-head valve mechanism either through the valve push-rods (Fig.) or through drilled passages in the head and block casting (Fig.). The head gasket has special openings to allow the oil to pass between the block and head without leakage. From the valve mechanism, oil returns to the oil pan through oil return passages. These comprise of drilled holes in some engines or relatively large cast holes in most engines for reducing total engine weight and thereby the cost.

Fig. Valve gear lubrication through hollow push rods.

Fig. Drilled oil feed passages in the block and head for valve lubrication.

Stud and Set-bolt: The cylinder head is placed on the top deck of the cylinder block and both are joined together by either studs or set-bolts. When the cylinder head is being screwed down to the block it is in compression and therefore the studs or set-bolts are in tension. This action pulls out and strains the metal around the threaded region on top of the cylinder block (Fig.). To provide sufficient joint strength, the depth of the threaded counter bore should be at least twice the diameter of stud of set-bolt, and the threaded cut in the block should start at least 0.3 times their diameter below the surface (Fig.).

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Unit - I

Fig. Counter boring for cylinder head and threaded cylinder head and threaded cylinder block holes for stud or set-bolt.

The hold-down screw holes should be as close as possible to the bore, otherwise the joint faces tend to pull open during combustion, thereby reducing their squeeze and sealing effectiveness. But if the holes are too near the top of the cylindrical bore they distort out of roundness. With an aluminium-alloy cylinder head set-bolts should always be used; otherwise it becomes almost impossible to withdraw the head over studs if any corrosion products are formed between the studs and their respective holes in the cylinder head. The minimum number of threaded hold-down holes in the top deck of the block is four, or in some cases five for engines with each cylinder capacities up to about half a liter. Above this cylinder capacity, six, seven, or sometimes even eight or nine hold-down screws are used. The recommended material for good quality hold-down studs or set-bolts is manganese-molybdenum steel, a typical composition of which is 0.35% carbon, 0.2% silicon, 1.6% manganese, 0.3% molybdenum and 97.55% iron.

Intake and Exhaust Valves and Mechanisms

Intake and Exhaust Valves Functions and Arrangements: The valve arrangement in an engine controls the in and out movements of charge and exhaust gases in the cylinders in relation to the piston positions in their bores. Now-a-days, this is located in the cylinder head on all the engines. Among the commonly used sleeve, sliding, rotary, and poppet type valves, the poppet-valve is most common because this offers reasonable weight, good strength and good heat transfer characteristics. The most popular shape of the poppet-valve (Fig.) for automobile application uses a small cup at one end of the stem. The valve stem is placed in a guide hole made centrally in a circular passage in the cylinder head. The valve disc head opens and closes the ported passage leading to the cylinder during in and out movement of the stem.

Fig. Valve assembly parts

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Unit - I Both inlet and exhaust ports are shaped to curve upwards and outwards emerging from one or both sides of the cylinder head. It is normal to have one inlet and one exhaust valve and port per cylinder. However, twin inlet and exhaust valve-and-port layouts are also adopted for some high-performance or large capacity engines. Also, a few engines use twin inlets but only one exhaust valve. Valves may be positioned vertically or slightly inclined relative to the cylinder axis, matching the desired combustion chamber contour. Poppet-valves have different configurations within the engine relative to the cylinders. In the overhead-cam engine (Fig. A), the camshaft is mounted in the head, either above or to one side of the valve which improves valve action at higher engine speeds. The valve is operated directly by means of valve lifters or cam followers, or through rocker arms. In the overhead-valve engine (Fig. B), the camshaft is in the engine block, and the valves are operated by valve lifters, pushrods, and rocker arms.

Fig. Valves and valve lifters. A. Valve in L-head engine. B. Overhead valve.

The double-overhead-cam engine has two camshafts, placed on each side of the valves. One operates the intake valves and other operates the exhaust valves. Intake valves handle cool, low pressure, low density charges whereas exhaust valves handle hot, high pressure, high density gases. Therefore, exhaust valves are exposed to more severe operating conditions, and hence are made from much higher quality materials than intake valves. The intake valve needs to be larger than the exhaust valve to handle the same gas mass (but of low density). From this view point the size of the exhaust valves is approximately 85% of the intake valve. Valve head diameter is nearly 115% of the port diameter and the lift is close to 25% of the valve diameter. The intake and exhaust valves are approximately 45% and 38% respectively of the bore size for engines with bores from 75mm to 200 mm.

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Unit - I

Fig. The timing gears.

The valve is opened by a cam that is timed to the piston and crankshaft cycle. It is closed by the use of one or more springs. The cam is driven by timing gears (Fig.), chains, or belts located at the front of the engine. Timing marks on the timing gears synchronize valve action with piston movement.

Valve Mechanisms: A. Side Camshaft with Push-rod and Rockers This type of valve-operating mechanism (Fig. 3.35) uses : (a) a camshaft, (b) a cam follower (tappet), (c) a push-rod, (d) a rocker-arm, (e) a rocker-shaft, (f) a return-spring, and (g) a poppet-valve. The operating mechanism between the camshaft and the poppet-valve is known as the valve train. Advantages: o A comparatively simple short timing chain or simple gear train can be used. o The rocker arm leverage provides a degree of cam-profile lift multiplication which can be transferred to the valve stem so that a smaller cam lobe can be used. o Adjustment and maintenance is easy and can be carried without dismantling any working engine components. Disadvantages: o During acceleration or operation at high engine speeds, the push-rod-and-rocker assembly does not relay the exact cam-profile lift to the valve, because of the elasticity of the system and the resulting vibrations. o Larger tappet clearances are required for the expansion and contraction of very long valvetrain mechanism during operation. o Due to the large number of contacting interface joints, the system develops more wear as well as more noise.

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Unit - I

Fig. Overhead valve side camshaft with push-rod and rocker-

Fig. Overhead camshaft with direct acting inverted-bucket followers.

B. Overhead Camshaft with a Sliding Inverted Bucket Follower: This type of valve operating mechanism (Fig.) uses: (a) a camshaft, (b) a sliding inverted bucket cam follower (c) a return-spring, and (d) a poppet-valve. Advantages: o This is the most compact and rigid cam-to-valve mechanisms, which directly relay the designed input cam-profile lift to the valve. o If adequate lubrication is provided, very little wear takes place since the valve stems are not subjected to side-thrust. o Tappet clearances are generally small and, once adjusted, are maintained for a very long period. Disadvantages: A much more elaborate drive between the crankshaft and the camshaft is necessary. Lubrication has to be more accurately controlled and directed than for other actuating mechanisms. Adjustment of tappets is relatively more difficult than in other mechanisms. C. Overhead Camshaft with Pivoted Rocker-arm:

Fig. Overhead camshaft with direct-acting end-pivoted rocker-arm.

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Unit - I This type of valve operating mechanism (Fig.) uses: (a) a camshaft, (b) a pivoted rocker-arm cam follower, (c) a return-spring, and (d) a poppet-valve. Advantages: The use of the rocker-arm follower provides a leverage ratio permitting a smaller cam profile in the system. The pivot-arm follower has less inertia than that of the sliding-bucket follower. A single overhead camshaft can operate two separate rows of inlet and exhaust valves. Adjustment of the tappet is normally simple and straight-forward. Disadvantages: Motion from the cam to the valve tends to bend the rocker-arm; therefore the system has to be relatively stiff, and however this characteristic does not match with the direct-acting bucket-follower arrangement. Contact between the valve and rocker provides a degree of side-thrust to the valve stem and guide. Wear and noise is relatively more than in the sliding bucket follower due to an extra pivot joint in addition to the other two contact interfaces. This configuration requires very accurate lubrication. The Poppet-valve: The poppet-valve (Fig.) head is the highest loaded part as it is subjected to uneven impact stresses across its diameter when the valve comes down on its seat. Also the head has to withstand thermal stresses due to the temperature variation over the head and between the head and the stem. The maximum stress concentration occurs on the surface of the valve's conical seat and in the region where the diameter changes from the head to the stem.

Fig. Identification of a poppet valve.

During operation, the temperature in the centre of the exhaust valve may be between 1023 and 1123 K and in the inlet valve between 723 and 823 K. As the mechanical and thermal stresses are cyclic, if failure takes place it is of a fatigue nature. Due to exposure to both dynamic inertia loads and the products of combustion at these high working temperatures, the surfaces of the valve may oxidize and corrode faster. The valve seat work hardens due to hammering in service, and any carbon deposit between the seats develops severe stress concentrations. Any gas leakage between the seats also develops local overheating which may cause mechanical failure, distortion or warping, and finally burning of the valve's conical seat. To improve the useful service life, the valve should withstand the high operating temperature, dynamic stresses and the corrosive environment, and have good wear resistance under all operating conditions. The shape of the valve should allow the exhaust gases to flow with very little resistance between the valve and the seat and around the exposed portion of the stem without absorbing excess heat. Also it should have a section adequate to withstand the stresses developed due to the repeated impact loads. The exhaust valve should have sufficient strength and hardness of resist stretching and rubbing wear of the valve stem, adequate hot strength and hardness to resist cupping of the head and rapid seat wear, good fatigue resistance to combat the repeated cyclic stress loading, PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 61

Unit - I good creep resistance to prevent the head from permanently deforming when operating at high temperatures and under alternating loads, good corrosion and oxidation resistance at high operating temperatures and stresses and in an active corrosive environment, a moderate coefficient of thermal expansion to limit the thermal stresses due to the large temperature gradient over the head, and good thermal conductivity from the valve's head, so that the heat from combustion can be dissipated readily. Poppet-valve Materials: The three basic alloys used in exhaust valves are (i) Silicon-chromium steels, (ii) Austenitic chromiumnickel steels, (iii) Nimonic nickel-base alloys. Silicon-chromium steel can function upto temperature of 923 K and early exhaust valves were made from this steel. A popular composition of this steel is 0.8% carbon, 0.4% manganese, 1.3% nickel, 2% silicon, 20% chromium, and the balance (75.5%) iron. Addition of the nickel to 12% improves the hot corrosion resistance considerably so that the valve can operate at slightly higher temperature. Hence valves were made from austenitic chromium-nickel steels such as '21-12', which contains 0.25% carbon, 1.5% manganese, 1% silicon, 12% nickel, and 21% chromium. A further improved austenitic chromium-nickel steel is the '21-4N' which provides a higher hardness for both cold and hot conditions and a greater degree of work-hardening. The composition is 0.5% carbon, 0.25% silicon, 9% manganese, 21% chromium, 4% nickel, 0.4% nitogen, and 64.85% iron. Because of the large amounts of chromium and manganese the steel absorbs nitrogen, which improves the wear resistance when subjected to high temperatures and loads. For high temperature operations and heavy-duty engines nimonic alloys are more suitable materials. An example is the '80A' which has a composition of 0.05% carbon, 1% manganese, 0.6% silicon, 20% chromium, 2% cobalt, 2.5% titanium, 1.2% aluminium, 5% iron and 67.65% nickel. These nickel-based alloys have a higher hot strength and hardness, and better fatigue and corrosion resistance than austenitic steels, but are more expensive. To overcome the high cost of the valve a two-piece valve can be made with a nickel-base-alloy head joined to a steel stem by friction welding. The service life of both austenitic steel and nimonic alloy valves can now span upto 150000 km, compared to the traditional 22000 km between relapping of the valve interfaces. For heavy-duty applications, exhaust-valve head-rim seats may be faced by a hard alloy such as stellite. This cobalt-based alloy has a composition of 1.8% carbon, 9% tungsten, 29% chromium and 60.2% cobalt. Since inlet valves operate at temperatures of about 773 K they do not need such highly alloyed valve material. A typical inlet-valve material is silicon-chromium steel, which has a composition of 0.4% carbon, 0.5% nickel, 0.5% manganese, 3.5% silicon, 8% chromium, and 87.1% iron. Valve Guides: Normally the valve seat is integrally formed in the head casting of automotive engines. Insert seats are also used in some engines, which allow for easy repair of valve seats. Valve seat distortion is one of the major causes of poor valve service life. Distortion may be transient or permanent. The former is due to pressure and thermal stress and the latter as a result of mechanical stress, so that proper care must be taken during assembly of the engine. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 62

Unit - I

Fig. Valve guides. A. Integral. B. Plain sleeve. C. Shouldered sleeve.

A guide hole in the cylinder head supports and guides the sliding action of the valve stem, so that the head is maintained in a central position relative to the valve seat while opening and closing. Such holes are known as valve guides. For normal duty engines, the guide consists of directly drilled and reamed holes in case-iron cylinder heads. For aluminium-alloy cylinder heads and for heavy-duty cast-iron heads, separate sleeve or bush guides are pressed into preformed holes (Fig.). The guide sleeve or bush is made from good quality pearlitic cast iron, to minimize stem-to-guide wear, or from bronze to improve the heat flow to the cylinder-head coolant passages. Although the plain sleeve is adequate for most applications, but sometimes shouldered bushes are used to position the guide in the cylinder head. The guide generally protrudes slightly above the spring-seat in the cylinder head, to prevent excessive oil draining down the stem. The length of the guiding portion of the sleeve should be 8 to 10 times the stem diameter. The external diameter of the bush sleeve should be within 1.4 to 1.6 times the stem diameter. The clearance between the valve stem and the guiding surface of the sleeve varies from 0.02 to 0.05 mm for the inlet valves and from 0.04 to 0.07 mm for the exhaust valves. These values, however, depend to some extent on the stem and guide materials and the operating temperatures. Worn integral guide holes can be reamed, and the old valves are replaced with new valves having oversized stems. When existing valve guides are worn, they can be replaced with new guides. The valve-to-stem clearance must be sufficient to allow lubrication but excessive clearance causes the stem to rock and so 'bell mouth' the valve guide. As wear occurs, the contact between the stem and the guide becomes less effective, so that the valve's mean operating temperature rises. Lubrication may also deteriorate at this temperature as a result of gum formation. Protrusion of the valve guides into the exhaust port should generally be avoided otherwise this may raise the operating temperature of the exhaust valve's head. Oil leakage past the valve guide is a problem in the overhead valve engine, especially around the intake valve stem where vacuum exists. Seals of suitable design made of synthetic rubbers and plastics are, therefore, used to arrest this leakage.

