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Drying Technology
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Microbial Inactivation during Superheated Steam Drying of Fish Meal


Halvor Nygaard & Oistein Hostmark
a a a

Department of Aquafeed and Marine Processing, Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Fyllingsdalen, Norway Available online: 07 Feb 2008

To cite this article: Halvor Nygaard & Oistein Hostmark (2008): Microbial Inactivation during Superheated Steam Drying of Fish Meal, Drying Technology, 26:2, 222-230 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373930701831648

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Drying Technology, 26: 222230, 2008 Copyright # 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online DOI: 10.1080/07373930701831648

Microbial Inactivation during Superheated Steam Drying of Fish Meal


Halvor Nygaard and Oistein Hostmark
Department of Aquafeed and Marine Processing, Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Fyllingsdalen, Norway

Microbial inactivation during superheated steam drying (SSD) of fish meal was investigated in a pilot scale fluidized bed dryer. The exposure times required for 90% reduction in population (D-values) of the surrogate organisms Clostridium sporogenes (spores) and Escherichia coli at 300C were 0.33 and <0.10 min, respectively. Corresponding D-values obtained during hot air drying at the same temperature were 54 and 1.12 min. D-value for spores of the thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus during SSD was 3.54 min, compared to 228 min in boiling water. The results achieved with surrogate organisms indicate that the target pathogens will be efficiently inactivated by short time SSD. Keywords Bacteria; C. sporogenes; D-values; E. coli; G. stearothermophilus; Spores

INTRODUCTION Fish catches delivered to the fish meal industry may contain high numbers of microorganisms. Composition and size of the microbial flora are determined by factors such as the health and nutritional status of the fish and of the postharvest storage conditions.[1] Fish meal is produced by a continuous process, which involves cooking, pressing, drying, cooling, and milling. In the initial cooking process, the raw material is decontaminated by heating up to approximately 90C. The indigenous flora in the fish therefore have a minor impact on the microbiological quality of fish meal. The bacteria in the final product are mainly derived from contamination sources located in the production line after the cooker. Contamination sources may establish at any sites where temperature and moisture provide conditions for survival and multiplication. Such conditions are more prevalent when the plant is idle than when it is in operation. Recontamination therefore mainly occurs in the initial production phase and in periods with frequent production shutdowns.[2] The contamination
Correspondence: Halvor Nygaard, Department of Aquafeed and Marine Processing, Norwegian Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Kjerreidviken 16, N-5141 Fyllingsdalen, Norway; E-mail: halvor.nygaard@fiskeriforskning.no

mechanism described also applies to similar processes, such as feed mills.[3] Recontamination occurring prior to drying may have an adverse effect on product hygiene if effective inactivation is not provided during drying. Hence, the ability of dryers to inactivate bacteria may have considerable impact on product hygiene. Superheated steam drying (SSD) is a promising drying technology to a variety of industries. Superheated steam is steam heated to a temperature higher than the boiling point corresponding to its pressure. In SSD, superheated steam is used as a drying gas in a direct dryer. The main potential advantages of SSD compared to hot air drying are reduced net energy consumption, reduced product oxidation, no fire or explosion hazard, and improved food hygiene.[4,5] One major limitation can be damage to heatsensitive components due to the high product temperature. Superheated steam drying has been shown to cause both beneficial and deleterious effects on quality parameters of parboiled rice[6] and other foodstuffs.[7] For products prone to damage at the saturation temperature of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure, drying at subatmospheric pressures may be a feasible option.[8] Most industrial applications so far are related to products that are not heat sensitive; e.g., biofuels and municipal sludge. The industrial experience with SSD is still limited, and more experimental data are needed, since the quality aspects are generally unpredictable.[9] In a previous study at our institute, the influence of SSD on the protein quality of fish meal was investigated. It was shown that protein digestibility was kept during 10 s of atmospheric SSD at 300C in a pilot-scale mill dryer.[10] Furthermore, it was demonstrated that protein digestibility could be maintained for up to 20 min of SSD at 300C in a mechanical fluid-bed dryer.[11] This was surprising in light of former experience with thermal treatment of proteins but could possibly be explained by the absence of oxygen in the drying gas. Product safety is an essential issue for the food and feed industry. SSD makes it possible to kill microorganisms

