Professional Documents
Culture Documents
,, _ .p_=h,.,.,.,_under Contract No. NAS2-8703 forthe NATIONAL AERONAUTICSND SPACE A ADMINISTRATION AMESRESEARCHENTER C
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MOFFETTIELD, F CALIFORNIA
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NASA CR 151970
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Prepared under Contract No. NA$2-8703 !
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Acknowledgements Executive Summary 1 2. Introduction Summary of Cost Analysis A. B. Sununary of Cost Application Estimating Cost Relationships Estimating Relationships
x xi 1-1 2-1 2-1 2-4 2-10 2-16 2-22 3-1 3-1 3-10 Estimating Relationships 3-10 4-1 4-3 4-8 4-13 4-16 4-22 4-29 4-35 4-48 4-48 4-49 4-49 4-50
of the
!_
C. D. E. 3.
Summary of Cost Methodology Sources of Cost Data Factors Which Influence Cost
Sunanaryof Weight Analysis A. B. Summary of Weight Estimating Relationships Summary of Weight Data Applications of the Weight
_ am 4. I
C.
Detailed System Cost Analysis A. B. Wins, Tail and Body Systems Gear System System
Alighting Nacelle
C. D. E. F.
Propulsion System (Less Engine) Elight Control System Hydraulic System Electrical Integrated System heu_atic
G. H.
System
TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I. J. K. L. 5. Furnishl;_gs and Equipment Instruments and Avionics System
(CONTINUED) Page -
System Syst_s
Detailed A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
Analysis
5-1
,
Propulslon F11ght
Controls
and Hydraulic
Electrlcal
Pneumatic, Air Conditioning Power Systems Anti-lclng Furnishings _ustrumeots Avionics System and Equipment System
H. I. ; J. K. L.
System System
!! i 1
5-118
!
Appendlcles A. B. Determining CAClo 0 foz Existing Aircraft Used By A-I B-I _ I I ! Descriptions of RecurrLng Aircraft Manufacturers Summary of Systems Cost Elements
C.
DescrlplJons
C-I R-I
References
!
i _ LIST OF TABLES
i _
, , : _
N_er
2.1 2.2
Title
S,mma_y of Cost Estimating Rel_tlonshlps Aircraft System Rank,by Approximate Percent. of Total Cost DC-IO-10 Cost Estimate . ;a2_ 2-5 I 4, ?' :i
',_' _ i:
Recurring Production Cost Elements for Transport Aircraft Basis for Attributing Confidence Values to Cost Estimating Relationships
S_
i'" _
2.7 2" 8
_ i-.._i __ _
for
Cost
i _
_.
3.1
3-2
i _' "
i,:_,_, _ _
SymbolS.ships Used in Weight Estimating Relation3-9 Summary Weight Statement - COmme_clal Aircraft 3-11 Summary Weight S_atement - Military Aircraft Weight Data Sources and Adjustments DC-IO-10 Weight Estimate C--141AWeight Estimate F-28 _:.ight Estimate Cost 3-.13 3-14 3-16 3-19 3-21 4-2 4-10
. ii
4_
i !
i . !.. : :"
_& !,
!:- i i:. _ =" " ' _i" =I_. ii" " _I_.! l:.li i_ ""
4.3
4.4 4.5
4-17
4-19
Flight Controls System Cost Representative Costs of Hydraullc System Components Hydraulic System Cost. Representative Costs of Transport Components Aircraft
_:/" !_'L
Electrical System
4-38
:_i";
4.10
RepreSenotative
i _,
ii_i--_:_:i :i...... _:__:_____:i :..i...: _ .; .... --::-.:i.i _:__'_'_:_""_"_-'_:---=:_.:i"...:!:: " _i"__:_=::_=-_ ':__ ::_,
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)........ . Number 4.11 4.12 4.13 ! 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 i 4.20 5.1 _i _ 5.2 5.3 i 5.4 5.5 5.6 Allghtlng Gear System Weight and DesigD Data Milltary Aircraft Alighting Gear Weight Adjustments . 5-19 5-20 "" Electrical Electrical Integrated Integrated Title System System Cost Cost by A/rcraft (IPS) Type Cost Page 4-43 4-44 4-54 1
System System
Cost by _/rcrafu
Type
Representative Costs Costs of Recent of Aircraft of Aircraft Interiors Seats Aircraft Toilets
4-55
4-61 4-62 4-66 4-67 4-68 .. 4-72 5-3 5-6 5-17 -_ _ -..
CoSts of Emergency Bottled Gas Oxygen System Components Furnishings and Equipment System Cost Furnishings and Equipment System Cost by Aircraft "l_pe Wing, Tall and Body Systems Weight and Design Data - Co,,,erclalAircraft Wing, Tall and Body Systems Weight and Design Data - Military Aircraft Alighting Gear System Weight and Deslgn Data Commercial Aircraft
Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - Commerclal Aircragt 5-31 Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - Milltarys_33 Aircraft Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - NASA Short Haul Study Aircraft Propulsion System Weight and Design Data Commercial Aircraft Propulsion Military System Weight Aircraft and Design Data 5-50 5-60 5-62 5-69 5-34 5-48
Flight Controls and Hydraulic Systems Weight and Design Data - Commercial Aircraft Flight Controls and Hydraulic and Design Data - Military Example Applications of Active Systems Aircraft Controls Weight
_"
"
5.12 5.13
iv
+[
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED_
| ; 7*
i.
_+ ::
_. ,,..!
!
Electrical System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Pneumatic SyBtem Weight Aircraft Data - Connercial
_ Iii
.: _.
! .,.,. _!+:
Pneumatic System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Air Conditioning System Weight Data- Commerclal Aircraft Air Conditioning System Weight Data - Military Aircraft
5-81 5-83
5.19 + ._ +. . _. 5.22 5.23 +. .._ 5.25 .. , +_ 5.28 _" +" I .. :.":: " _+'
ii
_.
5.20 5_21
Auxiliary Power System Weight Data - Commercial Aircraft 5-84 Auxiliary Power System Weight Data - Military Aircraft _ntl Iclng System Weight Data - +ommerclal Aircraft Anti Icing System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Furnishing and Equipment System Weight and DeslgflData - Commercial Aircraft FUrnishing and Equipment System Weight and Design Data - Milltary Aircraft Instrument System Weight Data - Commercial Aircraf_. Instrument Syste_ Weight Data - P_tlitary Aircraf_ Avionics System Weight and DasigflData Commercial Air,raft Avionics System Weight and Design Data Military Aircraft Load and Handling cial Aircraft System Weight Data - Co...er5-119 Welght Data - Military S-121 5-85 5-92 5-94 5-98
++ :::_
5.24
5.26 5.27
e*
1. l
:
ol
._
System
_Rs CERs
System
4-20 4-28 4-34 4-45 4-57 4-73 4-79 5-7 5-9 5-10 5-11
"" ' -,
,_
4.5 4.6
Control
Hydraulic
System
ii i
Electrical System CERs Integrated Pneu_natlcSystem CEEs Furnishings and Equipment System CERs Instruments and Avionics Systems CERs Wing Actual vs. Estimated Weights - Medium and Large Aircraft Wing Actual vs. Estlmated Weights - S_ll Aircrat Wing WER - Alt_rnate Equation Tall WERe Body WEE - Commercial Body WER - Military Etrcraft Aircraft
., , _ !
i_ it
5.2 5.3 i 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 : 5.8 i 5.9 5.I0 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 ,, ' _i i_ 5.15 5.16 5.17
"" iI
5-13 5-15 5-21 5-23 5-24 5-25 5-26 5-27 " i "_
Alighting Gear System WER - Medium and Large Aircraft Alighting Alighting Gear System WER - Small Aircraft Gear Structure WER
Alighting Gear Controls WER Wheels Tires and Brakes WEE Alight_ns tear WER
Cowl Weight vs. Engine Thrust Nacelle Diagrams - Short T, ns Duct Nacelle o Nacelle Cowl WER Weight Effect Nacelle - Unt_eated Duct Nacelle
._. .
vt
!ii !