Valve-seat Insert Rings: For heavy-duty applications with cast-iron cylinder heads, or for aluminium alloy cylinder heads, valve inserts are used to withstand the high operating temperatures and the corrosive atmosphere around the valve seat porting. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 63

Unit - I Also use of insert material with improved impact strength and hardness resists wear. These inserts (Fig.) form a rectangular-section ring having a conical seat on one of the inside edges. The insert must be rigid to withstand the continuous hammering and be able to dissipate the heat from the poppet-valve head to the cylinder-head coolant system.

Fig.Valve-seat insert rings. A. Valve-seat insert-ring dimensions. B. Force fit. C. Rolled-edge fit. D. Sprung-flange fit. E. Screw fit.

To fulfill these requirements, the radial thickness of the insert wall should be at least 0.10 to 0.14 times the throat diameter. The external diameter of the insert should be within 1.2 to 1.3 times the throat diameter and the height for an insert should be 0.15 to 0.25 times the throat diameter (Fig. A). Valve inserts are force fits in recesses machined into the cylinder head. The interference in cast-iron heads is of the order of 0.0003 times the exhaust valve stem diameter. Typical interference fits are 0.019 mm per mm of outside diameter for cast-iron cylinder head, and 0.025 mm per mm of outside diameter for aluminium alloy cylinder head. While force or shrunk fitting these rings (Fig. B), they are normally shrunk in liquid oxygen down to 453 K and then readily pressed into position. In absence of this facility, the cylinder head is heated in boiling water for half an hour and then the insert is placed as quickly as possible. In case of rolled-edge fit the insert ring is forced into its recessed bore, and the edge of the cylinder-head face is then rolled over to fill up the space provided by the chamfered outer top edge of the insert (Fig.C). For sprung-flange fit, circumferential slots are made on opposite sides at the bottom of the ring and the lower portion of the insert ring is distorted outwards. When this insert is forced into its bore, the lower part of the ring springs out into a groove in the recess, which locks the insert permanently into position (Fig. D). For certain aluminium-alloy cylinder head a screw-type joint is used to provide a more positive grip in the cylinder head (Fig. E) and to compensate for the large differential expansion, which usually exists between the insert and its recessed bore.

Seat-insert Materials: For moderate to high duty cast-iron cylinder head, a low-alloy pearlitic cast iron is used as insert material. A typical composition of this alloy is 3% carbon, 2% silicon, 0.4% phosphorus, 0.9% molybdenum, 1% chromium, and 92.7% iron. This has a hardness of 270 to 300 Brinell number. For moderate to high duty aluminium cylinder head, suitable insert material is a high nickel-copper austenitic grey cast iron having a high coefficient of expansion as well as good corrosion resistance. A common composition of this alloy is 2.8% carbon, 2% silicon, 0.45% phosphorus, 1.8% chromium, 15% nickel, 7% copper, and 70.95% iron. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 64

Unit - I This has a hardness of 160 to 240 Brinell number. For very-heavy-duty and high-temperature cast-iron cylinder head the insert can be made from a highchromium alloy cast-iron containing 1.8% carbon, 1.8% silicon, 0.4% molybdenum, and 14% chromium. This has a hardness of 270 to 320 Brinell number if heat treated.

Valve Return Springs: The valve return-spring (or springs) ensures that the valve lift or fall follows precisely the corresponding cam-profile motion imparted to the follower under both acceleration and deceleration operating conditions.

Fig. Valve helical-coil springs. A. Constant-pitch helical spring. B. Variable-pitch helical spring.

Normally helical-coil springs are used (Fig. A), which work under load in compression. When the spring is deflected (i.e. compressed during loading) each part of the spring wire is twisted, and hence is subjected to torsional stress. The stiffness of a helical spring, which is the ability of the spring to resist deflection under the application of a load, is proportional to the fourth power of the spring wire diameter and is inversely proportional both to the cube of the mean spring coil diameter and to the number of active coils, all other conditions being equal.

Valve Spring Materials: Either a plain high-carbon steel or a low-alloy chromium-vanadium steel is used to manufacture valve springs. The high-carbon steel contains 0.4 to 0.8% carbon, 0.3% silicon, and 1.0% manganese. The chromium-vanadium steel contains 0.4 to 0.5% carbons, 0.2% silicon, 0.6% manganese, 1.0 to 1.5% chromium, and a minimum of 0.15% vanadium. The steel wire is supplied in the softened state. It is ground all over to a good surface finish, followed by cold drawing to impart the necessary high tensile properties. The wire is coiled into the spring shape and is then given a blueing, a stress-relieving treatment. Valve Spring Retention (Locks): The return-spring (or springs) keeps the valve in the closed position until actuated by the camshaft. It acts against a spring-retaining plate fixed to the end of the valve stem (Fig.). This retaining plate contains a central tapered hole which, when in position, fits over a shallow circular groove machined near the end of the stem. Two tapered half collects are wedged in between the spring-plate's conical wall and the grooved portion of the stem. The internal protruding circular notches or ribs formed on the collects lock them to the stem groove. The continuous pulling of the spring-plate by the spring maintains the collects' grip on both the stem and the spring-plate.

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Unit - I The underside of the spring-plate is normally stepped to position either one or two springs.

Fig. Poppet-valve spring retention.

Rocker-shaft Rocker-shaft provides a rigid pivot support for the rocker-arms. These shafts are machined from hollow steel tubing. These are mounted and clamped on cast-iron or aluminium-alloy pedestals, which are generally fitted between each pair of rocker-arms (Fig.).

Fig. Rocker-shaft assembly.

Therefore, a four cylinder engine has four pedestal support brackets. For lubrication purposes radial holes are drilled through the rocker-shaft to align with each rocker-arm, and both ends of the shaft are plugged to prevent the oil leakage. One of the support pedestals normally incorporate a vertical drilled hole to supply the oil from the camshaft to the hollow rocker-shaft. This hole matches with a corresponding radial hole in the shaft. When reassembling the rockers and shaft, these two holes must align, to restore oil supply to the shaft. The material for these tubular shafts is carbon steel, a typical composition of which is 0.55% carbon, 0.2% silicon, 0.65% manganese, and the balance iron. After machining, the shaft is case-hardened to withstand the rubbing action.

Rocker-arm:

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Unit - I

Fig. Valve rocker-arms. A. Forged or cast rocker-arm with central pivot and end adjustment. B. Pressed-steel-sheet rocker-arm with central pivot and end adjustment. C. Cast or pressed-sheet rocker-arm with central pivot and adjustment. D. Forged or cast rocker-arm with end pivot and adjustment. E. Geometrically best rocker-to-valve-stem layout.

A rocker-arm rocks or oscillates about its pivot (Fig.) and relays the push-rod up-and-down movement to the stem of the poppet-valve. Therefore this arm acts as a rocking beam. The pivot (either a shaft or a spherical fulcrum post) is offset and positioned in the push-rod so that for a given cam lobe rise, the corresponding valve life is about 1.4 times greater. This allows lobe profile of 40% smaller than is otherwise necessary. The actual rocker-arm pivot ratio and therefore the cam lobe size vary to certain extent depending on design requirements. Rocker-arms may be manufactured from materials which can be cast, forged, or cold-pressed to shape. These are cast from malleable cast iron with induction-hardening at selected regions. For forging a medium-carbon steel with a typical composition of 0.55% carbon, 0.2% silicon, 0.65% manganese, and the balance (98.6%) iron can be used. This can be hardened by quenching from a temperature of 1085 K to 1115 K and then tempering at a suitable temperature between 825 K and 975 K. For cold-pressing a low-carbon steel of composition 0.2% carbon, 0.8% manganese, and the balance (99%) iron can be used. Rockers, when manufactured in this method, incorporate a hardened-steel contact pad attached at the valve-stem end.

Push-rod: The push-rod is a strut which transmits the to-and-fro cam-follower movement to one end of the pivoting rocker-arm. Both ends of the push-rod constitute part of pair of semi-spherical ball-and-socket joint, which permits the rod to tilt slightly and revolve when the rocker-arm oscillates about its pivots. The bottom of the rod is convex that fits in a matching recess in the follower. The top of the rod is expanded to support a concave-recess seat that locates with the adjustable tappet screw on the end of the rocker-arm. For medium capacity engines the push-rod in general is solid (Fig. B), but for large engines hollow rods with hardened end-pieces forced into the tubing are used (Fig. C). Push-rods are usually manufactured from carbon-manganese steel, a popular composition of which is 0.35% carbon, 0.2% silicon, 1.5% manganese, and the balance (97.95%) iron. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 67

Unit - I The rod is hardened by quenching it from a temperature of 1113 to 1143 K and then tempering between 823 and 933 K. This produces a hardness of 220 to 280 Brinell number. Alternatively a steel with a higher carbon content suitable for induction-hardening is used. Cam Follower (Tappet) and Lifter:

Fig. Cam followers (tappet). A. Mushroom follower. B. Bucket or barrel follower. C. Enclosed bucket follower with helical slots. D. Roller follower.

The cam follower (Fig.) through its eccentric lobe converts the angular movement of the camshaft into a reciprocating movement. This movement is directly proportional to the amount the lobe profile that is deviated from the base circle. Two common forms of sliding followers are the mushroom follower and the bucket or barrel follower. The mushroom follower uses a relatively small diameter solid cylindrical guide stem. The stem has a large disc- or mushroom-shaped head formed at one end to contact the cam profile. Its other end is of concave shape recessed to form a semi-ball-and-socket joint with the bottom of the convex push-rod end. The bucket or barrel follower is a hollow cylindrical sleeve with an enclosed bottom. Its top side is concave recessed to position the push-rod semi-spherical end. The underside of the sleeve is flat to transfer the cam-lobe profile rise to the follower. Sometimes helical slots are formed on the cylindrical walls to reduce weight as well as improve lubrication. The mushroom-type follower can incorporate a shorter push-rod, which improves the rigidity. The bucket follower, however, provides side-thrust support. The centre line of stroke in the follower is slightly offset from the mid width of the cam (Fig. C) to distribute wear over its bottom face. Therefore, during operation, the follower tends to revolve every time the lobe rubs against it. To have a very slight curvature, the face of the follower is provided with a spherical radius of about 1 m (Fig. A). To match the centre of the follower face, which stands out about 0.08 mm, with this curvature, the cam lobes are ground with a taper of the order of 3 to 4 degrees (Fig. B). This combination helps to reduce tappet and cam wear. In L-head engines the valve clearance is adjusted by the use of a tappet-adjusting screw and in I-head engines by rocker arm adjusting screws. Roller followers are used for some heavy-duty applications. However these followers must be prevented from rotating for which a slot guide-screw is always provided (Fig. D). ME1353 Automobile Engineering 68

PEC DoME

Unit - I Similar to the camshaft the follower is manufactured from a chilled low-alloy cast iron containing iron, carbon, silicon, manganese, and chromium.