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during drying. However, there might be a conflict between short drying time to keep the product quality and sufficient time to kill heat-resistant microorganisms. It has been demonstrated that a brief treatment with superheated steam (120180C) resulted in a considerable reduction of the surface bacterial flora on dried fish products.[12] Similarly, superheated steam treatment was found to be useful for surface sterilization of Chinese cabbage to be used for pickling.[13] Little data have been published on microbial inactivation during drying of food or feed materials in superheated steam. The purpose of the present study was to compare the inactivation kinetics for selected strains of reference bacteria during SSD and hot air drying in a pilot-scale mechanical fluidized-bed dryer. Heat inactivation kinetics of microorganisms are strongly dependent on whether the organisms are exposed to moist or dry heat. Heat inactivation is achieved by irreversible denaturation of enzymes and structural proteins.[14] The temperature at which protein denaturation occurs depends on the amount of water present. Perkins[15] showed that egg albumin with 50, 25, and 0% water coagulated at 56, 7480, and 160170C, respectively. Dry heat sterilization therefore requires higher temperatures and longer times than sterilization by moist heat. The higher thermal conductivity and heat capacity of superheated steam compared to hot air also brings about considerably enhanced heat transfer[5] to the microorganisms and to the material to be dried. To achieve effective thermal inactivation of microorganisms during drying, the product temperature should be high while its moisture content is at a maximum; i.e., in the initial phase of drying. With hot air drying, the product surfaces attain the wet bulb temperature of the air during the constant rate period;[16] i.e., approximately 5055C. With superheated steam, condensation takes place on the product surfaces until its temperature reaches the saturation temperature; i.e., 100C at atmospheric pressure. This temperature is essentially maintained during the constant rate period.[5] A more effective microbial inactivation is expected from SSD compared to hot air drying due to both higher initial moisture content and higher temperature. Thermal inactivation of microorganisms at constant temperature is an exponential (first-order) function. In each equal successive time interval the same fraction of remaining viable cells is killed.[17,18] Decimal reduction time (D-value) is the length of time it takes for a population to decrease 10-fold at a given temperature. When the logarithmic number of survivors is plotted versus time, the resulting heat inactivation curve is a straight line and the negative reciprocal of its slope is the D-value. In practice, the points obtained may not fit perfectly into a straight line and the D-value is calculated from the slope of a regression exponential curve. Similarly, the relationship between

D-value and temperature is essentially exponential and the z-value expresses the temperature increase required to accomplish a 10-fold reduction in D-value. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fish Meal For each experimental series, a batch of fish meal was blended in a double shaft rotary mixer with paddles (Type MV-B40, Multivector Technology, 3170 Sem, Norway). The batches were divided into portions of 3.0 kg for series 12 and in portions of 2.5 kg for series 3. Test Organisms Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) Freeze-dried culture discs (Selectrol MM 002) were purchased from TCS Biosciences Ltd. (Botolph Claydon, Buckingham, England). The culture discs were reconstituted in peptone salt solution prepared according to ISO 6887-1[19] and subcultured on nutrient agar (Oxoid CM 003) at 37C for 24 h. A single well-isolated colony was finally transferred to nutrient broth (Oxoid CM 0001) and incubated overnight at 37C. Clostridium sporogenes (ATCC 19404) and Geobacillus stearothermophilus (ATCC 7953) Spore suspensions with 1.8 107 mL 1 heat chocked spores in 40% ethanol were purchased from SGM Biotech, Inc. (Bozeman, MT). Microbiological Analysis Initial suspensions (10 1 dilution of sample) and the appropriate number of further decimal dilutions were prepared according to ISO 6887-1.[19] For the enumeration of E. coli, 1 mL of the dilutions was inoculated on Petrifilm E. coli=Coliform Count Plate (3 M Microbiology, St. Paul, MN). Typical E. coli colonies were counted after aerobic incubation at 37C for 48 h. For the enumeration of C. sporogenes spores, 1 mL of the dilutions to be examined were pour plated according to ISO 7218(20) in Reinforced Clostridial Agar (Oxoid CM 0151) and incubated in a modified atmosphere jar (GasPak 150 System, BBL no. 260629). Anaerobic conditions were created using Anaerogen Sachets (Oxoid AN 0025) and controlled by dry anaerobic indicator strips (BBL no. 271051). The jars were incubated at 37C for 72 h. After incubation, typical C. sporogenes colonies were counted. Typical C. sporogenes colonies in reinforced clostridial agar are spherical, approximately 2 mm in diameter with a fluffy, cotton-like appearance. G. stearothermophilus spores were enumerated by pour plating in nutrient agar (Fluka 70148). The dishes were incubated aerobically at 55C for at least 72 h. After incubation, typical G. stearothermophilus colonies were