J .
,P*i
Number
Title
5.19 [+ +" 5.18 5.20 5.21" 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26+ '+ t 5.29 5.30 ii ! 4P _ 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 :+ _ ij ._ _. _ !!, I_ + _ : _
Pylon NER Pylon Diagram - Wing Mounted vs Weight Trend Nacelle (Including Pylon) Thrust Reverser tlons and Exhaust Tail Mounted Configura-
5-44 5-42 5-45 5-51 Actual vS. 5-54 5-56 5-57 and HydraulicWERs and HydraulicWEb vs. Control (Less 5-63 (Less 5-65 Surface Area 5-66 5-67 5-74 5-75 5-86 5-87 5-89 5-90 5-96 System WER5-101 5-102 5-107 5-108 5-109 _-I16 ....
Nozzle
i: _+
Engine Exhaust Thrust Reverser and Nozzle Actual vs. Estimated Weights Fuel System NERs Flight Controls Autopilot) Flight Controls Autopilot) Hydraulics
:j
5.27 5.28
Percent
_ ,,:.
Hydraulics Percent vs. Weighted Wing and Tall Area Electrical System WER - Commercial Aircraft
Electrical System WER - MilltaryAircraft Pneumatic, Air Conditioning and Auxiliary Power Systems WERs - Comnercial Aircraft Pneumatic, Air Conditioning and Auxilia_ Power SyStems WE_ - Military Aircraft Pneumatic Percent vs. Body Wetted Area Pneumatic Percent vs. Number of PaSsengers Anti-_cing Furnishings Comn_rcial System k_R
: ;, _: * _ ,
I_
Furnishings and Equipment Syetem WE_ Military Aircraft Fuel Quantity Instruments WER Propulsion Instraments WER Other Instruments WER Avionic System WERs
""
vii
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"
_ _ _ AGD APU AST(H) ._ ATN BPR CACIo0 CER CSD DC ECS EPU FAA GLA BP HZ IDG NA_ . i_ ! Ii _: ,. NDAT _ NLA HUX NASA RSS SCAT ,. ii
;,
.......
e*
Gear Differential Power Unit STOL Transport Motor 100 Units ,. (medium) "" 11
Auxiliary Advanced ,
Ratio
Cumulative Average CoSt for Cost EstinmtinK Relationship Constant Speed Direct Current Environmental hergency Federal Horse Hertz Integrated Drive Generator Chord Air Transport Drive
Control
System
Manufacturer t 8 Empty Weight Maneuver Load Alleviation Multiplex National Aeronautics Stability Air Transport and Space _minis_ratton "" .
i
_ ' I '. r
Cruise
Takeoff Gross
Variable Weight
Relationship
_siii
'
L
o This {. co_t port report presents the PREFACE results of a study to determine paramel:,ie and weight estimating relationships for commerelaZ and military rrat, saircraft at the standard weisht stoup o_ system level. The study was by the National Aeronautics Mr. Joseph Branch of and Space Administration monitored under the study for
t
i_
sponsored contract
L. Anderson
Ames Research
Center.
Applications,
and its
The Douglas
Company.
t_ _-_ _i_
sored
The study effort reported herein is a continuation of work also _ponby NASA under contract number NAS2-7836 which resulted in a report, Study 1974) of Transport Aircraft Sclence System WeiBht and Cost (R-1816, Aircraft The principal to frequently ,
t
Pars_etric October
Company wlth
The Douglas
Company as subcontractors.
previous report, which is referred were Mr. Trapp and Mr. Marsh. objectives estimating on the to small of the predent relationships cost estXmatins aircraft. transport study
effort
were in the
to
developed
report
emphasis
relationships)
and
the relationships
_D
ix
4 |
AC_OWL_qTS
Q i
Durln 8 the aircraft blies. this their for ' data were rc_in
course
of and
this
study, of
were
conducted and
wlth
mnn_
suppliers
subassempart and of to
|
a unique Is owed
aircragt and
components. in this
analysis
report and
in
a_liar. anonymous,
companies will
individuals speclic
no mention
be made
of
individuals.
"L
t
i,
EXECUTIVE9UHMARY This production relationshlps report cost pre_eu_ the results o _ NASA spo'_sorcd aud weight transport _tudy to develop
c_ima_ins alr._raft
at
the
: ,
_, _,,
system level. The systems considered in this report cor_espo_d _o the standard weight groups defined in Military _tandard 1374. They are:
"' I ,! "" _..: "" !;" ' "_:_: _ . _i:u:" " _' ; These Q
Wing Tall Body A,llghtlng Nacelle Propulsion (less engine) systems Gear
Auxiliary Power Furnish',Igs and EquLpment Instruments AVionics Load and Handling
make up a complete
aircraft
exclu_':v_
._z eng_.nes.
The CER
for each system (or CEltsin several cases) utillz,:weight as the key parameter. if available, Weights may be determined from detailed weight statements. or by using the WERs developed charact.erlstla:s in th_s study which are baued
on technlcal
and performance
generally
available
during i
preliminary design, .-; .... ; ii ._ The CERs that have been developed provide a very useful tool for _king preliminary estimates of the production cos*.of an aircraft. Likewise, the
WERs provide a very useful tool for making preliminary estimates of the weight of aircraft based on conceptual deslgn information. Although the CERs and WERs are based on.current technoZogy, any _vstems which involve new technologles curren_ technology may be analy_'edfurther using the CER or W_R based on as a polnt_of estimates of the departure. production The CERs may also cost of modifying be used to
make preliminary
an existing
* It is unlikely that a transport aSrcraft that utilizes new _echnologies for every system will be designed, or produced in the forseeab.le future. Rather, future transport aircraft wili probably be derlvat-i_es of current aircraft. Therefore, many of the CERs provided will be appropriate for estimating the costs of future transport designs
xi
aircraft. be used, as
For well
example, as and
if
an
aircraft other
the
wing
CERmay such as .
flisht on It the
based ,,,,
departure aircraft
should
noted
by using fo_making
airframe
co6t used
data novel
are data
not
documented for
at
the
system system
developing
experience and
major
interviewed. and
general assemblies
provided
components to the
aggregated Since
by system
according
proportion
substantially
for each CER based the CERs has a basis of and which
anyone using
in8 which CERs he should be most confident conflrmby usir_ other data.
he might
aircraft,
a/rcraft transport
(F-28), a wide (_-141) were total estimated very in this good cost costs fo_ . ..
(DC-IO) of total
validity actual
estimated the
compared by less
these
10 percent.
accuracy
considered
estimates
a preliminary
study
applied
same
total been
weights weights
obtained have
costs
f A.
xlt
!
, i!