3.4.16. Tappet Clearance Adjustment for Push-rod Mechanisms Tappet clearance is provided to accommodate expansion and contraction of the valve and its operating mechanism. Depending on the method of tappet adjustment two basic types of rocker-arm arrangement in use are (i) Push-rod-end adjustment, and (ii) Central-pivot adjustment. Push-rod-end Adjustment. The rockers are centrally pivoted on a rocker-shaft (Fig. 3.49A and B). The arm has a hardened face pad with a curved surface at one end for smooth contact with the valve-stem tip. A thraded hole at the other end holds an adjustable tappet screw with a lock-nut. The tip of this screw has a hardened spherical ball. This ball fits into a matching concave recess formed in the top of the push-rod. For adjustment the correct size of feller gauge is slipped between the valve-stem tip and the rocker pad. Then the lock-nut is slightly slackened and, using a screwdriver, the tappet screw is turned to either increase or decrease the clearance. For correct clearance, the feeler blade should just feel grip as it is pulled across the valve-stem tip. The lock-nut is then tightened and the clearance rechecked. Self-locking screws are also sometimes used (Fig. 3.49A). Central-pivot Adjustment. This mechanism (Fig. 3.49C) incorporates the hollow malleable-iron or pressed-steel type of rocker having a curved valve-tip contact face at one end. At the other end, a hardened spherical recess receives the ball-ended push-rod. The rocker pivots on a spherically faced fulcrum seat of case-hardened sintered-iron. A self-locking nut on a stud post, fixed into the cylinder head, holds the rocker. The push-rods are located and positioned by guide fork-plates fixed on the cylinder head. For the tappet clearance adjustment, the feeler blade is pushed between the valve-stem tip and the rocker face. The central self-locking nut is then turned either way until the correct clearance is obtained by the feeling of grip that the valve -stem tip and rocker impart to the feeler blade. Camshaft Positioning for Push-rod Tappet Adjustment. Before measuring the tappet clearance, it is necessary to rotate the camshaft until the follower is on the base of the cam and furthest from the cam-lobe nose. One of the three different methods of positioning the camshaft is as follows. The crankshaft is rotated until the valve being adjusted is fully open. It is then turned further through one complete revolution to bring the follower on to the base of the cam. The camshaft moves at half crankshaft speed. Therefore to move the cam-lobe nose from its top position to the bottom, i.e. 180 degrees camshaft movement, a corresponding crankshaft movement of 360 degrees is required. 3.4.17. Valve Cooling It is necessary to cool the exhaust valve directly or indirectly as it becomes very hot due to the passage of hot exhaust gases. The valve face and stem conduct heat to the surrounding and they are relatively cooler than the valve head. A poor valve may cause a valve to run hotter reducing its life considerably. Additional water circulation is usually provided near the exhaust valve seating in the engine head. Sodium cooled valves are used in the heavy duty engine and aircraft engines. These valves have a hollow head and stem, which is partly filled with sodium or a mixture of salts. During operation of the valve the up and down movement of sodium PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 69

Unit - I transfers the heat near the head portion at a faster rate. 3.4.18. Timing the Valve of an Engine During the assembling of an engine the drive between the crankshaft and the camshaft must be connected properly so that the valves open and close at the correct times in relation to the movement of the crankshaft and the piston. This operation is known as timing the valves, which is carried out through three main stages as follows. For the engine with more than one camshaft, each one has to be timed individually. (a) Set the crankshaft in the position in which one of the valves should open or close. (It is usual to work on the opening point of the inlet valve, but any other point can be used.) (b) Set the camshaft in the position in which it is about to open the inlet valve (or whatever point is chosen). (c) Connect up the drive to the camshaft. Suitable parts of the engine are usually marked, to assist in timing the valves (Fig. 3.34). The timing gear or sprocket is keyed to the crankshaft and can be fitted in one position only. The camshaft gear or sprocket is similarly fixed to the camshaft in such a way that it can be attached in one position only. By lining up marked teeth on these gears, the crankshaft and camshaft are placed in the correct positions for connecting up the camshaft drive. These gears are hidden inside the timing cover when assembled. To enable the timing to be checked without removing the cover, the pulley is usually marked in a position corresponding to TDC in one of the cylinders. If the pulley is not marked in this way, the TDC position can be found by any one of several methods, of which the following is an example. On most modern engines the piston can be felt by inserting a rod through a sparking-plug hole. Turn the engine until the piston is approximately 10 mm below its highest position, and file a notch on the rod exactly opposite the top of the plug hole when the end of the rod is resting on the piston. Mark the crankshaft pulley opposite some suitable fixed reference point. Now turn the engine crankshaft so that the piston passes TDC and begins to move down the cylinder. Stop when mark on the rod reaches the top of the plug hole, and put a second mark on the pulley opposite the fixed reference mark. Mark the mid-point of the distance between the two marks on the pulley. The piston is at TDC when this last mark is opposite to the fixed reference point. Valve timing marks can also be made on the flywheel. If the circumference of the flywheel is divided by 360, a figure is obtained, which represents the distance measured round the flywheel rim equivalent to one degree. For example if the circumference of the flywheel is 800 mm and the inlet valve opening point is 9 degrees before TDC, the distance to be measured round the flywheel rim is (800 x 9/360 = ) 20 mm. There are several ways, by which the opening point of the valve can be found. First of all the valve clearance must be correct, since variation of clearance causes a considerable variation in timing. (Some manufacturers stipulate a different clearance for valve timing from that used for running). If the valves are push-rod operated and the end of the push rod is accessible, it can be spun easily between finger and thumb while the valve is on its seat, but becomes stiff to turn as the valve is on its seat, and becomes stiff to turn as soon as the valve begins to open. An alternate method is that in which, a feeler gauge is inserted in the clearance between the rocker (or tappet) and the valve stem is nipped at the moment the valve begins to open. In this case the valve clearance must be increased by an amount equal to the thickness of the feeler used. Intake Manifold The carburettor delivers finely divided droplets of liquid fuel into the incoming air. These start to evaporate as they leave the carburettor. About 60% of the fuel evaporates by the time the charge reaches the combustion chamber. The droplets stay in suspension as long as the PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I mixture flows at high velocities through the manifold (Fig. 3.52) and at maximum power, these velocities may reach 330 km/hr. Separation of droplets from the mixture occurs when the velocity of mixture drops below 55 km/hr. The velocity of mixture is usually below this value during idling speeds of the engine. Therefore extra fuel is supplied in order to deliver a combustible mixture to the combustion chamber at low engine speeds. The primary function of intake manifold is to carry the air-fuel mixture from the carburettor to the intake port in the head.

Fig. 3.52. Intake manifold of a six-cylinder in-line engine. 3.5.1. Design Criteria As mixture flows, the mixture picks up heat that evaporates the liquid fuel droplets, gradually changing it into a gaseous air-fuel mixture. The manifold size must be large enough to allow adequate flow for maximum power and small enough to maintain sufficient velocities to keep the fuel droplets in suspension. The charge flow through the intake manifold is dependent upon the number of abrupt runner bends, the smoothness of the interior walls, and the cross-section of the runners. Sharp bends tend to increase fuel separation as air is lighter than fuel droplets. Rough interior runner surfaces add drag and turbulence to the charge velocity disturbing charge distribution. The corners cause turbulence that helps evaporate liquid fuel on the surface. Passenger car engines are primarily designed for economy at light load, and part throttle operation. Their manifolds, therefore, have a much smaller cross sectional area to maintain adequate mixture velocities throughout their normal operating range. On the other hand, the engines designed especially for racing have large manifolds for attaining maximum power, but their size allows fuel separation at low speeds. The problem of fuel separation can be avoided on the engines that have fuel injection into the manifold near the inlet valve. These engines can operate satisfactorily at low speeds, even with large manifold cross-sections. 3.5.2. Configuration Manifolds are designed so that the manifold floor is level when the engine is mounted on the chassis. Rectangular and oval shapes are used to take advantage of the available space for more cross-section area at the expense of relatively more wall surface area when compared to

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.53. Intake manifold of a V-type engine (shaded area). round runners. Main intake runners have cross-sectional areas of approximately 31.5 square mm per ml displacement and branch runners have cross-sectional areas of approximately 23.5 square mm per ml displacement. Ribs and guide vanes are often provided on the floor of the manifold runners for equal distribution of the intake gases to the cylinders. The intake manifold of in-line engines is less complicated than that of V-type engines. The intake manifold of in-line engines can be a simple log-type that directs the charge from the carburettor to adjacent ports in the most convenient manner. Both open type and closed type manifolds are used on V-type engines.

Some runners are called tuned runners. In tuned runners, the length is designed to take advantage of the natural pressure wave that occurs in a gas column. The pressure wave reaches the cylinder when the intake valve opens. This allows the charge to enter the cylinder with a supercharging or ram effect. V-type engines have the intake manifold in the valley between the cylinder banks (Fig. 3.53). An exhaust crossover passage inside the manifold carries hot exhaust gases near the base of the carburettor. In a few manifolds, engine coolant is routed near the carburettor to heat the air-fuel mixture. Most in-line engines have both manifolds on the same side of the engine, with the intake manifold on the top of the exhaust manifold (Fig. 3.54). A chamber between the two fills with exhaust gases and creates a hot spot to improve fuel vaporization in the intake manifold passages. Some in-line engines have two manifolds mounted on opposite sides of the cylinder. This is called a cross flow design. Coolant passages and a heat jacket on the intake manifold supply heat. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 72

Unit - I Even with the help of heat from the exhaust manifold and engine coolant, the air-fuel mixture usually does not completely vaporize in the intake manifold. This results in an unequal mixture distribution among the cylinder. Depending upon manifold design, the use of 2-or 4-barrel carburettor improves mixture distribution, because each carburettor barrel supplies fewer cylinders. Passenger car intake manifolds are made of cast iron or aluminium. The exact design and number of outlets to the engine depends on the engine type, number of cylinders, carburetion and valve port arrangement. The intake manifolds for passenger cars are classified as either single plane or two plane designs. A single plane manifold (Fig. 3.55) uses short branches, called runners to connect all of the engine's inlet ports to a single common chamber. This chamber, called the plenum chamber, is simply a storage area for the air-fuel mixture. The single-plane

Fig. 3.54. Intake manifold of an in-line engine. manifold degisn can produce more power at high rpm than can the two-plane design. Short runner length causes a drop in mixture velocity. Some in-line engines do not use Siamesed ports, but the intake manifolds have long curved runners with no sharp turns (Fig. 3.56).

Fig. 3.56. The Chrysler intake manifold.

Fig. 3.57. Two-plane intake manifold. V-8 engine intake manifolds may be either a single-plane or a two-plane design. A two plane intake manifold has two PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 73

Unit - I separate plenum chambers connected to the intake ports of the engine (Fig. 3.57). Each chamber feeds two central and two end cylinders. When a 4-barrel carburettor is used with a 2-plane manifold, each side of the carburettor (one primary and one secondary barrel) feeds one plenum chamber. When a 2-barrel carburettor is used, each barrel feeds one chamber.

Fig. 3.55. A single-plane manifold for 8 cylinder engines. Exhaust Manifold The exhaust manifold (Fig. 3.58) collects the high temperature spent gases from the cylinder exhaust ports with the least possible back pressure while keeping the exhaust noise at a minimum level. Whenever gas is pushed through a passageway, turbulence and friction along the sides of the passage cause a resistance, called back pressure. A piston encounters back pressure each time it comes up on the exhaust stroke. This causes a loss of power. A direct and unrestricted flow of exhaust gas causes less back pressure and prevents loss of power. The exhaust manifold contains exhaust pipes, silencer or muffler and the tail pipe. The exhaust gas temperature varies according to the power produced by the engine. The manifold has to be designed to sustain variation of thermal expansion in the material from idle to full power conditions where the highest temperature is produced. The exhaust manifold is made from cast iron that can withstand extreme temperature and the thermal shocks. Exhaust systems are especially designed for the engine chassis combination. The exhaust system length, pipe size and silencer are designed, wherever possible, to make use of the tuning effect of the gas column resonating within the exhaust system similar to the tuned intake runner. The entire system is designed so that exhaust pulses from the cylinder are emitted to the manifold when the least pressure exists, rather than during a high pressure wave as the case of intake manifolds. This helps to scavenge the exhaust gas from the cylinder, allowing more useful space for the fresh charge and consequently, more engine power can be produced. Tuning is most effective at one engine speed or at certain harmonics of the speeds. Manifolds are, therefore, tuned to the most desirable engine rpm for the particular vehicle. Short pipe lengths favour high-rpm power peaks, while longer lengths tend to increase torque in the midrange speeds used in passenger car application.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.58. Exhaust manifold of a six-cylinder in-line engine. When the exhaust valve opens, a high pressure gas is rapidly released. This sends a strong air wave through the atmosphere, which produces a sound called an explosion. In an engine, the pulses are released, one after another, and so the explosions seem to blend together in a steady sound. The muffler traps the large bursts of high pressure exhaust gas in an expansion chamber and releases them gradually before the next high pressure burst arrives. In this way, the muffler silences engine exhaust noise. In some models, a catalytic converter (Fig. 3.59) is installed between the manifold and muffler to help reduce exhaust emissions. 3.6.1. Design Criteria The exhaust manifold is designed to minimize any restriction to the flow of the gas. Some manifolds use cast-rib deflectors or dividers to guide the exhaust gases towards the outlet as smoothly as possible. An optimum exhaust passage cross section must be established with well proportioned flow areas, smooth flow paths, and maximum branch separation within the limits

Fig. 3.59. Catalytic converter. of the chassis environment. First the chassis and the engine are designed and then the manifold is designed to fit into the remaining space. Severe bends on the exhaust manifold have no measurable effect on the flow of exhaust gases as long >as the required cross section is maintained. The exhaust manifold is bolted to the head or to the block in a way to allow expansion and contraction. Some manifolds are designed so that no parting surface gasket is required, while others require a gasket. The manifold or header collects the exhaust gas from the individual cylinders and directs them to the exhaust system (Fig. 3.60). Some exhaust manifolds are designed to go above the spark plug, while others are designed to go below. An exhaust pipe is connected to the manifold header to carry the gases to the muffler or silencer. The muffler (Fig. 3.61) catches the high pressure exhaust gas pulses from the cylinder, smoothing out the pressure, allowing it to be released at an even and constant rate, and minimizing the exhaust noise. This is possible due PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I to the use of perforated tubes within the muffler chamber. The tail pipe carries the exhaust gases from the muffler to the atmosphere. The muffler and tall pipe are supported with brackets called hangers, which are rubberized fabric with metal ends.

Fig. 3.60. Exhaust system with a catalytic converter.

Fig. 3.61. Muffler in cutaway section. Flywheel The functions of a flywheel are the following : (a) It stores up energy to help the engine over idle strokes of the piston i.e., suction, compression and exhaust. (b) It dampens out speed fluctuations of the crankshaft due to the varying effect of the firing impulses during the engine cycle.

Fig. 3.66. Flywheel and ring gear. (c) It provides a convenient mounting point for the clutch and starter ring PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I gear. The flywheel (Fig. 3.66) is a heavy and perfectly balanced wheel usually bolted to a flange on the rear end of the crankshaft. Engines with many cylinders do not require as heavy a flywheel as an engine with fewer cylinders because of power lap.