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counted. Typical G. stearothermophilus colonies in nutrient agar are discus shaped, approximately 0.5 mm in diameter with smooth, regular edge. After prolonged incubation, characteristic appendages may emerge on one or both sides of the colonies. The concentrations of organisms in the samples were calculated by multiplying the number of colonies on a film or a plate by the corresponding dilution rate or as the weighted mean of the counts from two successive dilutions according to ISO 7218.[20] For all methods, the lower detection limit for solid samples is 10 CFU g 1 and for liquid samples 1 CFU g 1. Before D-value calculations, bacterial concentration values for each sample were converted from CFU g 1 to CFU g 1 dry matter.

moisture sensor (Vaissala HMP 235) was mounted at the gas outlet, providing continuous readings of relative humidity for air or capacitance for steam. The pressure in the drying chamber was measured by a Magnehelic system or directly by mm water column in a U-tube. Experimental Procedure In addition to the experimental series described below, an inactivation experiment was carried out with C. sporogenes and G. stearothermophilus in distilled water kept at approximately 100C under constant stirring. The sample beaker was equipped with a loosely fitted lid to minimize volume reduction due to water evaporation. Samples were withdrawn after 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, 30.0, and 60.0 min and immediately cooled in ice-water before bacteriological examination. Experimental Series 1: Drying in Hot Air Three kilograms of fish meal was mixed with 1.5 kg autoclaved and cooled tap water, 0.5 mL E. coli culture (5.0 108 cells mL 1), and 0.5 mL C. sporogenes spore suspension (1.8 107 spores mL 1) in a rotary mixer (Type UM 12, Stephan Machinery GmbH, Hameln, Germany). An analysis sample of approximately 100 g was withdrawn before the mixture was transferred to the drying chamber. After closing the chamber, the mixing system for fluidization was started and the gas inlet valve opened. The inlet air temperature was approximately 300C and the flow rate 220 Nm3=h. After a predetermined drying time, the gas valve was closed and the drying chamber opened. A meal sample of approximately 100 g was withdrawn for analysis, transferred to a wide plastic bag, and cooled by submerging in ice-water. The time span from end of drying to start of cooling did not exceed 10 s. The procedure described above was repeated for each drying time; i.e., 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 12.0, and 16.0 min. During each drying trial the following parameters were monitored every 30 s: inlet gas temperature, outlet gas temperature, and relative humidity. The water content of the product was determined before and after drying. Experimental Series 2: Drying in Superheated Steam The experimental procedure was equal to series 1, except that superheated steam replaced hot air as a drying gas. The drying times applied were 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, and 10.0 min. Steam temperature was approximately 300C. Based on the fan speed, the drying gas flow rate was estimated to 150 kg=h. To avoid air leakage into the dryer, an overpressure corresponding to approximately 5 mm water column was generated in the drying chamber. The oxygen content of the steam in the drying chamber was not monitored. However, when re-creating the experimental conditions afterwards, oxygen levels of about

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Moisture Analysis The water content in fish meals was measured according to ISO 6496,[21] while water activity (aw) at 25C was determined using a Rotronic Hygrolab Multichannel Humidity and Water Activity Analyser with Rotronic Hygrometer WA-1 sensor (Rotronic Instruments Ltd., Crawley, West Sussex, UK). Drying Equipment The study was carried out in a pilot-scale mechanical fluidized bed dryer (Type MV-DB15, Multivector Technology, Sem, Norway). Four rotating shafts with paddles in the drying chamber (Fig. 1) fluidize batches of up to about 10 kg input material, depending on its water content. Heated drying gas is led into the drying chamber from the top through a slit and leaves the chamber through filters. The dryer can be operated using various drying gases; e.g., hot air and superheated steam. The drying chamber can be pulled out and inverted for filling or emptying; thus, the time of heat exposure can be controlled to within a few seconds. The dryer was equipped with thermocouples at the gas inlet and outlet (after filter). Also, a capacitive

FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of drying chamber (A: drying gas in, B: drying gas out, C: shaft with paddles, D: insulated chamber).