: remained within i0 percent of tie actual total coats. WERs presented .... "" quick estimates in this report pro',,ide unique tools Thus, the CERs and relatively and
for making
coat__t_d
the weight
of commercial
military transport
Q-o
i,'
..
!!
..
I _,
xiii
,"_----_' _
,."_
_"----_-_-_._::,_:::::.=.
o_
., ,
_".,'
I i
i ;2 ,_ u _" _ _. i _' ,i _. The purpose the approximate craft at the o_ this report is to provid_ a rapid means for estimating airsystem 1.1.* 'I SECTION 1 -Im ODUCTION
of commetcial of engines.
system
exclusive major
aircraft
systems
weight
groups
defined
1374.
have been
further
broken
purposes. should be
estimating Defense
aircraft
manufacturers
for estimating
aircraft
designs. cost est_nattng actual cost relattouship_ data for developed transport in this report are and based
.o
The
aircrat
components
Further,
for the cost estimating, relation_nable the user with. to This latter estimate
in detail,
designs
he may be concerned
Interest. to NASA so that they can readily transport aircraft designs which
i _" [ _
in individual
aircraft
systems.
potential
aeronautical
sponsor. estimating by reviewing relationships the several presented existing typically used in
understood
methods
for making
cost estimates
of new aircraft.
The method
by an aircraft
manufacturer
industrial accurate,
engineering
estimates an
This method
but requires
:. ,i o
_ I
* The term in Section used for a specific system is 4 and Appendix C. defined **I_ order not to restrict been excluded. distribution
functlonal of
grouping
of components
as
this report,
proprie_ary
data have
1-1
,l
Figure
1.1
..
1. 2. 3. 4.
Wing Tail Body A11ghting Structure Controls Wheels _ires and Brakes Gear
5. 6.
16.
Avionics
(Including
Autopilot)**
Equipment Other 17. Total Load aud Handl_ng Airframe Engines Manufacturer's (Bare) Empty Weight (MEW) "'
Hydraulic Electrical
_ _._ *-' !
These systems
correspond
exactly
to
the standard
weight
groups
defined
in Military Standerd 1374, except that the Mllltaty Standard hydraulics and pneunmtics Into one standard weight group.
combines
Avionics are usually not included in "airframe" particularly for mll.ltary fighters and bombers. However, Ih this study avionics are considered a part of airframe.
1-2
p,
amount For
of
time
and
a data
base
only
a manufaCturer or tradeo_
purposes
conceptual required
programs
_.
off studies, such ttme and manpower Two cost for the total
a large
expenditure
developed coats
at in
an
aggregate timely
a more is labor
__ .. :_=
The This
through tooling,
revisions,
widely
estimates
engineering,
manuacturing
and material
costs got the total airframe as a function of a few aircraft characteristics most Importantly weight, speed and quantity. A second model which is similar was developed by Plannlng Research Corporation. While
_I
/
less aggregate,
model which
to differences
in aircraft
iii
design
is desirable. Two such models by have General been developed the one (4) contained in this report
.,. " ! ! _
and
one
developed
Dynamics
Corporatlon.
Dynamics costs
model for
system
level based
aircraft Dynamics
aircraft
of much of that data to transport era are characterized _ " : Furthermore, Dynamics were not in the bymore
aircraft
is not clear
because
costly hlg]" perfo_:r._nce and low weight and consistency could _ot be of the data used because by
components.
reliability the
developing
model
determined
documented.
_, _: -,. _"
* Aircraft
less
engine also --
and avionics. has a detailed which is useful model for airframe struc.ture,--wlnR, for detailed structural design assessment. Development of this
I
_
1-3
2.,'
,e
The model developed ': _ system cost level, data. is specifically cost
study,
which
also
costs based
at the on actual .,
transport not
aircraft
Although
available
system costs
atrcraft
collect
components developing
basis
for
In Section
in this. study are 8un_arized. Then, these estinmting relationships are applied to three existing transport aircraft (DC-10-10, C-141A and F-28). The results compare favorably with actual airframe prices. In the remainder
.... _: I. : i
of Section 2, the cost methodology, cost data sonrces and several factors which Influence The aircraft costs are discussed. data base and the system weight estimating relation. . .. , !
a
_,:,i i) ._ i ";_/' ,_ !i
weight
ships developed in this study are sum_ari_ed in Section 3. Weight data Were readily available at the group weight or system level. However_ substantial effort was required to Insure the comparablllty of the group Weight data for aircraft from different manufacturers because the Military
i: _m ,! ., [_
Standard 1374 definitions are not vary precise as to what items constitute . i._ :_ i: , i.,
f, I,
each weight group or system. that the ststent, was the esti_atlng
Further it was necessary to make certaJn est_mating relationships were in the weight of an aircraft cost of an aircraft consystem The
weight estJJnating and cost i.e. that what was included same as what was included relationships utilize
in the technical
system. characteristics
and performance
preliminary relationships
i_ i, _ i_ _:
'i
Detailed for
The first three sections of thls document su_nnarlze the study effort. derivations and discussions of the cost estimating relationships system are contained in Section 4. Detailed derivations and dis-
"* . .,
each
cus_tons in Section
o- the weight 5.
estimating
t.elationships provide
for" each
,_
-_
The appendtctes
supplemental
information
1-4
[
_ sions price of the assumptions made in calculstin_ of recurring description cun_lative cost average used costs from tnformationp de_arlptions elements system. by aircraft !I
manufacturers
and a detailed
of each
:_
Qm
SECTION 2 SUMMARY OF COST ANALYSIS aircraft cost data were collected and analyzed, for and pro-. the sevenI! '
estlmatlng
relationships
teen alrcrsft systems dlscussed In Sectlon I. These CERs are summarlzed below. A demonstration is then given of the application of these CERs to three ex_stlng transport aircraft. the CEltsle discussed next. The cost methodolosy used in developlng
L
1'
;:, _
and general factors which influence costs are also discussed. 4, the components data which make up each used system, relevant each technical
and analysis
in developing
._i _._.
ii ; _
Parametric CERs have been developed under this study _or con_nerclal. and military transport aircraft at the system level. These cost estlmatln_ relationships are for recurring product.loncosts only and do not include the bare engine cost. equat:ons are for cost They are shown in equation form in Table 2.1. per aircraft (not cost per pound) and include a The :
These CERs include both the produetlon cost and profit of 10 percent. F._ch CER is
manufacturer*s
i! i ) ; ""
?
based on a detailed understanding of the major components that make up each a_rcraft system, the technical and performance char_cc_rlstlcs of these components and the costs of these components.
Aircraft system costs were found to correlate reasonably well with weights as the independent variable. Correlations with other !
* The CERs estimate pr:\ce for. military the assumtmg manufacturer makes the i0 percent manufacturer*s a aircraft profit. Th_s saltstypical is aircraft. However, for commercial aircraft, the manufacturer's sales price is typically constant such that the manufacturer loses money until a certain number of units are sold. This is discussed further Appendix A. in
i i
:_: ;.
'
'
_, 2-1 i
i)
: !_
Table
2:1
t
SUMMARY COST ESTIMATINGRELATZONSH_P8 OF (CUMULATIVE AVERAGE COST IN 1975 DOLLARS) System 1. 2. 3. 4. Wing Tat1 Body Alighting Gear C1 -1730 C2 - 1820 C3 -2060 Equation W/"766 W/'766 W O'766 Q-0.218 q-0.218 Q-0.218
,
B. Controls C. Wheels & Brakes D. Tires
(W >10,000)
ooo
(W/Acoustic)
(wo/Acoustic)
5. 6.
