Heat and Thermodynamics

Heat and Thermodynamics
Introduction
Definitions
!
Internal energy
! !
Kinetic and potential energy Joules H= U + p x V Reference to the triple point Engineering unit H is the work done in a process J, J/kg
Enthalpy and specific enthalpy

! ! ! ! !
More Definitions
!
Work
! !
Standard definition W = f x d In a gas W = p x V At one time considered a unique form of energy Changes in heat are the same as changes in enthalpy
Heat
!
Yet more definitions

!
Temperature
! ! !
Measure of the heat in a body Heat flows from high to low temperature SI unit Kelvin Perhaps the strangest physics concept Notes define it as energy loss Symbol S Units kJ/K, kJ/(kgk) Entropy increases mean less work can be done by the system
Entropy and Specific Entropy

! ! ! ! !
Sensible and Latent Heat

!
Heat transfers change kinetic or potential energy or both Temperature is a measure of kinetic energy Sensible heat changes kinetic (and maybe potential energy) Latent heat changes only the potential energy.
Sensible Heat
Q = m c (t f ti )
! ! !
Q is positive for transfers in c is the specific heat capacity c has units kJ/(kgC)
Latent Heat
Q = m lv Q = m lm
!
Heat to cause a change of state (melting or vaporization) Temperature is constant
Enthalpy Changes
Q = m h
!
Enthalpy changes take into account both latent and sensible heat changes
Thermodynamic Properties of H2O

Temperature C Sensible heat Latent heat
100C Saturation temp Saturated liquid Wet steam Subcooled liquid Specific enthalpy Saturated steam
Superheated Steam
Pressure Effects
Laws of Thermodynamics
!
First Law
!
Energy is conserved It is impossible to convert all of the heat supplied to a heat engine into work Heat will not naturally flow from cold to hot Disorder increases
Second Law
!
! !
Heat Transfer
Radiation Conduction
Q A T
4
T1
A Q = k T l
A l
T2
More Heat Transfer

Convection Condensation
Q = h A T
Mass Flow
Latent heat transfer from vapor
Daltons Law
If we have more than one gas in a container the pressure is the sum of the pressures associated with an individual gas.
Pc = P + P2 + P3 + ... 1
Condensing Heat Exchanger

Steam In
P=Psaturation T=Tsaturation
Coolant Out
Coolant In
Water Out
Non-Condensables in Heat Exchanger

Steam In
P=Psaturation+Pg T=Tsaturation
Coolant Out
Coolant In
Condenser Appears Subcooled

Water Out
For You to do
HTS Normal Operation
Reactor Thermal Power

QHT
Feedwater Steam to turbine
Boiler
2nd stage Reheat drains
Preheater
QP
Piping loses
Boiler blowdown HT pump Bleed cooler
QL
Fuel bundle/ HTS
Feed & bleed
End shield/shield tank
QM
Moderator
QSC
Reactor Power and T

!
T is an indicator of reactor power if boiling is not taking place

Q = m c T

! !
At boiling T stops changing In boiling channels total enthalpy increase must be calculated
Fuel Safety
! !
No overpowering Adequate cooling
Fuel Heat Transfer

Single phase convection Nucleate boiling Saturated (bulk) boiling Subcooled boiling Partial film boiling Full film boiling (dryout)
Log (heat flux)
Critical heat flux
E B
Tcoolant = Tsat
Tsheath = Tsat
Log (Tsheath Tcoolant)
Two new terms

!
Critical Heat Flux

! !
CHF The maximum heat flux nucleate boiling can transfer When dry patches of vapor exist on the fuel sheath
Dryout
!
Uniform Heating
Tsheath surface Tsat Tcoolant
Coolant Fuel element Singlephase convection Inlet Subcooled nucleate boiling
Saturated nucleate (bulk) boiling
Dryout Outlet
Factors Affecting CHF

! ! !
Coolant Sub-cooling Vapour Quality Coolant Velocity
Actual and Critical Heat Flux
Channel power
CH F
Bundles in dryout
A
inlet
eat lh a ctu
x flu
Channel distance
outlet
Critical Channel Power

! !
! !
CCP The minimum channel power that gives dryout Varies with coolant conditions Varies with flux shape
Boiling and Flow

10.4 Pressure MPa(a) 10.2 10.0 9.8 9.6 Non-boiling mode Boiling mode
Boiling starts
Inlet
Channel position
Outlet
Temperature Profile
2800 Fuel melting point 2400
2000
Temperature, C
1600
1200 Fuel sheath 800 Coolant 400 Fuel pellet Coolant Fuel sheath
More Temperature Profiles

2800 Overrating without dryout 2400 Overrating and dryout Fuel melting point Possible film of gaseous fission products (on LOCA)
2000 Temperature, C
1600 Nominal rating, normal cooling Light load and dryout
1200
Vapour film due to dryout
800
400 Fuel pellet
Coolant
Fuel sheath
Fuel sheath
Coolant
Bad things to do to fuel
Low HTS Pressure

a) Temperature profile
Inlet Tsat at normal pressure Coolant temperature Tsat at reduced pressure Coolant temperature at reduced pressure Coolant temperature at normal pressure Outlet
Channel position
b) Heat flux profile

Inlet CHF at normal pressure Heat flux Outlet
CHF at reduced pressure
eat al h Actu
flux
Channel position
Reduced Flow
Inlet Saturation temperature Outlet Coolant temperature Reduced flow
Normal flow
Channel position
Inlet