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TABLE 1 Average D-values for surrogate microorganisms during drying of fish meal Average D-values (minutes) Series 1 2 3 Heating medium Hot air Superheated steam Superheated steam Water Temperature (C) 302.5 5.7 299.6 1.7 299.9 2.1 100.0 E. coli (ATCC 25922) 1.12 < 0.14 < 0.10 C. sporogenes (ATCC 19404) 54.18 0.27 0.33 0.34 G. stearothermophilus (ATCC 7953)

3.54 227.98

0.05% were measured with a steam purity analyzer (Enotec SPA 500 S) mounted at the drying gas outlet after filter.

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Experimental Series 3: Drying in Superheated Steam Two and a half kilograms of fish meal was mixed with 1.25 kg autoclaved and cooled tap water, 10.0 mL E. coli culture (4.0 109 cells mL 1), 0.5 mL C. sporogenes spore suspension (1.8 107 spores mL 1), and 0.5 mL G. stearothermophilus spore suspension (1.8 107 spores mL 1). The drying times applied were 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 7.0 min. The operation of the dryer and monitoring of drying parameters was identical to series 2. Each drying experiment was conducted in triplicate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In industrial hot air drying of fish meal, 300C is a commonly used air inlet temperature. This set temperature was applied to both superheated steam and hot air in our experiments in order to compare their inactivation effects at the same temperature. Microbial inactivation rates during drying were determined using surrogate microorganisms to avoid introduction of pathogens into the production facilities. Surrogate microorganisms possess inactivation characteristics that can be used to predict those of the target organisms.[22]

A harmless strain of E. coli represented the enteric group of bacteria, including Salmonella except the atypical Salmonella serovar Senftenberg strain 775 W. C. sporogenes spores replaced spores of pathogens like C. perfringens, C. botulinum, and B. cereus. The choice of surrogate organisms is justified by literature data.[2224] G. stearothermophilus spores, which possess extreme resistance to moist heat, were included in one of the experimental series. It is commonly used for validation of steam sterilization processes and as an aid for development of thermal processes that ensure products are safe and commercially sterile.[22] D-value determinations are normally conducted under laboratory conditions where interacting factors can be closely controlled. In our pilot-scale experiments, both temperature and aw of the product is changing during the drying period. Furthermore, the microorganisms are embedded in a nonhomogenous matrix. The D-values obtained could therefore be expected to vary during each experiment. Hence, the D-values reported (Table 1) are average values based on all bacterial counts obtained during each experiment. The regression exponential curves in Figs. 25 illustrate the basis for average D-value calculations and do not indicate a constant inactivation rate throughout the drying.

FIG. 2. Inactivation curves for E. coli and spores of C. sporogenes during drying of fish meal in hot air at 300C. Lines are regression exponential curves.

FIG. 3. Inactivation curve for spores of C. sporogenes during drying of fish meal in superheated steam at 300C. Line is a regression exponential curve. (E. coli was reduced to below detection limit during the first 0.5 min.).

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FIG. 4. Inactivation curves for spores of C. sporogenes and G. stearothermophilus during drying of fish meal in superheated steam at 300C. Points are averages of three replicates. Vertical bars represent standard deviations. Lines are regression exponential curves. (E. coli was reduced to below detection limit during the first 0.5 min.).

FIG. 5. Heat inactivation curves for spores of C. sporogenes and G. stearothermophilus during exposure to boiling water at 100C. Lines are regression exponential curves.

The actual product temperatures in a fluid bed of particles could not be measured during drying. Wetted fish meal forms particles with different sizes during the initial phase of drying. The temperature come up times in each particle will depend on its size. Product moisture data (Tables 2

and 3) and drying curves (Fig. 6) indicate that the overall temperature come up time, which precedes the constant rate period of drying, is less than 2 min with hot air and less than 1 min with superheated steam. With hot air drying in experimental series 1 (Fig. 2 and Table 2), the initial concentration of E. coli bacteria was reduced by more than 3 log 10 cycles in 4 min, resulting

TABLE 2 Drying gas conditions and product moisture during drying of fish meal in hot air Residence time (min) 2.0 Time (min) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 Temperature air in (C) 297 299 304 309 308 302 298 298 297 318 312 299 305 299 304 300 306 298 297 300 Temperature air out (C) 91 91 92 Rel. humidity air out (%) 5.1 8.6 10.8 31.8 34.4 93 94 95 9.7 11.0 10.5 28.2 36.0 94 94 93 10.7 11.3 10.2 19.5 36.6 83 84 84 18.2 14.1 13.9 12.2 36.8 95 94 92 10.0 9.1 8.1 6.3 Product moisture (%) 35.5