3.8.1. Flywheel Attachment The flywheel end of the crankshaft uses a larger diameter (Fig. 3.62) than the main journals, which provides a flanged face to mount the flywheel and to support a circumferential rubbing surface for the rear crankshaft oil-seal. A shallow recess in the flywheel allows it to be aligned over the flanged end of the crankshaft, which provides concentric (radial) support for the joints (Figs. 3.67 and 3.68). In order to prevent relative angular movement between the crankshaft and the flywheel, dowels are countersunk at one or two locations in both mating faces. Alternatively, one of the clamping bolts is used with a shoulder, which fits tight in its selected flywheel hole. To transmit the drive torque from the crankshaft to the flywheel four or six bolts clamp together the flanges and recessed faces of the two components. When installing the flywheel,

Fig. 3.67. Crankshaft-to-flywheel flanged joint and oil-seal. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 77

Unit - I all the set-bolts should be initially lightly and evenly tightened, followed by tightening diametrically opposite set-bolts to the recommended torque. If this tightening procedure is not followed, excessive flywheel wobble, known as run-out may occur.

Fig. 3.68. Main bearing with integral thrust flange, oil-seal, and flywheel joint. Fan-belt Pulley Attachment The fan-belt pulley transmits power from the crankshaft to the various auxiliary components such as the water-pump, generator, power steering and brake-fluid pump, and the cooling fan itself. The pulley contains a wheel which guides and supports the fan belt and the hub. The first main journal of the crankshaft has axial rectangular keyway slot(s) on an extended parallel portion of slightly smaller diameter. The bores of the timing gear (which, drives the camshaft) and the pulley hub have internal slots and form a transition push fit with the shaft. However the driving torque is transferred from the shaft to the gear and pulley through the Woodruff key(s) (Figs. 3.69 and 3.70). To prevent loosening of the components due to vibration, a large set-bolt is screwed into the end of crankshaft to clamp the assembly together.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.69. Fan-belt pulley and oil-seal assembly. Fig- 3.70. Crankshaft pulley, timing sprocket, and oilseal assembly. The belt generally has trapezium cross-section to match the tapered sides of the pulleywheel circumferential groove. The factional grip of the belt transmits the drive which is reinforced by the wedge action of the tapered contact surfaces. Belts are mostly made from composite fabrics of rubber and nylon or terylene. The life-span of the belt depends upon the accurate alignment of the pulley-wheel system and the correct tension in the belt. Camshaft The camshaft performs as a means of actuating the opening and controlling the period before closing both the inlet and the exhaust valves. Also, it provides a drive for both the ignition distributor and mechanical fuel pump. The camshaft ensures occurrence of the cycle of events

Fig. 3.71. Camshafts chain driven by the crankshaft.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.72. Cylinder-block-mounted camshaft. Fig. 3.73. Cylinder-head-mounted camshaft. at the correct time in relation to the movement of the pistons. It also ensures, simultaneously, the sequential operations of each valve in accordance to the firing-order. The camshaft (Fig. 3.71) is the second rotating shaft placed in the crankcase, and installed to one side and above the crankshaft. It is generally supported by three or four sleeve bearings and fitted with two cams for each cylinder to operate the valve lifters for opening and closing the valves in proper order and at the correct time. Towards the centre of the camshaft a gear is mounted to drive the oil pump shaft and the distributor shaft at the same speed as the camshaft. The camshafts are installed in the cylinder block parallel to the crankshaft and to one side of the cylinder either just above the crankshaft (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2) or a little below the cylinder head (Fig. 3.71). Alternatively, the camshaft can be mounted centrally over the cylinder head on a pedestal support (Figs. 3.72 and 3.73). Usually three plain bush-type whitemetal or tin-aluminium bearings support the camshaft. These bearings are a force fit in the cylinder block or head-pedestal housing bores.

3.10.1. Crankshaft-to-camshaft Drive The crankshaft drives the camshaft through a pair of mating gears, called timing gears (Fig. 3.74 A), each installed at one of their ends. The camshaft gear carries exactly double number of teeth to that of crankshaft gear. This enables the camshaft to rotate at half the speed of the crankshaft so that each valve opens only once in every two revolutions of crankshaft in case of four-stroke engine. This directly geared simple train is suitable only for low-mounted camshaft in the cylinder-block. Therefore this timing- A Gear drive (for low-mounted camshaft). gear arrangement is used with push-rod-actuated B Chain drive Qror high-mounted cam 'V-six' and 'V-eight' engines. shaft). For the engine with a high-mounted camshaft in & Belt drive (for overhead camshaft) the cylinder block, an additional idler gear is necessary between the crankshaft and camshaft gears or alternatively a timing gear chain (Figs. 3.74B and 3.71) can be used to span the distance PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 80

Unit - I between the driver and driven gear wheels. With correct tensioning and proper lubrication, these chains can have a service life of at least 140 000 km. Internally toothed belts (Fig. 3.74C) are commonly used for both petrol engines and small diesel engines fitted with an overhead camshaft. These belt-drives run relatively silently, operate dry against the sprocket wheels and have a life span of about 50000 to 70000 km under normal driving conditions. For speed reduction, the camshaft driven gear or sprocket-wheel has twice as many teeth on the driver camshaft wheel. The belt also transmits power to an auxiliary shaft used to drive the distributor or the injection pump. The camshaft rotation is correctly timed to the rotation of crankshaft through timing gears so that the valves are opened and closed in relation to crankshaft angle and piston position. Cam lobe shape or contour has more control over engine performance characteristics than any

Fig. 3.74. Camshaft drive arrangement. other single engine part. A spherical lifter face of 1700 mm to 1432 mm diameter is used in most of the valve trains, which slides against the cam lobe. It contacts the lobe off-centre as the lobe has a slight taper across its face. This produces a turning effort on the lifter which causes rotation. The cam lobe has a wide line contact with the lifter where the highest pressure zone exists on the surface. As the camshaft lobe pushes the lifter upward against the valve spring force, backward torsion force is developed in the camshaft. After the lobe goes past its highest point, the lifter moves down the back side of the lobe, causing forward torsion force. These alternating torsion forces are multiplied by the number of cam lobes on the camshaft. This requires the camshaft to be sufficiently strong to withstand torsion and be tough enough to minimize fatigue. 3.10.2. Camshaft Materials At present chilled cast iron is almost universally used for the manufacturing of the camshafts. The metal chills (shaped pieces of cast iron) are placed in the walls of the mould adjacent to where the cam lobes are to be located, so that when the molten iron is poured it freezes rapidly in these selected zones. The chilled zone is a complex composite casting a section of which normally exhibits three distinct zones ; (a) an outer layer of the white-iron, containing a fine mixture of hard carbides and soft pearlite, (b) a tarnsition zone with a mottled appearance, which consists of both a carbide-pearlite PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 81

Unit - I mixture and graphitic grey iron together, (c) a core region predominating the normal soft and ductile graphitic grey-iron structure. The composition of a typical cast-iron alloy used for camshafts is 3.30% carbon, 20% silicon, 0.65% manganese, 0.65% chromium, 0.25% molybdenum, and 93.15% iron. The camshaft is cast as one piece with lobes, bearing journals, drive flanges and accessory gear blanks closed to the finished side. Cam lobe contour requires very careful machining as they are most critical. Steel camshafts have been used in some heavy duty engine camshafts and are necessary in engines using roller lifters. The camshaft gear teeth are made of soft material to reduce noise. The camshaft gear or sprocket is made of sintered iron or it may have an aluminium hub with nylon teeth. The timing chain is either a silent chain or roller chain. Dynamic Oil Seals Dynamic oil seals are used between surfaces having relative motion such as a shaft and a housing. The seals keep liquid and gases in and keep contaminants out. Oil seals must not press very hard against the moving parts to minimize surface wear and must provide minimum drag or friction. Seal selection is made considering the rubbing speed, fluid pressure, operating temperature, shaft surface requirements, and space available. Some dynamic seals, such as piston rings, are designed to withstand a lot of pressure, while others such as front and rear crankshaft oil seals, seal against little pressure. Seals around rotating shafts in an engine are called as radial positive contact seals. Three most common types of seals are, (a) the radial-packing seal (b) the radial-lip seal, and (c) the spiral-thread clearance seal. Dynamic seals used in automotive engines are most commonly made from a rope packing or from synthetic rubber. Rope packing is the least expensive type of dynamic seal and has very low friction and wear characteristics. Lip-type dynamic seals used in automobile engines are made from synthetic rubber. They can stand more shaft eccentricity and run-out than rope type seals. They can operate at higher shaft speeds, but they require a finer shaft finish, for longer sealing life. Lip seals place more load on the shaft than the rope type seal, and therefore, they seal better. Lip seals are usually held in a steel case or are supported by bonding on to a steel support member. The seals must run with a very thin flow of lubrication otherwise it would wear the shaft very quickly.

3.11.1. Front and Rear Crankshaft Oil-seals Crankshaft Pulley-end Oil-seals. The radial-packing and radial-lip seals are generally used in the timing-chain or oil-pump housing surrounding the crankshafts extended nose. The graphitized-asbestos packing or synthetic-rubber lip rubs against a sleeve and forms part of the pulley hub or the inner oil-pump member (Figs. 3.69 and 3.70). Only in a very few cases, spiral-thread clearance seals are used. During operation, most of the oil is squeezed out of the front main-end journal and is flung radially outwards as the oil spreads on the rotating oil-flinger washer. However, some oil creeps along the shaft and meets oil-seal packing or lip end which prevents oil going beyond the casing, so it is then drained back to the sump. In the case of the spiral-thread seal, the rotating movement of the shaft tends to continuously screw back any excess oil, which is then returned to the sump by gravity.

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Unit - I Crankshaft Flywheel-end Oil-seals. The radial-packing, radial-lip, or spiral-thread clearance seals are used at the flywheel end of the crankshaft (Fig. 3.67). The axial movement of the escaping oil between the journal and the bearing is initially diverted by an oil-flinger or the side of the flywheel flange, which deflects it radially instead of flowing in an axial outward direction. The small quantity of oil which still continues to move axially is blocked off by the sealing action, and the excess oil is allowed to return to the sump. Engine Bearings Engine bearings support the operating loads of the engine at all engine speeds and along with lubricant, minimize friction. Most engine bearings are plain or sleeve bearing, in contrast to roller, ball and needle bearings, called anti-friction bearings, which are used where minimum lubrication is available. The lubricating system in automotive engines continuously supplies lubricant to each bearing so that the shaft actually rolls on a film of lubricant in plain bearings. The friction caused, in this case, is almost same as in antifriction bearings.

Fig. 3.75. Typical rod and main bearing load diagram and polar diagram. It is important that the bearing surface must be large enough so that the bearing unit load is within safe limits. Bearing load capacity is the bearing load per unit of the bearing projected area. The projected area is the bearing length multiplied by bearing diameter. As greater bearing loads are applied, bearing life is reduced, unless a higher quality, more expensive bearing is installed. The load on engine bearings is determined by developing a polar bearing load diagram (Fig. 3.75), which indicates the magnitude and direction of the instantaneous bearing loads. Circles in the diagram provide the amount of force. The ability of bearing materials to creep or flow slightly to match shaft variations is called conformability. The bearing conforms to the shaft during the engine break-in period. In modern automobile engines, there is very little need for bearing conformability as accurate machining with close tolerance is possible. The bearings must be capable of allowing foreign particles, which invariably pass through oil filters, air filters and closed crank case ventilation systems, to embed in the bearing surface so they do not score the shaft. To embed the particles, the bearing material gradually works across the particles, completely covering it. This bearing properly is called embedability. Bearing have a characteristic'. lied score resistance that prevents the bearing materials from seizing on to the shaft during oil film break-down, allowing the shaft to come in contact with the bearing causing localized hot spots of bearing material. Score resistance property is usually the result of the relatively low melting temperature of the bearing material. Lubricating oil contains a number of additives, to provide oil of the required characteristics. The additives break-down under high engine temperature and high bearing loads, and from acids combining with the by-products of combustion. The bearing resists attack form these acids and this ability is called corrosion resistance. Corrosion of the bearing surface reduces bearing life. Three bearing materials used for automobile engine bearings are babbitt, copper-lead and aluminium. A 0.25 mm to 0.50 mm thick layer of the bearing materials is applied over a low PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 83

Unit - I carbon steel backing of about 0.025 mm thickness. The steel provides adequate support for the shaft load. The bearing material meets the rest of the bearing requirements. Copper-lead is a stronger and more expensive bearing material than babbitt. This bearing material is most readily damaged by corrosion. Babbitt is the oldest automobile bearing material and is still in use where soft material is required for soft shafts running under moderate loads and speeds. Copper-lead is used for intermediate and high speed applications. Aluminium is the latest one and is well suited to high speeds, high loads conditions. The bearing-to-journal clearance is generally from 0.027 mm to 0.0625 mm depending on the engine. Doubling the journal clearance causes more than four times flow of oil from the edges of the bearings. A large oil flow at one of the bearings can cause starvation on other bearings in the oil system, resulting in the failure of the oil-starved bearing. The bearing has a slightly larger arc than the bearing housing. This is called bearing spread and is from 0.127 mm to 0.508 mm to 0.508 mm wider than the housing bore. During installation, the bearing half protrudes slightly above the parting surface. When the cap is assembled, ends of the two half bearing shells touch and are forced together, which is called bearing crush. Crush holds the bearing in place without turning when the engine runs. Crush must exert a force at least 82737 kPa at 394 K and the maximum considered is 275790 kPa. 3.12.1. Crankshaft Main-journal Bearings The crankshaft, underslung in the crankcase, is supported by main bearings (Fig. 3.68) housed in the cross-webs forming the bulkhead of the cylinder block. The intersection of the

Fig. 3.76. Main bearing in pictorial view. A. Win integral thrust flange. ' B. With separate thrust washers. main-bearing axis is perpendicular to the cylinder axis. Half of the bearing housing bore is machined out of the bulkhead web and the other half is formed in the bearing cap (Fig. 3.76A and B). The main-bearing caps are aligned to the bulkhead half bore, and the most common alignment device used in the dowel, collar, or stepped location joints. Liner half shell bearing are used in between both halves of the housing bore. The main bearing normally contains a central circumferential lubricating groove on the working face.