A. Thrust'Reverser
C6A C6A
Q-0.218
(Fan wo/Acousttc)
Hydraulic
C8 " 54.4
9.
Electrical...
It9 : C9
209 178
W9 Q-0.0896 W9 Q-0"0896
(W<5,O00) (W>5,000)
i0. it.
(W_ 151 WIO Q-0.0896 201 W10 q-0.0896 (W > 234_ 1 Q-0.0896
400) _,00) i
2-2
,, '" l
Table
2.1
(Contnued)
Equation
12.
Antl-Iclng
C12
230 WI2
qlOe
0896
":
13. 14.
AuXiliary..ower _ Furnlshlngs Equipment Instruments A. Equipment B. Other Avionics A. EqulpmenC and ....
CI3 1.10143 Wl3q-O. 0896 q-0.0896 IC14 lC14 = 115 WI4 Q-O. 0896 WI4 (W_25,000) (W>25,000)
15.
015A = 1930 WI5A q-O. 184 C15B = 154 W15B Q-O. 184 _
_ : 16.
C18 = i
C1 10.25
.._
Where:
Ineludln_ an assumed I0 percent ib.roflt. C = Cumulative average cost for Q units In constant N = Weight of system or subsystem Q = Production quantity in the left hand column.
1975 dollars
Subscripts
refer
to the numbers
For example,
! !
2-3
,_q_V_.' ......................................... ................ :........................ ................
.......... ] ......................................................................................... i
_i,
i!
S,
_
L
to offer
over
weight
At later count
stages
of design ml_ht
I*
}:
_.,
'-'i
generally Is intended.
during
preliminary
model for
developed currently
design
in use.
where weight if
Therefore,
the user he is
processes
advised
the equations
are based
as discussed
1 _ "
demonstrated accurate
in Section of the
2B that total
the cost
2.1
provide air-
.,
estimates
transport
it errors and isthepossible Is, that compensat,lng user therefore, advised to are based rather if his than purpose the cost are ranked is to estimate
exlst this conslder _rlthln data the the cost aircraft. of total cost In of only a
..
systems
of a complete by percent
aircraft
systems are
_-
percentages
very
approximate provide
significantly as to the , I
specific
designs.
relative B.
magnitude
the various
systems.
APPLICATION OF THE COST ESTIMATINC RELATIOI_HIPS Cost estimates have been made for the DC-IO-IO, C-141A and F-28 using
* The aggregate c_ostmodels developed,by RAND and Plannin_ Research Corporation indicate that speed is a significaflt independent variable for estimating aircraft costs. However, these cost models included all types of aircraft. For curre, t transport aircraft speed differs only slightly (about + I0 percent) and, therefore, speed was not a significant characterlstic in this study If a future generation of transport aircraft is pushed to the limit of subsonic performance then speed should be reconsidered
t
!_; 2-4
li
Tabl_ 2.2 , I. I _
'> i'
AIRCRAFT SYSTm4 RANKBY , APPROXIMATE PERCENT OF TOTAL COST Percent Rank 1 _ BOdy Wing Furnishings Avionics Nacelle Propulsion Tall Alighcing Flight Electrical Instruments Air Conditioning Auxiliary PoWer Pneumatic Anti Icing Gear Controls and Equipment (colercial) .... Aircraft 20 18 10 10 7 6 5 5 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 < 1 of Total ,Cos,t
_ .
4
2 3 3 5 6 7
_:
:'
7 7 ' 10 i0 12 13 13 13 13 17
_4
" _ _. i: f
* Percentages are approximately the same for both aircraft except furnishings and equipment which 3 percent of the cost of miltary aircraft.
it
!
I 2-5
the
equations
in Table
2.1.
The results
are
presented their
in Tables weights
2.3,
2.4
used are
actual
of 100 was assumed. in Tables the C-141A cost of the was estimated and breakeven actual costs 2.3, 2.4,
estimated 2.5 to
for cost."
the
including
was available
t
government an assumed
on assumed costs
were compared
of the DC-10-10
was underestimated
by 4 percent
of the
C-141A and F-28 Were overestimated A range which these estimates of these for of -_ to +10 percent cost estimating is
by 10 and 4 percent, quite acceptable are of is for the i.e. designs. by the fact
intended,
to provide
rapid
conceptual indicated
aircraft" represent
estimating
were as: by
demonstrated :
a broad
spectrum
of current U.S.
by different
manufacturers
Aircraft Factories Fokker in the Netherlands). : TWo are commercial (DC-10-10 and F-28) and one is milltary (C-141A). s The two co_ercial manufacturer*s 29,178 pounds aircraft empty weight for _he F-28). is are of very different size (DC-IO-IO to
(MEN) is
203,760
pounds airoraft
compared is medium
The military
110,233 pounds).
i i
These assumptions are discussed in detail in Appendix A. I_ _7 **Athough the C-141A and the F-28 were designed at about the same time, it seems reasonable to assume that a military aircraft would use more advanced technologies than a commercial aircraft.
2-6
i '"
(CACloIN 1975 $) 0
Cost per Cost Percent of Total Cmt (Less F1mll Assembly 1
!..
, i). ;"
_
Wing Tall Body Alighting Gear" Controls _ructure Wheels and Brakes Tires Nacelle _* Propulsion (less Thrust Reverser engine_, (fan)--
_,o i___,_
48,990 13,657 44,790 (18,820) 1,424 10,672 4,456 2,267 8,493 (7,673) 5,382 441 1,850 5,120 2,363 5,366 1,787 2,386 416 1,589 38,072 1,349 2,827 62 203,760 -203,760 = 0.96
pouoa
$ 51 72 62 (40) 104 50 16 2 153 (148) 188 104 41 136 36 I18 133 155 151 161 68 447 447 60 78 _ $ 98
.._._o_l
$ 2,481 981. 2,759 (755) 148 5_2 70 5 1,300 (1,134) 1,012 46 76 695 85 632 238 370 63 256 2,570 602 1,262 4 16,187 4,047 $ 20,234
:,ridDenver.)..........
L5.3 6,1 17.0 (4.7) 0.4 1.3 0.4 <_1 _ O (7.0) b,_ 0.3 0.5 4.3 0.5 3.9 1.5 2.3 0.4 1.6 IS,Q 3.7 7.8 <0.1 I00.0 ---
_"
Engine System Fuel System Fllght Controls Hydraullc E1ectrlcal Pneumatic Air Conditioning Anti-lclng Auxlllary Power FurniShings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handltn% Sub-Total Final Assembly Total (less bare engines)
"
Q +* ,,,
..
* CACIo0 - cumulative average cost for 100 alrcra_t including assumed I0 percent profit. * With acoustic treatment. _**Hanufacturerts Empty Weight (less bare engines).
:i/|
I ....