4.0

8.0

12.0

16.0

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TABLE 3 Drying gas conditions and product moisture during drying of fish meal in superheated steam (SHS). Each drying experiment was carried out in triplicate Residence time (min) 0.5 1.0 Time (min) 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 2.0 3.5 5.0 7.0 Temperature SHS in (C) 300.0 0.0 300.0 0.0 299.7 0.6 299.7 0.6 299.7 0.6 300.0 0.0 300.0 0.0 299.3 0.6 299.3 0.6 299.3 0.6 301.3 5.0 301.7 5.0 300.3 1.5 298.0 4.0 298.3 5.7 300.7 0.6 299.3 1.2 300.0 0.0 301.0 0.0 299.7 0.6 Temperature SHS out (C) 130.0 2.8 133.0 4.0 133.0 4.0 133.3 4.0 139.0 0.0 139.0 0.0 139.3 0.6 139.7 0.6 140.0 0.0 121.3 1.5 121.7 1.5 120.7 1.5 120.3 1.2 120.0 1.7 124.7 2.1 124.3 3.5 125.0 4.0 125.0 4.0 125.0 4.6 Capasitance SHS out (%) 27.9 3.6 27.6 4.1 31.2 5.5 34.2 4.5 23.9 5.0 25.4 3.4 29.0 0.4 29.4 0.4 29.4 0.4 33.4 5.8 45.8 1.9 48.8 1.8 49.3 1.9 49.7 2.3 32.5 3.5 44.4 3.7 44.3 4.5 44.2 5.1 44.2 5.3 Product moisture (%) 37.6 0.9 39.4 0.4 38.8 0.2 37.9 0.7 37.6 1.2

2.0

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4.0

36.1 0.4 38.0 0.5

7.0

34.5 0.8 38.7 0.2

28.6 1.7

in an average D-value of 1.12 min. Spores of C. sporogenes possessed high tolerance to the applied drying conditions with an average D-value of 54 min. The product temperature during constant rate period of hot air drying is expected to be close to the wet-bulb temperature of the outlet drying gas. This presupposes a product aw of 1.0. As product aw decreases, product temperature will increase and approach the temperature of the outlet air. Based on measured dry-bulb temperatures and relative humidity of the outlet gas, a wet-bulb temperature of approximately 50C was estimated from a Mollier diagram. Based on the drying curves (Fig. 6) and a moisture isotherm for the same lot of fish meal, aw values for the meal during drying could be estimated (Fig. 7). Taking into account a product aw of approximately 0.9 during the first minutes of drying, the product temperature should be expected to slightly exceed 50C. Typical D-values reported for E. coli at 60C and high moisture content are close to 1 min. Assuming a z-value of 5C,[22] this corresponds to approximately 10 min at 55C and 100 min at 50C. If product temperatures during the first minutes of hot air drying were below 60C, the inactivation of E. coli was more rapid than could be expected. With SSD in experimental series 2 (Fig. 3 and Table 4), the initial concentration of E. coli was reduced to an undetectable level during the first 0.5 min of drying and a

D-value could not be calculated. For C. sporogenes spores, the concentration was reduced approximately 2 log 10 cycles during the first 0.5 min of drying. An average D-value of 0.27 min was calculated from the sparse data available. In experimental series 3 (Fig. 4 and Table 3), the E. coli inoculum level was increased approximately a

FIG. 6. Drying curves for fish meal in hot air (experimental series 1) and superheated steam (experimental series 2 and 3). Each point represents the final moisture content after drying of separate portions of 4.5 kg (experimental series 1 and 2) or 3.75 kg (experimental series 3) for different times. Vertical bars represent standard deviation. Lines are linear regression curves.

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FIG. 7. Estimated water activity (aw) of fish meal during drying in hot air (experimental series 1) and superheated steam (experimental series 2 and 3). Each point represents the final aw value after drying of separate portions of 4.5 kg (experimental series 1 and 2) or 3.75 kg (experimental series 3) for different times. (aw values estimated from a moisture isotherm obtained with the same lot of fish meal).