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Unit - I 3.12.2. Crankshaft Thrust Bearings The crankshaft is subjected to end-thrust, which is an axial load in addition to that experienced by the big-end journals and bearings. This axial load is transferred from the crankshaft to the main bearing housing. This thrust may be generated intermittently or continuously due to several factors which include : (a) Intermittent disengagement of the clutch causes the flywheel to push against the crankcase. (6) Continuous torque conversion in some automatic transmissions causes the flywheel to pull away from the crankcase. (c) Either acceleration or deceleration of the helical valve-timing gear train during operation pushes or pulls the crankshaft axially one way or the other. (d) The helical-gear primary drive on front-wheel-drive cars with integral engine and transmission creates an almost continuous load on the thrust washers. The crankshaft is subjected to bending loads under certain operating conditions. This imposes strains on the cylinder block and crankcase disturbing the axial alignment. Under this situation, only the crankcase half of he thrust washer controls axial movement effectively. Thrust washers are provided on each side of only one main-bearing housing bore, which takes total axial crankshaft thrust in both directions. Since the thrust washers and the crankshaft web have a parallel-ring face contact, no wedge-shaped oil film can develop to separate these rubbing pairs, so very marginal lubrication takes place under continuous axial loading. Two basic types of main-journal radial and end-thrust bearings are : (i) Plain thin-wall bearings with integral thrust flanges (Figs. 3.68 and 3.76A). Hi) Plain thin-wall bearings with integral thrust washers (Fig. 3.76B). The integral flanged bearings use steel backing, bent at right angles on each outer edge to form a flanged thrust face. Theses bearings are simply pressed into position, usually near the flywheel end of the crankshaft. They are slightly more expensive than other types. The separate thrust-washer bearings are split rings, placed in grooves machined on both sides of a main-bearing bore housing. To prevent them from spinning, tags on each side of the cap half-washers align with slots on both sides of the main bearing cap. No tags are provided on the crankcase half washers. After installing the bearings and thrust washers, the end-float is checked by inserting a feeler blade between the thrust washer and the crankshaft web. End-float should be normally within 0.08 and 0.30 mm. 3.12.3. Bearing Materials Selection of Bearing Materials. The properties required in a bearing material include the following. High Fatigue Strength. This permits the bearing to resist the high fluctuating pressure in the lubricant film due to the periodic reciprocating-inertia and gas loads. High Melting Point and Hot Strength. This resists damage by high temperature lubricant films and the reduction of yield strength of bearing alloys at elevated temperatures. The oil temperatures in big-end bearings can reach around 423 K. High Resistance to Corrosion. This permits the bearing surface to resist attack from degraded acidic lubricants at elevated temperatures.

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Unit - I Adequate Hardness. This allows the relatively soft bearing surface to resist abrasive wear and cavitation erosion caused by high-velocity oil and to sustain static and dynamic loads, but without sacrificing conformability and embeddability. Good Conformability. This is the ability of the bearing surface to tolerate misalignment between the bearing and the crankshaft. In general, conformability is inversely related to bearing hardness. Good Embeddability. Due to this property the bearing surface absorbs dirt particles being carried round by the lubricant and prevents scoring of the journal under high loads. Good Compatibility. This property provides resistance to steel journal against local welding or pick-up from the bearing when loaded under boundary-lubrication conditions, but with a rotational speed insufficient to provide a thick hydrodynamic oil film. Classification of Plain-journal-bearing Materials. Journal bearing material can be categorized into three broad groups : (i) Lead- or tin-based white metal (Babbitt metal), (ii) Copper-based alloys, and (tit) Aluminium-based alloys. White (Babbitt)-metal Bearings. White metals are basically either antimony-tin or antimony-lead alloys having excellent conformability, embeddability, compatibility, and corrosion resistance. However their fatigue strength is not sufficient for the loads experienced by main and big-end bearings of today's engines. Although the load-carrying capacity is slightly improved by reducing the thickness of these bearing materials, still not high enough to meet the requirements of today's high-compression-ratio engines. White metal is mostly used for camshaft and thrust bearings. The lead-based alloy has slightly superior hot strength to the tin-based alloy. Typical compositions are as follows : Lead-based White metal Tin-based White metal Antimony 15.0% Antimony 7.5% Tin 1.0% Lead 0.2% Arsenic 1.0% Arsenic 0.1% Copper 0.5% Copper 3.0% Lead remainder Tin remainder Copper-based Bearing Alloys. These alloys exhibit higher hardness and have higher fatigue strength than the white-metal alloys, but have comparatively less conformability, embeddability, compatibility, and corrosion resistance. The copper-based bearing alloys fall into three main groups : {i) Copper-lead 70% : 30% alloys, used for low to moderate-duty petrol engines. Hi) Lead bronze with 24% lead, 1.5% tin, and 74.5% copper, used for heavy-duty petrol engines. (Hi) Lead bronze with 8% lead, 5% tin, and 87% copper, used for heavy-duty naturally aspirated and turbo-charged diesel engines. To improve the poor conformability, embeddability, compatibility, and corrosion resistance, a soft overlay of either lead-tin-copper or lead-indium alloys is used. Since the latter overlay has better fatigue strength than the former, slightly thicker lead-idium overlays is used, to improve the properties of the complete bearing. Typical overlays compositions are 10% tin, 1% copper, and 89% lead; or 5 to 10% indium and the remainder lead. An average overlay thickness is 0.02 mm, which can vary depending upon the applications. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 86

Unit - I Aluminium-based Bearing Alloys. These bearing alloys cover a similar application range to the copper-based alloys and are suitable for medium- to heavy-duty operating conditions with both petrol and diesel engines. These alloys fall into three main groups : (i) 20% tin, 1% copper, and 79% aluminium. These alloys are used un-plated for moderateduty petrol engines. () 6% tin, 1% copper, 1% nickel, and 92% aluminium with a lead-tin overlay. These alloys are used for moderate-to high duty petrol and diesel engines. (Hi) 11% silicon, 1% copper, and 88% aluminium with a lead-tin overlay of 0.025 mm standard thickness. These alloys are used in turbo-charged heavy-duty diesel engines. The tin-aluminium alloys are roll-bonded to a steel backing using a pure-aluminium-foil bonding layer. The silicon-aluminium alloys are directly cold-roll-bonded on to their steel liners. The high-tin-content aluminium alloy exhibit desirable bearing properties, hence does not require an overlay. The low-tin and silicon alloys are harder and hence are overlaid. Aluminiumbased alloys do not suffer from corrosion attack unlike the copper-based bearing alloys. Connecting Rod The connecting rod joins the piston to the crankshaft and transfers piston reciprocating force to crankshaft rotation. The small end of the connecting rod reciprocates and the large end follows the crank pin rotational pattern. For this dynamic movement, the connecting rod should be as light as possible while maintainin0 its rigidity. The connecting rod (Fig. 3.77A and B) is basically of two ring forms, which encircle the piston pin and the crankshaft rod journal. From each of these ring forms a tangential fillet blends into a tapered H-section of the rigid rod strut. Each connecting rod is fastened to the piston by piston pins and to the crank pin (journal) of the crankshaft by a plain split bearing.

Fig. 3.77. Connecting-rod construction. A. Straight-cut rod with dowel joint location. B. Oblique-cut rod with serrated joint location. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 87

Unit - I C. Groove-and-tongue joint location. D. Collar joint location. E. Fitted bolt joint location. F. Stepped joint location. The offset design connecting rods provide the most economical distribution of main bearing space and crankshaft cheeks. Usually, the offset is divided equally between each end, maintaining the connecting rod column perpendicular. Offset connecting rods do not have as good a bearing endurance quality like symmetrical connecting rods. The reciprocating-inertia loads of the piston produce both tensile and compressive stresses in the connecting-rod, whereas the combustion gas load develops purely compressive stress of considerable magnitude at all engine speeds. To withstand these loading the connecting-rod shank is made in an H-section with a central web and two end flanges (Fig. 3.78A). This construction provides the highest rigidity to bending for a given weight of connecting-rod as well as offers adequate resistancstto twist between the gudgeon-pin and the big-end crankpin axes. The shank section joins smoothly to both the big- and small-end-bearing hole bosses. A rib is formed between the bolt or stud hole bosses, which improves rigidity of the cap to counteract the very large stresses and strains imposed by the inertia forces at high engine speed. The big-end housing is made adequately rigid and the bolt or stud hole bosses sufficiently hard on the surface. Any uneven contact of the bolt head or nut with its housing seat introduces reversing bending stresses into the bolt or stud shank, eventually causing fatigue failure. Some connecting-rods use balancing lugs at the two extreme ends so that metal may be removed from either end to achieve the desired weight ratio between small-end to big-end and also to match the weights of individual connecting-rods. For the lubrication of the small-end, a hole is drilled along the shank so that it intersects the big-end bore circumferentially, to one side of the mid-position. This hole should not be too close to the central axis of the connecting-rod, otherwise the inertia of the oil-column pulls oil in the shank drilling. This causes insufficient lubrication in the highly loaded region between the journal and the big-end bearing, where it is highly essential. Connecting rods are manufactured by both drop forging and casting processes. The steel forging produces lighter weight but more expensive connecting rods. Malleable or spheroidalgraphite iron casting or sinter forgings are being used for small to medium sized petrol engines. A popular material used for both connecting rod forging and their clamping bolts or studs is manganese-molybdenum steel, the composition of which is 0.35% carbon, 1.5% manganese, 0.3% molybdenum, and 97.85% iron. Steel connecting-rod uses a bronze (or brass) small-end bush and a detachable white metal big-end shell bearing. Aluminium alloy is also occasionally used for connecting-rods. The aluminium alloy connecting rods have the advantage over steel connecting rods in that they are lighter in weight and both small-end and big-end bearings can be directly bored into the parent metal of rod and need not be separate. The thin wall bearing is most commonly used for the big-end and main bearing. Bearings with babbitt lining are used on small, light duty petrol engines and those with copper-lead lining is used in compression ignition engines. The big-end bore of the connecting-rod must be truly cylindrical. Generally two or, for some heavy-duty applications, four studs or bolts and nuts are used to fasten the caps to the shank part of the connecting rod. The slightest misalignment between the shank and cap creates a step in the two half bores. This imposes uneven loading on the shell bearing liners. For providing maximum support to the bearing liner, the bolts or studs should be located as near to the bore wall edge as possible without any interference with the fitted shell. Big-end-housing bore alignment can be achieved by a number of methods as follows. (a) Dowel-located Joint. Pieces of rod or tube is forced into small blind holes drilled in the joint faces (Fig. 3.77A) of the shank and cap, furthest from the housing bore to provide space for the bolt holes. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I (b) Collar-located Joint. Tubes or collars are slipped over the studs or bolts with a clearance gap, which are countersunk into each half of the bore housing at the split joint face (Fig. 3.77D). (c) Fitted-bolt Joint. Fitted bolts (Fig. 3.77E) have reduced diameters along their length except at the ends and in the centre region where they intersect the split joint. This profile of the bolt provides a close fit at the joint faces and tends to reduce the stress concentration at the bolt head and in the threaded nut region. (d) Stepped Joint. Connecting rod caps are machined with lips at the end of the split joint face. These projections slot tightly over adjacent flats machined on the shank perpendicular to the joint face. This arrangement (Fig. 3.77F) provides positive alignment of the two bore half-housings. For least distortion of the big-end bore, the bore housing is generally split perpendicular to the connecting-rod centre line, forming the straight-cut caps. Connecting-rods also use split joint cut at an oblique angle to the cylinder axis, to allow the big-end part to pass through the cylinder bore, so that the piston-and-rod assembly can be removed through the top of the cylinder bore. The oblique-cut cap gives rise to additional loading on the clamping bolts and joint so that some form of extra support is required at the joint face. Two most commonly used oblique-cut connecting-rod joints are as follows. (i) Serrated Joint. This joint (Fig. 3.77B) has V-shaped grooves cut across both joint faces. When two halves are positioned and tightened together, they form a firm multi-wedge type of joint without any relative movement. (ii) Groove-and-tongue Joint. This joint faces are machined providing a rectangular projection on the shank joint faces and corresponding slots on the cap joint faces so that they form a groove and tongue joint (Fig. 3.77C) when both halves are tightened together. 3.13.1. Connecting-rod Shell Liner Bearings The big-end-housing bore of the connecting-rod uses split half-shell thin-wall bearings (Fig. 3.78) and each half works under different conditions. The connecting rod shank half-shell mainly