2_,
!-4
_' i
Table
2.4
C,-141A COST ESTIMATE (CACl00 IN 1975 $) " Cost System Wing Tail Body Alighting Gear Structore Controls Wheels & Brakes Tires Nacelle Propulsion (lessoengine) ** _l_t Reverser (target) Engine System Fuel System Flight Controls Hydraulic Ele_trical Pneumatic Air Conditioning Anti-Icing AuxillaryPower Furnishings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handling Sub-Total NinalAssembly Total (less bare engines) _ 34,262 5,745 28,578 (10,529) _,287 1,161 2,575 1,506 5,630, (5,780) 3,200 1,014 1,566 3,448 1,504 3,015. 659 1,547 598 635 4,362 899 2,938 104 110,233 -110,233"** -$ I01 per Cost ($0_) 1,887 505 1,955 (473) 308 121 41 3 727 (583) 413 106 4_ 54 417 88 240 91 102 295 348 1,207 7 9,447 2,362 $11,809 Pound $ 55 87 68 (45) 58 104 16 2 129 (101) 129 105 4_ 36 138 133 155 152 161 68 388 411 70 86 Percent (Less of Final Total Cost
Assembly
and Delivery) 20.0 5.3 20.2 (5.0) 3.3 1.3 0.4 <0.1 7.7 (6.2) 4.4 1.1 _:_ 0.6 4.4 0.9 2.5 1.0 1.1 3.1 3.7 12.8 < 0.1 100.0 ----
,.
i .. _.
$11,809 $10,72r
1.10
* CACI^oV " cumulative average ** Without acoustic treatment. ***_nufacturer's Empty Weight
cost (l_ss
for bare
I!
2-s
i _ _"
i
Table 2.5 F-28 COST ESTIMATE (CACI00IN 1975 $) Cost per System Weight 7,526 1,477 6,909 (2,564) 1,461 205 590 308 866 (988) 693 238 1,404 316 953 60 520 520 320 3,535 267 923 0 29,178 .... *** 29,178 $ Pound 79 121 95 (59) 79 104 16 2 200 (163) 185 42 136 35 139 _ $ 591 179 659 (146) 115 21 9 I 173 (144) 128 I0 191 12 132 8 81 79 51 239 119 412 0 3,216 804 Percent of Total Cost CoSt (Less Final Assembly and Delivery) 18.4 5.6 20.5 (*'.5) 3.6 0.7 0.3 ._0.i 5.4 (_)
Wing Tail Body Alighting Gear Structure Control8 Wheels and Brakes Tires Nacelle** Propulsion (less engine) ** Thrust Reverser (target) Fuel System Flight Controls Hydraulic Electrical
Engi.e System
57
-
105
0.2
0.3 5.9 0.4 4.1 0.2 2.5 2.5 1.6 7.4 3.7 12.8 0.0 i00.0 --
Pneumatic Air Conditioning Antt-Iclng Auxillary Power Furnishings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handling Sub-Total Final Assembly
"I
' "_
,i
$149
$.4,020
--
* ,.
Estimated Actual+
CACIn n __ CAClo 0
$ _020 $ 3,870
1.04
.,_,, /_
* CACIo - cumulative O. average ** Without acoustic treatment. **Manufscturer*s Empty Weight on assumptions
cost (less
for bare
including,
assumed
I0 percent
profit.
+ Estimate
based
discussed
_.
d:
'
.i
C.
St_._RY
The first and most difficult was the collectlon at the system of meanlngful
cost data.
level because
plrcraft
manufacturers
However,
subcontract
and vendor
components
nacelle
information
transports.
largely, nature
of an appLoxlmate,
for inflatlon
and build
as required. together
then carefully
wllb technical
and performance
were derived
components
by aggregating based
and subassemblies
on the relative
and subassemblies
In accordance_th
the following
wi
ce/w - _ _s s t
: z Where: C W s _: For rJxample" Major Componeu_ or" Subass.e.mbly = = = cost weight system each major
(ci/wi)
t_ =
component
or subassembly
_l.
!_"
A c
Total System
25Z I0
IO0Z
50 25
!li, i
$ 113
s
* No differentiation1 is dors. For convenience,
65
150
and venrefer to
made in this report between subcontractors the term subcontractor will be used to
_! _ i i!;
both. 2-10
Ht
.......... ,,.=, .......................................... ......... ...................... ,.... ...... ....... ....... ..... ......... . .................. .........
_m
_: _o
cases, to
cos_
data some
were major of
not
assump-
regarding the 4.
,!" ""
These
assumptions in Section
sensitivity
the
cost
are
discussed
i. by "i i slze
component of aircraft
of
total
welght were of
varied
sufficient
determined small
commercial sized
BAC-111, e.g.,
medium
passengers, (200 to
727-100,
707-320, 747,
DC-8-62); L-1011);
commercial transport
400 passengers,
e.g.,
DC-10-30,
an_ military
,-
C-5). to
only. DC-9-10
"generic" were
._
either
felt that us_n_ both might a particular The an aircraft understood craft costs
. o
of the weight
breakdowns
philosophy estimates
discussed
above
represent costs. of
only Thls
of
recurring and
air-
costs amount
shown to
subcontractor cost Assembly" and cost all subassemblies estimates, of the inof
about
66 percent The
production "In-house
aircraft. cost of
costs various
integrating ready
major
_Ircraft
* : _
which house
production costs.
This
considered
by a compa_y is com-
_.
other posed it
ThUs,
although
aircraft
manufacturer produced
and by
could conceivably
consist
only of parts
by subcontractors is made
assembled
In any case,
the aircraft
"make
or buy decision"
primarily
........ i
......
......... l .....
Table : !:
2.6
Element*
Percentage
of.
Total
Cost**
Production
(32) Z 11
8 5 8 (34) 22 12 (34) 5 7 ( 2_ i
Assembly control
Sectional .-
7 9 6
Installation Miscellaneous
Total
100Z
_'_ _!
* See Appendix B for cost element descriptions. The cost elements include direct and Indlrec costs. Direct costs are those that can be identified wlth a partlcular output objective such as a specific aircraft. Indirect costs are those whlch are incurred for common or joint objectives and must, therefore, be shared in some equitabl_ manner. Indirect costs are often synonymous with overhead and. general ana administrative (G_A) costs. For a thorough discussion of indirect costs see: _artinson, Major Otto B., A Standard Classification System for the Indirect Costs of Defensp Contractors **Adjusted" to in the Aircraft average Indtmtry, cost for U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. cumulative 101} aircraft.
l:
lowest the aircraft
COSt.
_lerefore, manufacturer
the subcontractor costs should closely costs for producing a similar item. It
noted that in Section 4, in-house production and subcontractor not differentiated and are referred to simply as subcontractor In order assembly costs Based on Table contractor to arrive including _" costs to arrive 2.6, system at the total cost recurrin_ cost for aircraft estimates in-house of 1.52 cost, production (i.e.,
costs costs.
:!
discussed
! ;!
but exclusive
of any profit
aircraft
manufacturer. systems it
aircraft into
assembly
"
I:_
those related to Integrating the various major components and subassemblies into a complete system and (2) those related to final assembly of the systems into a complete complete, aircraft. individual Although systems an aircraft &nd then i8 not constructed them, section but
++_:
_i L
by producing rather
integrating
by a series
of operations
where systems
in a particular
_.j ! _-:" i ..
of an aircraft are built up simultaneously with othe_ distinction between "system-level assembly'* and "final considered no precise assumed useful in showing a hypothetical, data were available to separate that system-level assembly
_, :_i, _:_:
_i _.