100-fold as compared to series 2 and each drying run was carried out in triplicate. E. coli was now reduced by more than 5 log 10 cycles to below detection limit in the first

0.5 min of drying, corresponding to a D-value of less than 0.1 min. For C. sporogenes spores an average D-value of 0.33 min was obtained, which is in agreement with the result in series 2. Average D-value for G. stearothermophilus spores was 3.54 min. During the initial and constant rate period of atmospheric SSD, the product can be expected to attain a temperature close to 100C and a high aw. Thus, the inactivation effect of SSD during the first minutes should be similar to that of boiling water. This was confirmed, as the D-values obtained for the C. sporogenes spores during exposure to SSD and boiling water were 0.33 and 0.34 min, respectively. With G. stearothermophilus spores, which were mainly inactivated during the constant rate period, the corresponding D-values were 3.54 and 228 min. In the initial phase of drying, the microbial inactivation from superheated steam was superior to that of hot air. The major reasons are probably higher moisture content of the product due to steam condensation and higher product temperatures due to enhanced heat transfer. Our results indicate that superheated steam is superior to hot air after this initial period. During the constant rate

TABLE 4 Drying gas conditions and product moisture during drying of fish meal in superheated steam (SHS) Residence time (min) 0.5 1.0 Time (min) 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 Temperature SHS in (C) 300 299 298 299 300 302 301 300 299 299 302 300 298 298 298 295 300 303 300 299 301 299 300 Temperature SHS out (C) 142 142 Capacitance SHS out (%) 26.0 26.1 32.5 35.5 143 143 143 26.4 26.3 26.1 28.6 34.9 135 135 135 31.6 32.2 32.4 28.8 37.8 132 133 133 34.7 34.6 34.8 26.9 37.1 136 136 135 32.3 31.8 32.4 17.1 Product moisture (%) 32.7 30.6 36.6

2.0

4.0

6.0

10.0

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period of drying, the highly heat-resistant G. stearothermophilus spores are more rapidly inactivated in superheated steam (Fig. 4) than are the less resistant C. sporogenes spores in hot air (Fig. 2). G. stearothermophilus spores were not included in the hot air drying experiments because microorganisms in general are not prone to heat inactivation within their temperature range for growth. Product temperatures in the constant rate period of hot air drying are only 5060C, while the organism is reported to grow well even at 65C.[25] Saturated steam is a more efficient means of destroying microorganisms than boiling water at the same temperature. Alder et al.[26] found that subatmospheric saturated steam at 8590C was more efficient in killing dry bacterial spores (including G. stearothermophilus and C. sporogenes) than hot water at the same temperature. The superiority of steam was explained by the release of latent heat and by easier heat penetration into the spores. To our knowledge, no kinetic data have been published on the inactivation of bacteria during SSD of food or feed products. However, some publications deal with inactivation kinetics of dry bacterial spores exposed to superheated steam. Spicher et al.[27,28] studied the heat resistance of dry spores during exposure to both saturated and superheated steam. All the spores examined exhibited maximal resistance on superheating by 2330C, regardless of its saturation temperature. At their respective resistance maxima, the necessary exposure times were up to 119 times longer than those required in saturated steam. The authors related the enhanced heat resistance to aw reduction. Zmidzinska et al.[29] examined the heat resistance of G. stearothermophilus spores exposed to superheated steam. Dry spores in a matrix with initial aw of 0.40 were exposed to steam superheated by 5, 30, 45, 60, and 75C. The spores showed maximum resistance at 30C of superheating. With further superheating, resistance decreased and became lower at 75C than at 5C of superheating. Unfortunately, resistance at superheating above 75C was not investigated. The unexpectedly rapid inactivation of G. stearothermophilus spores during SSD in our experiments cannot be fully explained. If spores are directly exposed to the superheated steam, their heat resistance will depend on the degree of superheating. Spore resistance to high levels of superheating is not known but could be even lower than at saturation temperature. The investigations of Spicher et al.[27,28] and Zmidzinska et al.[29] should therefore be followed up to find the relative resistance of bacterial spores to steam superheated by more than 75C. In the constant rate period of drying, metal surfaces inside the drying chamber attain temperatures above 100C. Radiation heat or direct contact with hot metal surfaces may also have contributed to the unexpectedly rapid inactivation of G. stearothermophilus spores.

CONCLUSIONS The inactivation rates obtained with surrogate microorganisms in our investigation indicate that undesirable organisms of relevance to the fish meal industry can be inactivated at drying times as short as approximately 1 min. As microbial inactivation is primarily determined by temperature and moisture and less by product properties, our results should be applicable not only to the fish meal industry but also to manufacturers of other dried feed and food products. NOMENCLATURE ATCC American Type Culture Collection Water activity aw CFU Colony forming units D Decimal reduction time (min) z Thermal resistance constant ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs. REFERENCES
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