Fig. 3.78. Big-end connecting-rod cap and shell liner. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I A. Shell free spread. B. Shell locating lag. C. Shell spin prevention. D. Shell bore relief. experiences the high gas pressure generated by combustion over a very short period of time. The cap half-shell receives the inertia loads from both rotating and reciprocating portions of the connecting rod and these forces exist for a longer period of time. Therefore, for maximum service life, these bearings must be properly aligned, located, and secured in their housing bore. The surface finish of the bearing is important because it reduces rate of wear, improves fatigue resistance, permits close working tolerances between journal and bearing, and improves heat transfer. The surface finish should be in the order of 0.5 (im. Liner half-shells are slightly spread open in their free state (Fig. 3.79A), which is relatively more for thin liners than for thick ones. This allows them to spring or snap into position against their respective bore half-housing walls, which ensures complete circumferential contact with the bore walls. The liner half-shells have a pressed-out lug at one joint face (Fig. 3.78B), which engages with a notch cut in the housing bore. This arrangement provides a quick and effective method of aligning the shell centrally in its housing bore. For arresting the liner half-shells from rotating by the frictional force created between the shell backing and the bore-housing walls, the half-shells protrude above the joint face (Fig. 3.78C) by around 0.025 to 0.05 mm when positioned in their bores. When two half-joint faces are clamped together the excess overlap portion of the shell is crushed or nipped. This causes the complete liner to have an interference fit in the big-end housing thereby developing radial outward force and the frictional resistance to prevent shell spin. To achieve bore relief, a slight taper is provided at each end of the two liner half-shells on the inner circumferential bearing surface (Fig. 3.78D). This prevents bulging inwards of the internal faces of the bearing or becoming burred at the joint when the shank and cap are compressed lightly together. Incase of oblique-cut connecting rod, where the bearing load is already high at the joint face, the relief should be reduced or in certain cases omitted. The liner must be in cylindrical shape after assembly in the big-end housing, but the housing bore itself may be out-of-roundness due to several reasons, which include the following :

Fig. 3.79. Out of roundness of housing bore. A. Stepped connecting-rod joint. B. Squashed connecting-rod big-end bore. C. Stretched connecting-rod big-end bore. (a) Stepped Cap (Fig. 3.79A). This condition arises due to (i) a shifted cap-and-shank split joint; (ii) reversing the cap relative to the shank; (Hi) enlarged cap-bolt holes; (iv) insufficient or uneven torquing of the cap bolts or studs; and (v) interference between the recessed shoulder of the cap and the side of the torquing socket while fitting the nut or bolt head. (b) Squashed-out Bore (Fig. 3.79B). This may happen due to (i) over-torquing the big-ends; (ii) fitting down the cap to reduce journal-to-big end bearing clearance; and (Hi) sandwiching the insufficient shims between the cap and shank joint-face housing. (c) Stretched-out Bore (Fig. 3.79C). Excessive alternating reciprocating-inertia loading and flexing at very high speeds can cause permanent elongation of the big-end bore in the direction of the rod length. This happens if the big-end is not designed properly and the PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 90

Unit - I appropriate material has not been used for its manufacturing.

Fig. 3.80. Relationship between diameter, applied torque, and axial tension of bolts and studs. Big-end Cap Tightness. The bolts or studs should be torqued down sufficiently so that the bearing housing becomes truly cylindrical and the frictional force created by the compressive stresses is high enough to prevent fretting between the joint faces when the big-end is subjected to both combustion gas loads and reciprocating-inertia loads. Although it is difficult to measure the roundness of the bore as well as frictional grip at the joint face, but the torque required to achieve these conditions can be predetermined, which is specified by the manufacturer for reassembling the big-end. The recommended torque to be applied for bolts and nuts of different nominal diameters is presented in Fig. 3.80A. The required holding torque increases with square of diameter. Figure 3.80B illustrates the relationship between the tightening torque and the clamping tension produced in bolts or studs for three different nominal diameters. The recommended torque for a safe working strength, considered as 80% of the yield strength of the steel, is represented by the circles at the end of each curve. 3.13.2. Plain Journal Bearings Shell bearing liners use a cylindrical backing strip of low-carbon-steel and principal bearing material is cast or roll-bonded (Fig. 3.81) above this strip. This combination is called a bi-metal bearing. The inner-metallic bonding between the bearing alloy and the steel backing supports the bearing material. Also it arrests progressive spreading of material outwards due to the oil-film pressure produced by both the gas and the inertia loads. A very thin overlay of a soft anti-friction alloy is required for some bearings, which is electroplated over the surface of the bearing matrix. This composite bearing is known as a tri-metal bearing.

Fig. 3.81 Shell-bearing construction. Piston PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 91

Unit - I The automotive engine piston converts the combustion pressure to a force on the crankshaft. The piston starts, accelerates and stops twice in each crankshaft revolution. This reciprocating action of the piston produces large inertial forces. The inertial force depends on the piston and less inertia permits higher engine operating speeds. During operation of the piston, a temperature gradient of about 150 K from the head of the piston to its bottom is experienced. Also it has to support piston sealing rings. Therefore, design of a piston is based on a compromise between strength, weight and thermal expansion control. The piston must have enough strength to support combustion pressure and reciprocating loads, to have sufficient length of the skirt to guide the piston straight in the bore, to have expansion control for quiet and long-life operation, and to hold the piston rings perpendicular to the cylinder wall. Functions of a piston in brief are ; (i) It must form a sliding gas and oil tight seal within the cylinder. (ii) It must transmit the gas load to the small end of the connecting rod. (Hi) It generally acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

Fig. 3.82. Piston nomenclature. A. Solid-skirt piston. B. Semi-split skirt piston. C. Fully split (T)-skirt piston. The complete piston assembly absorbs about 50 to 60% of the mechanical losses of the entire engine. For a typical piston with three ring, the first compression rings is accounted for 60% of the friction work, the second compression ring for 30%, and the third oil control ring for 10%. Pistons are provided with enlarged pads or skirt flanges from which material is removed to bring the piston weight within desired value. Piston head (crown) configuration is very important for the combustion process as it forms a part of the combustion chamber. The low cost, low performance engines use flat-top pistons with recesses cut in it to provide valve head clearance. Pistons for high performance engines have raised domes to increase compression pressure. The piston head must have enough strength to withstand combustion pressure. Ribs are often used on the underside of the head to provide strength using less material. These ribs also work as fins to transfer heat to the engine oil. The piston has been incorporated with many features to influence its performance. These features include the following : (a) Ring-belt and Lands. To locate and house the piston rings (Fig. 3.82) several grooves are formed in and around the top of the piston. The metal bands left between the grooves are PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 92

Unit - I known as lands. The function of the lands is to support squarely the rings and to guide them so that they may flex freely in a radial direction. The zone in which the rings and lands are grouped together is known as ring-belt. Normally two compression rings and one oil control ring are located in this zone. For heavy duty diesel engines, sometimes, a third compression ring above the gudgeonpin boss and a second oil-control ring near the bottom of the skirt are incorporated. (b) Skirt. The piston skirt (Fig. 3.82) is the portion below the ring-belt. The skirt is internally designed to support the gudgeon-pin boss, but not the piston crown, against compressive loads. It has sufficient length to resist tilting of the piston under load. Pistons are also designed to operate with very small skirt clearances and to prevent seizure under heavy loads. Some petrol-engine piston skirts are made flexible due to which their radial profile is capable of adjusting to the varying running conditions. Some pistons have a vertical split from the bottom of the piston to the underside of the ring-belt on the same side of the skirt as the crankpin when piston has passed TDC on its down-stroke (referred to as non-thrust side, Fig. 3.82). Some others have intersecting circumferential slots cut in the oil-control-ring groove above the gudgeon-pin bosses (Fig. 3.82C), known as fully-split-skirt pistons. This type of piston provides a means of relief if the piston becomes tight due to overheating, particularly during initial "bedding in", but the split reduces the skirt's rigidity and the skirt tends to shrink inwards permanently causing piston slap, noise, and wear. Therefore, semi-split skirts (Fig. 3.82B), which run only about half-way up are used as a compromise. The blunting holes are drilled at the end of the split to reduce the stress concentration caused due to the split's notch effect. High-performance or heavy-duty pistons use only solid-skirt pistons (Fig. 6.82A), without any split. (c) Piston Webs and Gudgeon-Pin Bosses. Webs are cast inside the piston (Fig. 3.82) between the crown and the gudgeon-pin bosses. This acts as struts, which transmit compressive gas loads directly from the crown to the gudgeon-pin bosses and then to the connecting rod through gudgeonpin. These webs also transfer heat from the crown to the gudgeon-pin bosses including adjacent skirt regions, but can cause expansion problem if not properly designed. Since, a large amount of heat is transferred from the piston crown to the cylinder walls through gudgeon-pin bosses, additional clearance is provided in the skirt adjacent of these bosses. Therefore, the boss end-faces, which form the part of the skirt, are also sometimes recessed to provide a permanent relief.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.83. Piston temperature gradients. (d) Thermal Slots. Horizontal thermal slots extending about 90 degrees on each side of the piston are cut (Figs. 3.82 and 3.83) circumferentially on the thrust and non-thrust sides of the piston between the ring belt and the skirt. The air gap formed by the slot tries to isolate the thrust and non-thrust sides of the skirt from the rest of the piston serving as a physical heat barrier. As a result the heat is redirected from the crown, straight to the gudgeon-pin bosses, instead of flowing directly to the thrust and non-thrust sides of the piston skirt. In some layouts, the circumferential slots are located in the oil-control-ring groove and the end of the slot is inclined downwards into the upper part of the skirt. These elongated slots act as additional heat barriers, which even reduce the amount of heat reaching the thrust and non-thrust working faces of the skirt. Figure 3.83 illustrates piston temperature gradients across the piston's crown and along its skirt. The skirt temperature gradient below the thermal slot on the thrust side is lower than that on the gudgeon-pin face side, so that small skirt-to-cylinder-wall clearance can be used. The temperature between the centre of the crown and the point where the web connects the crown to the gudgeon-pin boss is lesc steep. It is because a large proportion of heat flows along this path to the gudgeon-pin boss and the skirt. A steeper temperature drop beyond the web to the crown outer edge takes place, due to which the ring-belt is cooler on the thrust and non-thrust sides than on the gudgeon-pin sides.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.84. Piston crown and skirt temperature profiles. (e) Skirt Ouality. Piston skirts are mostly ground to elliptical shape, with a smallest diameter across the gudgeon-pin bosses (Fig. 3.84) causing greater clearances. This clearance at the gudgeon-pin bosses takes care of the majority of the heat flow through the main mass of metal of the gudgeon pin webs and bosses. The amount of ovality is a maximum at the gudgeon-pin boss level, which reduces steadily towards the bottom of the skirt. It is because the lower regions of the skirt operate at lower temperature. At working temperatures the oval shape becomes circular so that it matches with the section of the bore. (/) Piston Taper. To compensate for the unequal expansion due to maximum temperature at crown and minimum at the bottom of the skirt, the piston is tapered along its axis, the crown end having the smallest diameter (Fig. 3.82C). The degree of taper varies along the piston length, greatest being in the ring-belt. The clearances between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall is about 0.05% and 0.10% respectively at the bottom and top of the skirt.

The typical piston clearances for aluminium alloy and cast iron pistons are presented in Fig. 3.85A and B respectively. Clearances given in the figure are thousands of a mm per mm of bore diameter. All clearances should be measured at right angles to the gudgeon pin axis. Pistons are lubricated usually by oil splash and oil must thrown up from the big-end. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 95

Unit - I (g) Compression Height. This height forms the vertical distance between the gudgeon-pin centre axis and the top of the piston crown. There can be different compressionratios for the same basic engine. Therefore, to meet this requirement a series of pistons are manufactured, which are identical except for their compression heights (Fig. 3.82). 3.14.1. Bi-metal Strut Piston This type of piston (Fig. 3.86) uses a pair of steel inserts or struts which extend over approximately 90 degrees of the circumference on the thrust and non-thrust sides of the skirt. The outer face of each strut is cast with the aluminium alloy, but the inner face is separated from the piston ring-land region by a parallel gap starting from the oil-control-ring groove (Fig. 3.86 B and C). These gaps form a barrier for the heat flow from the crown to the thrust and non-thrust sides of the skirt, thereby reducing the average temperature at these sides.