14 percent
i':
Therefore, by a factor
In-house of 1.21
production (i.e.,
0.80/0.66)
_t
* It I
than lowest cost are occasionally require SiKaificant. For example, lenders that subcontractors be used in order to spread the risk and foreign subcontractors are occasionally used t,_ stimulate foreign sales. Howeve=t even i'n such c_ses it
may
t8
recognized
that
factors
other
cost
would
differ
significantly
l I
2-13
If a nominal systems,
10 percent in-house
profit
iS assu_ed
and allocated
to the costs
individual
......
then
1 _ i:_ :
k
plied CERs.
of 1.33 *_ costs
to arrive portion
assembly are
remaining
assembly
about
20 percent
production is
1!
assembly Is 25 percent (i.e., CERs. Th_ factor for final which indicates a factor
of 13 to 25 percent
costs. Of the data available for have is thls study ranged cost Attrifrom
the quality
to poor,
relationships values
an important is
co cost
necessarily presented
values
to help innovative
values
provide the
authors are
estimating in indicating
be useful the
potential could
errors be done.
occur
applying
CERs or where 1
The assumption of a 10 percent page 2-4. Profit _as allocated _ t _ I _i _ '_ _ _i reasonably attribute
in the systems
footnote in order
on to
t ]
as much of the
to them
The total
estimated of an aircraft the is broken out by System cost lumped as a final isadd on.same whether profit or _This factor Nay vary significantly for the different systems. For examsystem system assembly costs (given the labor required expected for wiring) bethan for an auxiliary power ple, are to greater for an electrical plant (which is relatively simple to install) However, since no valid basis was determined for allocating these costs proportionately by system, they were treated as a fixed percentage of in-house production and subcontractor costs. The cost data used for the tall and nacelle included assembly of componentslnto the total system since the subcontractors for these systems provided essentially the completesystem. Therefore, and approximate factor of 1.21 was used for the tail and nacelle.
"'
I
2-14
'd
Table CONFIDENCE
_-
VALUES
_i : i "" _ii a. Extensive accuracy Source of Data costs available and by Industry expert(s) industry actual expert(s) data
Confidence Reliability
In and
CER Validity
detailed confirmed
9.5-10
- 9.5
'
_':
i' i_
Similar industry
estimate experts
_t
provided
by one
industry
expert
j i
based
on one
reported
actual
cost for
5 3
7 6
-:'' ,
:I
':
t
-o
- 3
f i
.4
-4.,
Qm
....................
2.8
lists
the
confidence summarized
values in Table
assigned 2.1.
to
each
of
the
Confidence
values
values
assigned
to major
components
subassemblies
accordance
following
equation:
Where:
V C s i
= = = these
value
or
is to
stressed reflect
that only
confidence
ordinal
the
relative ranging
various In other
estimating a cost
relatlonships estlmating is
rating
with:
SOURCES OF COST DATA It is in necessary to to develop obtain reliable Obtaining to is investigate discussed valid cost cost such many briefly data estimating costs was at some desired level _uch this data. of as study Each
order
above.
necessary source
potential below to
indicate
some
advantages,
disadvantages
associated
with
it.
Manufacturers Aircraft manufacturers of little aircraft cost data value. weight by aircraft systems out would for appear transport to be the most likely and This arc data most source readily do not level except costs
source be at be of the
aircraft and
Whereas group
weight or
system
documented for
system
cases
structural broken
Aircraft
traditionally
categories
as engineering,
2-16
k. :
Table
2.8
System
Confidence
Value
... ,I. J
Q.
Wlng
8.0
Tail
Body Alighting tear Structure Controls
9.0
7.0 8.0 5.0 & Brakes 8.0 9.5 6.0 (less Reverser System System Controls engine) 6,0 5.5 4.1 6.9 6.3 7.9-8.3 4.9-5.8 7.8 4.0 Power & Equipment s 7.9-8.4 5 0-7.3 8.0 8.0 3.0 7.2 7,5 7.3
j!
: i +""' ,
i '; _,
: .. :i : i t +_ --
, +
!,
"
..; t -'::
-)
bare
* The subtotal and the total confidence values shown are weighted averages based on the estimated percentage of the total cost for each of the aircraft systems. The estimated costs for the DC-IO-IO, C-141A, and F-28 I produced identical weighted averages for the subtotal and total,
"_ :
2-17
and material, systems. system pertaining for C-5 identlcal accounting detailed the costs to cost
but
within
thes_
categories
they
is
illustrated and
by techIn are
the
a Lockheed
this
provide
(these
made
use Even
tape.
information, of the
computer identified.
manlpulatlon, This
only included
a portion major
design assembly to
in-plant be iden-
be
with obtaining
reluctance Aircraft
aircraft cost
turers, at any
their very
cost carefully.
related though
Science
proprietary because
data, of intense
manufacturers competition Government The were specific consisted i supplled proposals derived
information
transport
aircraft.
Cost cost
Informatlon estimating relatlonships from these data data data, on major obtained which were developed from llsted in the previous sources. in that report The report, (6)
prlmarily of of
on vevdor records, of
in by
reports
government
manufacturers C-141,
such milltary
transport
as the:
C-130, KC-135,
and C-5A.
2-18
l
s they While were these data were and used in developing data with were cost estimating required from cost relatlonships, sources. are: incomplete addlclonal and problems other home of the limitations
q_
government
information detailed
Government _
OD
contract
for all J
systems. Government contract aircraft. differences there is is one the are of cost While data most arc of available the systems and only for have counnercial in the only few minor transport Furmilltary
"
little
connnon.
..
obvious
examples. aircraft technology are problems and of for which is any over value the unique
cost ten
data years of
were old.
which
questionable related to
-t
because contzact
was
procured
expensive
methods
employed
,m
to
keep
design typically
threshold. summarizes costs for unit curve) is many procost ignores one
to reflect aircraft
fact she
el
assigned llfe o_ is
_h_
a nacelle be been
require is
provided; modified is
a complete
build-up
Data sources confidence of In cost the data cost were sought to expand the data which spent base were
estimating
relationships was
Investl_-
1 '!!
2-19
t
t
w_
probably
have a sigfor prices useful, for so that than more spare cost ,
uniformly
higher, cost
adjusted
provide prices
could
other
developed. investigated
were
attainable. Government spare These parts date price were data were obtained to be of for limited spare assemblies for the
and
components. reasons:
determined
value
following
parts
only in
those ths
that of
stocked
oecause
they Parts on
are that an ,
rarely Thus,
obtained parts
as of
spare
represent
portions
_..
Spare _lis
prices in
the
amount
of
the
unit the
--
little often
These
function over is to
order
when
is would effect
produced, fall of
relation curve is
the
unknown
production cannot be
quantity determined
Spares parts prices are typically below the subassembly level. This
available
costs would
tt,e price
I
It . is difficult of per spare Lo associate parts estimating Subcontractors item on an airplane than the has, at one time or another, '_ms, source those with and of price information eot|ltl not could with parts no numbers. that
Weights coat
frequently
pound
relationships
determined.
l I
_l_Jor
Aircraft Nearly
been
t
other
aircraft
major of cost
made
to
significant
_D
experience In item
componentu manufacturer
whenever contacted
possible
individual
it was thought
that,
manufacturers,
sub-
to discuss
experience detailed
few exceptions,
for specific
not differ
our knowledge
regarding
the prices
the prices
of major
system components.
The following
p=_ints characterize
data
furnished
by the subcontractors:
and military
transport
air-
explanatlons
were provided
tlon is discussed briefly in Section 2E.) s Explanations were provided as to how price would to vary specified if changes or if in design, technology performance was
normally
be _,xpected were
_r rellabilJty
a new
applied.