CHF at normal flow
Outlet
Heat flux
CHF at reduced flow

al h Actu
fl eat
ux
Dryout zone
Channel position
Inlet High Temperature

Inlet Outlet Saturation temperature Coolant temperature High inlet temperature Normal inlet temperature
Channel position

Inlet CHF at normal inlet temperature Heat flux Outlet
CHF at high inlet temperature

al Actu
t hea
flux
Channel position
Flux Tilt to Outlet

Inlet Normal flux Outlet Saturation temperature Coolant temperature
Skewed flux
Channel position

Inlet CHF at skewed flux Dryout zone Outlet
Heat flux
CHF at normal flux

al h orm eat flux
flux heat ewed Sk
Channel position
Flux Tilt to Inlet

Inlet Outlet Saturation temperature Coolant temperature Normal flux
Skewed flux
Channel position

Inlet CHF at skewed flux Heat flux CHF at normal flux Outlet
h m al Nor
eat
flux
x at flu d he kewe S
Channel position
Excessive Channel Power

Inlet Outlet Saturation temperature Coolant temperature Excessive channel power Normal channel power
Channel position

Inlet CHF at normal channel power Dryout zone Heat flux CHF at excessive channel power
l he rma No lux at f
Outlet
Excessive heat flux Channel position
For You to do
HTS Components
HTS Feed & Bleed
Bleed Condenser
!
Non-condensable gases
! ! !
Reduce heat transfer Steam pressure rises Increased reflux cooling Vessel appears sub cooled
Degassing Orifice
Pressurizer Control
Boiler Shrink and Swell

!
Boilers are probably more correctly called steam generators
Steady State Shrink and Swell

Rise in Level Rise in Level
Zero Load
Low Load
Full Load
Transient Shrink and Swell

! !
Shrink and swell from short term effects Reactor power boiler level
!
Boiling increases Water flashes to steam Steam expands
Boiler Pressure boiler level

! !
Effects on the Downcomer

!
Water flow into the annulus increases Water flow out of the annulus decreases Instrumentation sees a level increase
Cyclone Separators
Downcomer Annulus Expansion Forces
Boiler Level Control

Swell Margin Constant Level Shrink Margin Shrink Margin Full Power Level Swell Margin Zero Power Level
Fixed Level Control
Ramped Level Control
Improper Level
!
Low
!
If tubes are uncovered

! ! !
Reduce heat transfer Time in loss of feedwater events is reduced Reactor power automatically reduced
!
Setback or stepback and finally a trip
High
! ! !
High vapor content in steam Slugs of water to turbine Turbine trip
Boiler Pressure
!
! !
Boiler pressure is the key parameter in matching heat source to sink Reactor Leading Reactor Lagging
Warm-up and Cool-down

!
Heat transfer in the boiler

Q = U A Tm
A low power levels the HTS is about the same temperature as the boiler
Rx for Warm-up
!
! !
Put some energy into HTS from pumps and reactor power Increase boiler pressure Boiler temperature follows (saturated vessel) HTS temperature follows that
Rx for Cool-down
! ! !
! !
Heat sources are pumps and decay heat Boiler pressure is ramped down Steam energy released is greater that energy input Down go temperatures Limit around 130-150C due to huge volume of steam required
Ideal Temperature Ramps

! !
2.8C a minute This rate minimizes

! ! !
Thermal stress Probability of delayed hydride cracking Feedwater loss
For You to do

Heat and Thermodynamics

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Heat and Thermodynamics

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Heat and Thermodynamics

Enthalpy and specific enthalpy

Yet more definitions

Entropy and Specific Entropy

Sensible and Latent Heat

Heat to cause a change of state (melting or vaporization) Temperature is constant

Thermodynamic Properties of H2O

More Heat Transfer

Latent heat transfer from vapor

Condensing Heat Exchanger

Non-Condensables in Heat Exchanger

Condenser Appears Subcooled

HTS Normal Operation

Reactor Thermal Power

Boiler blowdown HT pump Bleed cooler

Fuel bundle/ HTS

Feed & bleed

End shield/shield tank

Reactor Power and T

T is an indicator of reactor power if boiling is not taking place

No overpowering Adequate cooling

Fuel Heat Transfer

Log (heat flux)

Critical heat flux

Log (Tsheath Tcoolant)

Two new terms

Critical Heat Flux

Coolant Fuel element Singlephase convection Inlet Subcooled nucleate boiling

Saturated nucleate (bulk) boiling

Factors Affecting CHF

Coolant Sub-cooling Vapour Quality Coolant Velocity

Actual and Critical Heat Flux

Critical Channel Power

Boiling and Flow

More Temperature Profiles

1600 Nominal rating, normal cooling Light load and dryout

Vapour film due to dryout

400 Fuel pellet

Bad things to do to fuel

Low HTS Pressure

b) Heat flux profile

CHF at reduced pressure

b) Heat flux profile

CHF at reduced flow

Inlet High Temperature

b) Heat flux profile

CHF at high inlet temperature

Flux Tilt to Outlet

b) Heat flux profile

CHF at normal flux

flux heat ewed Sk

Flux Tilt to Inlet

b) Heat flux profile

Excessive Channel Power

b) Heat flux profile

Excessive heat flux Channel position

HTS Feed & Bleed

Boiler Shrink and Swell

Boilers are probably more correctly called steam generators

Steady State Shrink and Swell

Transient Shrink and Swell

Boiling increases Water flashes to steam Steam expands