Fig. 3.85. Piston clearance. A. Aluminium-alloy piston. B. Cast iron piston

Fig. 3.86. Bi-metal strut piston. A Steel inserts cast in thrust and non-thrust side of piston. B. Axial air gap between insert and oil-ring groove. C. Steel insert. Although downward extension of these struts tends to strengthen the support to the skirt, still certain flexibility exists between the upper part of the piston and the gudgeon-pin bosses and the skirt. The bosses withstands the compressive gas loads and the skirt supports the side-thrust without causing any stress concentration at the skirt-to-boss junctions which otherwise can result in fatigue cracking. The basic principle of this design is to cast steel inserts into the skirt. During the casting process, the inserts and the aluminium alloy become as one, consequently the steel strut having a lower expansion rate does not permit the alloy from contracting its full amount while cooling. Thus these inserts arrest normal expansion of the skirt. 3.14.2. Piston Material The piston material should have properties like good castability, high hot strength, high strength-to-mass ratio, good resistance to surface abrasion to reduce skirt and PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering

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Unit - I ring-groove wear, good thermal conductivity to keep down piston temperatures, and a relatively low thermal expansion to have a minimum piston-to-cylinder clearance. To achieve low reciprocating forces of the piston in a high speed engine, the piston should be lighter, and hence aluminium alloy is preferred to cast iron and steel. But to maintain the rigidness of cast iron, the sections of the aluminium structures have to be larger, thereby off-setting the advantage of lightness to some extent. Addition of copper or silicon in aluminium alloy, improves the strength-to-mass ratio of the piston, but marginal when compared to a piston made of pure aluminium. Figure 3.87 illustrates the piston diameter and mass relationship for different materials. Small percentage of copper, nickel, silicon, magnesium and manganese in aluminium alloy increases strength over the operating temperature range, as well as improves resistance to abrasion. Figure 3.88 shows the hot strengths of pure aluminium, of Y-alloy having 4% copper and 2.5% nickel, of 12% silicon alloy, and of 22% silicon alloy. At 373 K temperature the Y-alloy is the strongest, the 22%-silicon alloy is the weakest, and the 12%-silicon alloy is in between. At higher temperature their hot strength reduces but the rate of decrease of the strength for the 22%-silicon alloy is less than that of the other two and at about 553 K its hot strength in superior to the other two alloys. Aluminium alloy is a much better conductor of heat than cast iron and conducts 3.2 times more heat in a given period than cast-iron. However, the better heat dissipation quality of aluminium alloy reduces the maximum piston-crown operating temperature, which is normally in the range of 523 to 573 K for alloy pistons and 673 to 773 K for cast iron pistons. Figure 3.89 presents increase in the piston's operating temperature with engine speed. The centre of the crown is the hottest region of the piston.

Fig. 3.87. Piston mass against cylinder bore for different materials.

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Fig. 3.88. Piston-material strength at various temperatures. One of the major disadvantages of aluminium as the base metal of a piston alloy is its high coefficient of linear expansion which is 0.0000221 per degree K, compared with 0.0000117 per degree K for cast iron. Therefore, aluminium piston requires extra clearance between the piston and cylinder at room temperature to avoid tightness and seizure of piston at operating temperature. This may however develop piston slap and rapid wear at cold temperature, which has been reduced due to the use of low-expansion aluminium alloys. The Y-alloy has a high coefficient of expansion of 0.0000245 per degree K in the temperature range from 293 to 573 K. Most pistons are now made from silicon-aluminium alloys of two grades with 12% and 22% silicon, having thermal expansions of 0.000021 and 0.0000175 per degree K respectively. The thermal expansion reduces with the increase of silicon content. Advantages of aluminium alloy pistons over cast iron pistons. (a) lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm (6) better thermal conductivity, and hence suitable for higher compression ratio. Advantages of cast iron pistons over aluminium pistons : (a) With a cast iron piston running in a cast iron block the expansion rate of both is similar. Thus small running clearance for the cold engine can be provided which is approximately maintained at engine operating temperatures. (b) The wear rate of a cast-iron piston particularly in a cast iron block is low due to the presence of free carbon in the cast iron. (c) The rate of wear of the ring grooves is low.

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Unit - I Fig. 3.89. Piston crown temperature at various speeds. Piston-rings Piston rings (Fig. 3.90) are comprised of compression rings, located towards the top of the piston and oil-control (scraper) rings, located below the compression rings. The function of the compression rings is to seal the space between the cylinder wall and the piston preventing the escape of burning gases from the combustion chamber. These rings help to obtain maximum power from

Fig. 3.90. Piston ring. the combustion pressure by maintaining a seal with the cylinder wall while keeping the friction at a minimum. The oil rings control the flow of oil along the cylinder walls and keeps oil from getting into the combustion chamber. Both the rings help to dissipate some of the piston heat of the cylinder wall. 3.15.1. Piston-ring Nomenclature Ring diameter is the diameter of the cylinder bore in which the ring operates. Radial thickness is the shortest distance between the outer and inner circumferential faces of the ring. Ring width is the distance between the top and bottom side faces of the ring. Side faces are the flat parallel upper and lower faces of the ring which contact the sides of the ring groove. Working face is the outer circumferential surface, which contacts the cylinder wall. Free joint gap is the circumferential distance between the two open ends of the ring in the free state. Fitted gap is the circumferential distance between the two open ends of the ring when it is placed in its groove. Tangential load is the force applied tangentially between the two open ends of the ring which is necessary to close the free joint gap to its fitted clearance. Cylinderwall pressure is the radial outward force per unit area of contact, assuming the pressure to be equally distributed around the ring. 3.15.2. Factors Affecting Ring Performance (a) Radial Thickness. The pressure exerted by a ring on the cylinder wall varies approximately as the cube of the ring's radial thickness. This thickness is usually related to the ring diameter, d, and should be at least rf/24. (6) Width. As increase in ring width increases the radial load on the cylinder wall, for a given cylinder-wall pressure. Therefore, excessive width should be avoided. For a given tangential loading, narrow rings bed into the cylinder wall more quickly than wide ones, and also reduce ring flutter and resultant blow-by of combustion products at high engine speeds.

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Unit - I (c) Free Joint Gap. With a large free joint gap, the stress in assembling a ring over its piston is less, while the stress in the fitted working piston is more. The situation reverses with a small free joint gap. A nominal free gap is normally 3.5 times the radial thickness. id) Radial Load and Pressure. The radial outward load exerted by the ring on the cylinder wall depends upon a number of factors such as radial thickness, width, free joint gap, and the strength or modulus of elasticity of the ring material. For a given radial load, a large contact area reduces the wall pressure and increases the thickness of the oil-film formed between the ring and the cylinder wall. Therefore, a narrow ring increases the wall pressure and reduces the oil-film thickness. Also a large radial thickness considerably increases the radial load and wall pressure and possibly squeezes the oil film right down to boundary-lubrication. The dimensions of the ring cross-section, therefore, determine of gas-sealing and adequate lubrication of the upper cylinder walls. 3.15.3. Compression-ring The piston ring expands readily outwards when fitted in its groove, without having any interference between the ring side faces and the ring groove. In its free state, the ring diameter is slightly larger than the cylinder bore, therefore when it is fitted up in the cylinder; it tries to open outwards so that a pressure is applied on the cylinder wall. However, gas pressure acting on the piston ring is mainly responsible for the radial sealing force (Fig. 3.91). During the upward compression stroke, the compressed charge moves between the groove and the ring side faces, passes behind the ring, presses it against the cylinder wall, and in addition it pushes down the ring against the lower ring groove of the piston. This gives an effective compressive seal without leakage, provided the surface finish of the groove, ring, and cylinder wall is of required value. During the downward power

Fig. 3.91. Compression-ring action. stroke a similar situation persists, but if the acceleration of the piston is greater than that of the ring, the upper groove and ring side faces are held firmly together to form the seal. 3.15.4. Types of Compression-rings Most common types of compression-rings are as follows. (a) Chromium-faced Plain or Inlaid. This is a single-piece ring tensioned by heat to form so as to produce the desired pressure required for effective sealing when installed in the cylinder PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 100

Unit - I (Fig. 3.92A). These rings also help oil control by influencing the thickness of the oil film. The ring working face is provided with a hard chrome deposit to improve the operating life of both the ring and the cylinder bore. (b) Plain Inlaid. These rings are used to retain a rectangular ring section (Fig. 3.92B). The groove on the working face is filled by spraying of anti-friction material like chrome, molybdenum. (c) Taper-faced. A small amount of taper (1 to 1.5 degrees) is provided across the working face of the ring which extends excellent bedding qualities, because of a high radial pressure on the cylinder walls due to small area of contact. The line contact of the taper (Fig. 3.92C) gives an effective scraping action on the down-stroke and hence it also controls the oil supply. (d) Barrel-faced. This curved face profile (Fig. 3.92D) of the ring maintains a constant face radius. The degree of curvature is very critical for initial bedding. Occasionally these barrel faces are copper plated to reduce excessive friction during bedding, which otherwise may cause scuffing. (e) Upward-run Groove. The ring groove may be slightly inclined upwards at 5 degrees to provide a bottom-edge line contact for rapid bedding as well as to have a good ring side support without any strain. These rings (Fig. 3.92E), therefore, seal the gases at an early stage and also maintain the oil control to a reasonably good extent. (f) Wedge Section. The problem of rings sticking in their grooves for some high-performance and heavy-duty engines is occasionally minimized by tapering the side faces of the ring (Fig. 3.92F) to an inclined angle of 15 degrees. The outward slope of the sides of the groove, during flexing of the ring in its groove, reduces fretting and sticking between the side faces of the rubbing pair. This relative movement between the ring and the groove is mainly attributed by the change of piston tilt in the cylinder during its movement and the continuous radial movement of the ring in its groove.

Fig. 3.92. Compression-rings. A. Plain chromium faced- B. Plain inlaid face. C. Taper-faced- D. Barrel-faced. E. Upward-run groove- F. Wedge section. G. Internally stepped. H. Ridge-dodger. (g) Internally Stepped. A small square section is removed from the top inside edge of the ring (Fig. 3.92G) causing the ring to twist, which produces a dished effect when the ring is assembled in its groove. As a result, this form a taper-periphery working face providing a bottom-edge contact with the cylinder wall. This improves the ring bedding and provides adequate degree of oil control on the down-stroke. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 101

Unit - I (A) Ridge-dodger. These rings (Fig. 3.92H) clear the wear ridge formed at the top of the cylinder bore when replacement rings are installed. Only the rings are replaced when the cylinders with a relatively small wear loose compression or consume oil. 3.15.5. Oil-control-ring (Oil-scraper-ring) During crankshaft rotation, more oil than required for lubrication is splashed from the big-end bearings on to the cylinder walls. The oil-control-ring controls oil in the combustion-chamber zone of the cylinder, and provides a film of oil over the whole cylinder surface to lubricate the compression-rings, the skirt, and the upper cylinder region. These rings are installed with the bevelled working face pointing towards the cylinder head (Fig. 3.93). During the upward movement of the piston, the lower side face of the ring presses hard against the adjacent ring groove, and the bevelled working face of the ring slides over the oil and also scraps a proportion of the oil ahead of the itself. Excess oil accumulates in the clearance space formed between the groove and its ring, until it overflows through a row of holes at the back of the groove to the sump. When the piston moves down its stroke, the upper side face bears hard against the top of the ring groove. The sharp edge of the working face of the ring now scrapes the oil down the bore so that surplus oil passes between the ring and its groove and out of the relief holes to the sump. During this scraping process there is no build-up of oil pressure. 3.15.6. Types of Oil-control-rings There are several designs of oil-scraper rings to meet the various operating conditions and some of them are described below. (a) Beveled Scraper. This is a single ring having a narrow bearing working face (Fig. 3.94A) and is installed with the bevelled side towards the piston head (Fig. 3.93). Oil relief holes are made at the back of the groove with most scraper rings for escaping of the accumulated surplus oil to the inside of the piston, and then to the sump. (6) Externally Stepped Scraper. To reduce the number of compression rings, a stepped scraper is used which acts both as a compression ring and as an oil-control scraper ring (Fig. 3.94B). The reduced width of the working face increases pressure against the cylinder walls. This gives improved sealing and scraping without excessively stressing the ring. (c) Stepped and Beveled Scraper. These rings (Fig. 3.94C) operate in the same way as both the stepped and the beveled scraper rings. These rings provide a more effective means of regulating the upward movement of the oil and hence more suitable for the engine requiring large amounts of oil to be splashed on to the cylinder walls.

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Unit - I

Fig. 3.93. Oil-control-ring action.