2-21
Examples influence
were
also
provided These
regarding include
other
conditions purchased
that under
might a to win
prices.
quantities
particular
contract,
inflation,
a particular
procurement
experienced
in former dealings
with customers. i
of the information
provided
by major
subcontractors
did
for specific
items,
the approximate
price and
was considered
enough
the explanacomponents
tions provided
the costs
to total system
to complement
and supplement
relationships
to be developed systems.
a detailed E.
FACTORS
INFLUENCE
which
below.
While
comments will
not apply
an airframe
or aircraft _etween
pitfalls
may be avoided.
The Relationship
relationships
summarized
earlier
estimate
cost as
at the system
level.
It must be stressed,
however, _t_Lte-of-
relationships Should
hold only
for a specified
a dramatic
technological or should
b_akthrough a weight
design
advancement
occur
reduction
be implemented,
it is likely efforts
for a given
2-22
i
Qe
'
},
was
written
about
the
cost/weight
relationship that it is
pertaining generally
actuators. much of
the
_ !
"Although a favorite game of pound on aircraft machinery, It Is design will be more expensive than design requires more careful stress materials, and design concentration mance and reliability. '_Neight reduction Incentives on the part of the customer heavy design probably will design will be chosen if
estimators Is to establish a price per obviously a fact that a very lightweight an ordinary design. A lightweight analysis, additional machining, exotic on an additionalfactor beyond perfor-
forms; a generalized is usually inadequate. the first place but an weight competition.
"Supplier experience has a strong Influence on weight. As veight is emphasized from time to time, the designer learns whac designs are reliable and yet lightweight. He also learns intuitively what factors affect the weight and how the weight can be reduced economically. Here in depth experience In a given fleld is of considerable value and will contribute much to the reduction of weight. "The procuring agency or customer can have a very serious affect on the weight of an article. Cost being a primary penalty for lightweight design, If procurement Is based only on price, then a negative incentive exists for low welght. If on the other hand a weight is stipulated as a primary factor and there Is a stated dollars per pound incentive the supplier can evaluate the relative merits of a lighter weight configuration. ...without a specific designated dollars per pound advantage specified by the procuring agency, all suppliers are essentially in the dark as to how far they should go in their weight reduction studles."(7)
1 _
Inflation
and Learnin 8 frequently Is cited as influencing an increase In the cost are: volume of inflation money and
I I
Inflation
relative price
i j
more
capital what
For callcd .
_o
many years
industry
made
variously
"progress," in cost as
predict learning
increases.
a phenomenon
prevails
industries;
2-23
,r
existence there cost time reduced forms item to of the forth, curve. _ i average percent theory ; J .... i" i_' i ;. :': _ _! it. the._r ing to specified composite labor, of at qre
has
been
verified hypotheses
data
and
Although or "'
several
manner
the
produced of
Alternative producing all items the item, 200th, unit percent an the grlds. of this some is a (8) 200th and and
theory
refer
a given
quantity
example, of the is
producing of the
cost
80 percent is said to
cost an 80
percent is 80
learnlng of 80 the
of the
units
the Either
process formulation on
follows of
linear to be a
reference for
learning
labor,
may all to
while
learning of
these effect
factors should
combined to make
by the because
from other.
reported
cost
one
may tend
offset
Military
Versus Because
Aircraft commercial basic common notable to which transport aircraft, systems exceptions the aircraft it would aircraft wo,_.!d be be exist. are are occasionally that While exceptions the
I:
models and
expected
frequently by both
caused
2-24
u contractual I" !i '" ; procee_ under which they are produced. Some examples of differ-
ences between m_lltary and Section 4. These differences the _ost estimating to determine the
are discussed below and in be large enough to invalidate developed when they the are data
app_lea upon
aircraft. be cost
which
relationships be
appropriate system
adjustments
should
considered
a particular
i:
i __i _.
Is
sought. One cause for differences is the manner between in mtlt_ they _ and are commercial used. While transport a typical
aircraft
components
which
flies less than 500 hours flying hours. equipmentwhich, aircraft military
transport may approach 3,600 annual are, however, more demanding on the the lower Other are caused expected differences by differing life of in some cost
military between
and
commercial the
aircraft over-
among
agencies
components
attack
very strict
increases example,
which it is Implemented. _
\ 6.
As another
reliability
(HI-Rel) parts
for military
electrical
components
may cause
them to cost two to ten times . Other Factors The extent o . .o a partlcular components change _n the
_m
their commercial
equivalents.
to which existing
technology
will meet
the requirements
of
can
in
specific has
advances increases
often cost
usually
curve.
q,
i!
,k
' 2-25
Another
factor
that
influences
cost
is
the
difference
in
design
phi-
losopi,ies among the aircraft : regarding need _ For how a requirement outside and
manufacturers. is best
Each often has its own idea Their approach to and cost. and often i
fulfillcd.
manufacturing generally
Douglas
then procure :
;i i
subcontractors
while
has a single
and produce
a complete
I
SECTION 3 ,,,_ S_Y OF WE, IGHT ANALYSIS
iii
for data
the for
17 aircraft the
systems
m_
three
detailed
technical discussed.
derivation
SUMMARYOF WEIGHT ESTINATINGRELATIONSHIPS WERe have been the less in the which developed level. bare engine are under These this study for commercial sum to in the and military "manufacturers 3.1. those The design phase features, base nor i
. L
at
system the
weight" used
weight, defined to be
shown
Table Only
Table during
ii
were
used. of
i , i -
which used
majority were
normal
conditions,
removed adjustments
correlations special
were features
made. were
appropriate,
separate
In a system
some in in to
cases, to
were
developed
major each
of
order
I : " i -_" _ _
discussed developed
Sections improve
2 and
Also, (e.g.,
component system is
correlations
nacelle
* For some aircraft systems, additional data were available and **The systems for which WERe were developed correspond exactly dard weight groups defined in Military Standard 1374, except Standard combines hydraulics and pneumatics into one standard and includes the autopilot with flight controls. Not to have pilot with avionics would have required arbitrarily splitting flight guidance and control system weight for newer aircraft controls and avionics whereas the autopilot weight for older readily available.
were used. to the stanthe Military weight group put the autothe integrated between flivht aircraft was
_ _"
3-1
....
, .....
::
.......
, ......................
= ,, ==_ ......
I ....... ,.
" -
0.930 Iw +6.44
+ 390
i.
W1
4.24 Iw + 0.57 Sw
where:
Xw
:. 2.
Alternative Wing Equation W1 Tail W2 = 5.03 St 6.39 St Conventional Tall "T" Tall 0.112 TOGW - 1,720
W2 3. Body W3
"'"
161 Np - 5,110
W3
ii0 Np
W 3
0.467
Sb1"277
Military
4.
Alighting Gear D
w4" Z
:' 4.' i-A D " W4' " _ W41 i-A
+Z w41
i-E
"
'"
3-2
i
Table
L
T
3.1 (Continued) SUMMARY OF WEIGHT ESTI3qATINGRELATIONSHIPS .. -_ ,; 4 Medium and Large Commercial W4' " 0.0439 (TOGW) - 2,050 Medium and Large Military Small Coun,ercial SmaZl Military i 4.
.......................................................................... .... _
L
.
'
Basic
AZtghttng W4_ -
Gear
(Continued)
4A.
A//ghtlng Gear Structure W4A - W4' [0.450 + 23.1 X 10.8 (TOGW)] Alighting W4B = Gear Controls '/4' [0"130 - 6.56 X 10.8 (TOGW)]
4B.