Fig. 3.94. Oil-control rings. A. Beveled scraper B. Externally stepped scraper C. Stepped and beveled scraper D. Slotted scraper E. Delayed-section double-groove scraper F. Intertia-flow scraper G. Double-action stepped scraper H. Composite-rail scraper^ (d) Slotted Scraper. These rings (Fig. 3.94D) have rectangular section with a recess or groove round the centre of the working face. Between the rear of this central groove and the back of the ring, elongated oil slots are also provided. The narrow ring lands of this scraper provide a relatively high radial pressure against the cylinder walls and also establish a two-stage scraping action. (e) Delayed-action Double-groove Scraper. During the initial stage of running the engine, more oil may be required to lubricate the walls and piston assembly, but less oil is needed as the cylinder walls is bedded. These slotted and grooved oil-control rings (Fig. 3.94E) use a projected central land than the other two lands when new. As the ring settles down, the central land wears away so that both of the outer lands control the scraping action. (/) Inertia-flow Scraper. With this design (Fig. 3.94F), oil flows freely past the top land of the ring and is scraped by the bottom land during up stroke due to which oil moves through the drain-holes in the ring to the back of the groove to escape out of the channels made in the piston section. During down stroke, the top land scrapes oil away into the drain-holes. The degree of oil control of this ring greatly depends on the inertia of the oil flow and not on the high radial loadings. (g) Double-action Stepped Scraper. Most of the rings do not fully conform to the cylinder walls due to ovality and heavy wear. To overcome this situation, twin scraper rings in a single groove are incorporated. These two-piece rings (Fig. 3.94G) use narrow lands with stepped segments to form oil slots. Each individual land is free to follow the contour of the bore at all PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 103

Unit - I positions of the piston. A backing expander is sometimes incorporated to provide even more efficient oil control through increased radial wall pressure. (h) Composite-rail Scraper. These multi-rail scrapers (Fig. 3.94H) are designed for use in worn cylinder bores having ovality, taper and any other irregularities on the cylinder walls, except deep scores which can hinder in controlling the oil supply. The ring assembly uses a number of steel rails having radiused edges of hard chrome. A crimped spring expands the rails against both sides of the groove. This does not permit the oil pumping between the ring and groove which occurs with a conventional ring. Additionally an expander-ring spring installed behind the rails pushes the rings radially outwards due to which they conform to the cylinderwall profile. The rounded rail edges provide a smooth wiping action against the cylinder wall without causing bore wear. 3.15.7. Piston-ring Materials and Methods of Manufacture Piston rings are manufactured from high-quality cast iron containing about 3.4% carbon, upto 0.5% chromium, and up to 0.25% molybdenum and nickel. Piston rings are manufactured in various ways, but four of them are briefly described below. (i) In the beginning, piston rings were manufactured from large sand-cast tubes or pots from which individual rings are cut to the correct width and then split. This caused residual compressive stresses in the ring due to hammering or penning round the inside of the ring. More consistent homogeneous castings are obtained by centrifugal casting of the pots, and in place of hammering the inside of the ring, a heat-forming treatment is generally provided. (ii) After individually casting the rings, they are machined and split, and then 'heat formed'. In this process the split ring is opened on to a spacer and is heated until all the induced stresses created during ring opening are removed. After cooling, the ring retains its stretched shape so that it exerts an outward force when fitted in the bore. (Hi) For mass production, rings are cast directly to the normal-free-gap ring profile using pattern plates milled to the calculated shape for one bore diameter. Therefore a whole series of pattern plates is required. Once machined, split and gapped, these rings become a truly circular shape producing a uniform loading around the cylinder wall. (iv) Also rings are cast to a truly circular shape and then 'cam-turned' to obtain free-state working-face shape. The rings are then split and gapped to exact size. Phosphate-coated Rings. To reduce the scoring and tearing of the surfaces while in use, the piston rings are generally provided with a porous phosphate coating. This surface coating protects the ring faces against very high local surface temperatures. To form these coating, the ring is immersed in a bath of phosphoric acid and manganese. An etched layer of iron manganese phosphate is obtained all over the surface of the ring, which minimizes the rubbing friction. This porous surface also acts as an oil reservoir which persists even after the coating has worn away. After treatment, the rings are immersed in a hot bath of oil which is readily absorbed into the surface. Chromium-faced Rings. The chromium-plated compression rings provide not only increased ring life but has also considerably reduced bore wear. Usually working faces of the first compression ring is chromium plated as these are subjected to the highest working temperatures and the corrosive products of combustion. For heavy-duty operations, additional rings are chromium-plated and also on both side faces of the ring. The chrome face reduces the amount of abrasive particles becoming embedded on the ring surfaces causing a very little ring-face PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 104

Unit - I wear. Also, a very minute quantities of metallic chromium are transferred from the ring face to the cylinder walls during running. This supports in protecting the relatively soft cast-iron cylinder-wall surfaces from abrasive wear and corrosive attack. 3.15.8. Piston and Piston-ring Working Clearance Three types of piston-ring clearance in the piston grooves and in the cylinder are described below. Piston-ring Side Clearance. The piston rings must be provided with groove side clearance, which is the gap between the ring and land side faces. Insufficient clearance does not allow required expansion of the land to wedge the rings in their grooves, thereby stopping the flexing and rotary movement required during running. Even the gas-sealing properties of the ring may be hampered causing blow-by and consequently leading to the destruction of the oil film followed by overheating and seizure. But, a loose fit of the ring in its groove develops the ring flutter, which causes the ring to hammer against the groove faces, producing rapid groove wear. Excessive side clearance in extreme case may also create a pumping action of the oil into the combustion zone. Typical minimum ring side clearance for pistons having diameter between 60 mm and 120 mm are : Compression ring has 0.050 mm for petrol engine and 0.060 mm for diesel engine. Oil-control ring has 0.040 mm for petrol engine and 0.040 mm for diesel engine. Piston-ring Joint Butting Clearance. A clearance must be provided at the piston-ring joint to accommodate the expansion from cold condition to hot working temperatures. With insufficient clearance the ring ends butt, expanding the ring against the cylinder walls with a high outward pressure so that the oil film is sheared away causing semi-dry friction and overheating. Finally the brittle rings have a tendency to buckle until they eventually fracture. On the other hand, rings with large gaps may cause loss of compression, with the consequent blow-by and over heating effects. Typical minimum ring joint clearances are : Water-cooled four stroke engines have 0.03 mm per cm diameter. Air-cooled four stroke engines have 0.04 mm per cm diameter. Piston-skirt-to-bore Clearance. The clearance between the skirt and the cylinder wall is required to avoid piston slap when the engine is cold and the skirt seizing under heavy driving conditions. Typical minimum skirt clearances are : Aluminium solid skirt piston has 0.010 mm per cm diameter. Aluminium solid skirt with thermal slot piston has 0.008 mm per cm diameter. Aluminium split-skirt piston has 0.005 mm per cm diameter. Piston and Connecting-rod Gudgeon-pin Joints The gudgeon-pin (piston pin) connects the piston and connecting-rod. It is supported in holes bored in the piston at right angles to the piston axis at about mid-height position, and the centre portion of the gudgeon-pin passes through the connecting-rod small-end eye. This hinged joint transfers directly the gas thrust from the piston to the connecting-rod and allows the rod to pivot relative to the cylinder axis with an oscillating motion. The gudgeon-pin bosses in the piston experiences a temperature of about 393 to 423 K for both petrol and diesel engines. Also the temperature rise due to friction between the pin and PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 105

Unit - I the bosses is in the order of 20 to 30 K. Therefore the gudgeon-pin has to withstand a temperature of about 431 to 453 K. The connecting-rod during its oscillating movement squeezes the oil film alternatively from one side of the pin to the other under semi-boundary-lubrication conditions. In contrast the rotating crankshaft journals operate under full fluid lubrication. The gudgeon-pins are in tubular shape, which provides adequate strength with minimum weight. They are usually made from low-carbon case-hardened steel of composition 0.15% carbon, 0.3% silicon, 0.55% manganese, and the balance 99% iron. This steel is carburized at a temperature of 1153 to 1203 K, refined at 1143 to 1173 K and then hardened by oil quenching from 1033 to 1053 K. Finally it is tempered at a temperature below 433 K. The finish and size of gudgeon-pins are very closely controlled. A loose gudgeon-pin in the piston or in the connecting rod, causes a rattle during the engine operation. If the pin is too tight in the piston, it restricts piston expansion along the pin diameter which produces piston scuffing. Gudgeon-pin operating clearances are usually about 0.0075 mm, which is critical for quiet running and long life. The gudgeon-pins are generally lapped to a surface finish of 0.08 to 0.16 \xm for longer service life. A coarser finish produces stress-raisers, which may cause fatigue failure and pick up the softer bearing metal from the pin's rubbing surface. But a smoother finish avoids the oil clinging and wetting the cylindrical working face of the pin. Piston pin holes located in the piston have an offset of approximately 1.57 mm from the piston centre line. Pin offset reduces piston slap and noise, which is created due to crossover action as the large end of the connecting rod swings past both upper and lower dead centres. The piston pins must stay centered in the piston; otherwise, they can move endwise and gouge the cylinder wall. The method of locating and securing the gudgeon pin in position can be achieved in two ways; (i) semi-floating, and (ii) fully-floating. Semi-floating Pinch-bolt Small-end-clamped Gudgeon-pin. In this method of fastening the rod to the pin (Fig. 3.95A), the central portion of the pin incorporates a full or partially formed circumferential groove. When the connecting-rod small-end is centrally aligned to this groove, the relative movement takes place only between the gudgeon-pin and the piston bosses. This method allows the use of a narrow small-end due to which the width of the rubbing surface between the piston and the gudgeon-pin boss can be large. Semi-floating Force-fit Small-end-clamped Gudgeon-pin. In this arrangement (Fig. 3.95B), the connecting-rod small-end faces are polished with emery cloth and heated evenly using an oxyacetylene torch at about 503 to 593 K, until a pale-straw to dark-blue oxide color appears on the bright surface around the eye. Then the gudgeon-pin is forced through both the piston and the small-end eye so that it is centrally positioned. Subsequently the small end cools the shrinks tight over the pin. In this case also the relative rubbing movement is only between the pin and the piston bosses. Semi-floating Piston-boss-clamped Gudgeon-pin. In this method (Fig. 3.95C), the gudgeon-pin is clamped to one of the piston bosses. The connecting-rod small-end is lined with an interference-fit phosphor-bronze plain bush bearing. This bush locates the gudgeon-pin and provides it with a low-friction surface. Care must be taken not to strip the thread in the relatively soft alloy while tightening the tapered locking bolt. This approach is adopted when the bearing properties of the piston material are not suitable for heavy-duty continuous oscillatory rubbing. PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 106

Unit - I Fully Floating Gudgeon-pin End-pads. If the gudgeon-pins are allowed to float (Fig. 3.95D) both in their piston bosses and in the small-end eye, they must not touch the cylinder directly to avoid scoring of the walls by their very hard outer edges. In one of the methods of preventing scuffing, spherical end-pads made from aluminium, brass, or bronze are used to act as buffers between the walls and the pin. During operation, the gudgeon-pin freely revolves both in the small-end and in the piston boss, which has a tendency to improve lubrication. Fully Floating Gudgeon-pin with Circlip Location. In this design, the fully floating gudgeonpins (Fig. 3.95E) provide the bearing-surface area to the piston-boss bores as well as the small-end bronze bush bearing. Engines with small connecting-rod-to-crank throw ratios and large bore-to-stroke ratios have both large pivoting angular movement and heavy thrust loads on the piston skirt. The double swivel action of the fully floating pin reduce this tendency under heavy-duty conditions. Circlips are used to restrain the gudgeon-pin from sliding from side to side. The clips are positively located in internal circumferential grooves formed near the outer end of each gudgeon-pin-boss bore. Two types of circlip in use are the heavy rectangularsection Seeger circlip, and the circular-section wire circlip, which is lighter and cheaper but not so secure.

Fig. 3.95. Piston and connecting-rod joints. Car Body Styles: Closed Cars: a) Saloon or sedan b) Coupe c) Limousine Open cars: a) Sports b) Convertible Special Styles cars: a) Estate Car b) Station Wagon Transport Vehicles: Van, Truck, Articulated Vehicle (a tractor & semi-trailer connected together by means of a fiftywheel coupling), Bus and Coach Chassis Construction: The chassis of an automobile consists of following components suitably mounted: PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 107

Unit - I Engines and the radiator, Transmission system consisting of the clutch, gear box, propeller shaft and the rear axle, suspension system, road wheels, steering system, brakes and fuel tank. Classification of Chassis: Conventional control chassis: The engine is mounted in front of the drivers cabin. Semi-forward control chassis: The engine is so mounted that half of it is in the drivers cabin, whereas the other half is in front, outside the drivers cabin. Full forward control Chassis: The engine is mounted completely inside the drivers cabin. Frame: It is the basic unit to which various components are attached and body is bolted onto the frame later on. The frame is designed to support the weight of the body and absorb all of the loads imposed by the terrain, suspension system, engine, drive train, and steering system. Functions of Frame: To Support the chassis components and the body. To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion. Loads on the frame: Weight of the vehicle and the passengers and goods which causes vertical bending of the side members. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in longitudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted with other wheels at the usual road level. Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn, which result in lateral bending of side members. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame to parallelogram shape Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the vertical plane. Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in a general collapse. Frame Constructions: There are two distinct forms of construction in common use The conventional pressed steel frame to which all the mechanical units are attached and on which the body is superimposed. The integral or frameless construction, in which the body structure is so designed as to combine the functions of body and frame, the units normally attached to the frame then being attached directly to the body. The frameless construction is possible only in the case of a closed car, since the roof, screen pillars, door pillars and rear panel are essential load-taking parts of the structure. In this type of construction heavy side members used in conventional construction are eliminated and the floor is strengthened by cross-members and the body, all welded together. Body and frameless chassis components are welded together to form a rigid, integral units for extra strength and durability. In some cases the sub-frames are also used along with this type of construction. Advantages of Frameless construction: Reduced weight and consequent saving in fuel consumption PEC DoME ME1353 Automobile Engineering 108

Unit - I

providing safety to the passengers. Compared to framed construction lower body position may be obtained, thus resulting in increased stability of the automobiles. Disadvantages of frameless construction: Reduction of strength and durability Economical only if frameless construction is adopted in mass production. Increased cost of repairs in case of damage to body during accidents. Topless cars are difficult to design with the frameless construction. Sub Frames: Many times, the various components of the automobile are mounted on a separate frame called subframe. This sub-frame is further supported by the main frame at three points. In this way the components are isolated from the effects of twisting and flexing of the main frame. The mass of the sub-frame alone helps to damp vibrations The provisions of sub-frame simplifies production on the assembly line and facilitates subsequent overhaul or repair, Defects in frames: The dumb irons or side members may be bent. Cross members may be buckled. Some rivets may be loose or broken. The body protects and contains passengers and cargo. The body generally is bolted to the frame at a few points to allow for flexure of the frame. The frame also is subjected to the worst corrosive environment. Therefore, the frame of the vehicle was targeted for weight reduction and performance improvement.

Lower manufacturing cost. During collision the body crumbles, thereby absorbing the shock due to impact and thus

PEC DoME

ME1353 Automobile Engineering 109