L
4C. ._ 4D. Tires
Wheels W4C
and Brakes
m
,j
W4'
!i ' ! ,.
W4'
[0.152 - 8.38 X i0"8 (TOGW)] Tires - 0.0102 X i0-5 (TOGW)] in Sink Speed
[0.125
Increase
4G.
and Inflate/Deflate
Requirements
Table
3.1
(Continued)
SUMMARY kVEIGHT OF ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS 4H. Subtract for Carbon Brakes W 4' [0.0786 - 0.071 X l0 -6 (TOG_)]
W5A+W5B
+Wsc
0.0415 =
W5B " T Spy e Mdem + 0.0144 IPY) (8.0 Ly where py If, S PY PY 5C. Add for W5c 6. Propulsion W 6 6AI. = W6A + W6A + W6B + W6C I 2 Reverser = (0.218 Df Lft r + 0.0120 Tft r) Ne Tall = Mounted "S" 3.04 Duct Nacelle
_
3
3-4
/,
1
Table 3.1 (Continued) SUMMARY F WEIGHTESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS O _ 6A2. Engine Exhaust Reversers (0.179 and Nozzles Tpt r) Ne Cascade or Target Type Reverser with Translating S_eeve Simple Reverser Target Type with Separate Flow Exhaust Nozzle Simple Target Type Reverser wlth Mixed Flow Exhaust Nozzle
W6A 2 --.
Dm
Dt Lpe x + 0.0389
W6A2
' 0"
W6A2
' _
P
W6A2
SeparateSystemEngine Exhaust Flow Without Thrust Reverser Short Duct Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser
..
W6A2
(0.096 Dt Lex
+ 0.0094 Ttr)
Ne
6B.
Fuel
System
Commercial Military
Engine Systems
Controls
W7 + W8 W 7 + W8
I
3-5
.. .....
m.
7,8.
Alternate Hydraulics
and
W7 + g8 W7 + W8
45.0 + 0.269 (Sw + 1.44 St)I'I06 45.0 + 1.318 (Sw + 1.44 St)
Single Hydraulic System Multi-Hydraullc System (Sw + 1.44 St) _ 3,000 Multi-Hydraullc System (Sw + 1.44 St) > 3,000
""
'
. 7.
W7 + W8
Flight Controls
i.
W7 W7 8. Hydraulics W8 i
J
m -
W8 9.
= =
I0,11, P,_eumatlc,Air Conditioning and 13. Au_illary Power $10 + Wll + WI3 Wl0 + WII + WI3 10,11. Pneumatic and Air = 26.2 Np 23.4 Sb 0.944 0.545 Military Conditioning Commercial i
13.6 15.6
NP 0.560 Sb
Commercial Military
3-_
....
_S_.:_:___._...
_\_.7:..
T"
!.
Table "" i ; 11. Air 10. SU_Y Pneumatic Wl0 0.290 (W10 + Wll) 3.1 (Continued) OF WEIGHTESTIMATINGRELATIONSHIPS
Condittonins
Power 0.944 26.2 Np 0.545 23.4 Sb - 15.6 Sb - 13.6 Np 0.560 Military Counercial ,
0.38 -
Sw
Nacelle Air Induction and _tLec. Only Wins Mounted Turbo-fan or Jet Ensines _Icnout Ta_ ! _i-Ice Wins Mounted Turbo-fan or Jet Engines with Tail Anti-Icin s Fuselase and/or Tail Mounted Turbofan Ensines with Tail Anti-Icing WinE Mounted Turboprop gnst,es with Tail Anti-Icing ,
Wl2
0.120 Sw
W12
0.238
Sw
W12
0.520
_"
14.
Furuishinss W14 -
and Equipment 62.3 Np + 290 118.4 0.650 NP - 4,190 Sb Co-..ercial Conuercial Military Np _ 80
._ . /.
WI4 W14
NP > 80 Sb _ 4,500
'"
_P eO
WI4
0.271
Sb + 1,710
MilitaryS
b > 4,500
3-7
=i
Table
3.1
(Covtluued)
= =
Commercial Military
15B.
Propulsion W15 B -
15C.
Other _nstruments
Commercial Military
WI6
= =
General Category
Aviation I oL II Domestic
W16
W16
2.8 Np + 1,380
Category
I or IT Overwater
W16
"
Category Category
0.i0 Sb + 2,330
Military
WI7
130
Mllltary
3-8
"
Table
3.2
S,_bols Ratio
Lower Case Synd_ols a + b - coefflclents b c cos cs dam - body - c_l .- coslnc - control surface weight of i ]
Aspect
GLA H I -
"_ ,
L NIA N RSS S T
Length (inches except feet Maneuver Load Alleviation Number Reduced Static Area (square Engine Takeoff Ultimate Weight Thrust Gross Stabillty feet) (lb./engine) Weight (lb.)
e f fax
- fan exhaust ducting including bifurcated ducts and outer cowl - fuel tanks reverser .
ft ftr h i
TOG_d ,s
U W " W/S
front
p ptr py pax
- passenger - engine exhaust reverser - pylon - primary - landing exhaust sear nozzle thrust
ZFW -
Weight
s t
struts exhaust to
- tall or turbine flange - average thickness chord ratJn - vertlcal - wins - taper ratio root chord) C/4 - sweep angle chord (tip tall
_.
t/c v w .. _
chord/
of quarter
._
'
3-9
for and
the large
cowling and
and for
pylon).
separate
developed cases
"
comerclal
transports
where a single WER was not appllcable systems, design alternative equations available regarding
For several
information
in Section
e_uation
relationships
estimates
are required,
data
a_e available.
relationships required
for making
mates using the cost &stlmatlng 4 of this report. B. SUMMARYOF WEIGHTDATA System and 7 military data, Three weight data are
relationships
discussed
in Sections
given
in
Tables
3.3
and data,
3.4
for
19 as
These of the
as wall
recen_
aircraft data
included These
in are
more
comprehensive
MDAT, SCAT-15,
AST(M).
The sources for the data tabulated In Tables 3.3 and 3.4 are given in that were made to
Table 3.5 together with ensure C. comparability APPLICATIONS Weight the equations were are
f.
notation
of any adjustments
As mentioned of their
selected presented
diversity.
together
equations
and variables
actual weights
in Tables
_ =;
* The MDAT is the Medium Density Air Transport, SCAT is the Supersonic Cruise Air Transport and the AST(M) is the Advanced STOL Transport (Medium).
3-1o
mt
:_ "
, ,..
m"'.-'m_m_.-,,
"
"
I ......................
all
'
+'
"I"
I,
"l"
I+.
+ +. " _
, ,
-.
+ _, _'
_
1
_
_""
"
_
'
,4
_-_7
_.-...................... ............. :...................................... __ "................ __ ........... ..... _ _ ....... _ _:_ _::_-_...... "" ._'_ . ii .......... ......... __-2._ ....... :__
3-20
/,
.,
._
.,
,'I, "
"
"..
z"
_
"
_._.
!
'- .
":
_.__i
_i
_
,
_,
II
o
I
il
!
I _-__'_' ' " _
(_
II
;2 "
t 1
,-;
,.;
.;
,,;
3-21
,,;
'
;............. ':-=_
<:,-
, _"_"
,'
,o,
_"
WI}
4W Z
m
U
+
_
_
_
,,=I
,.w
wi_
,,e
:_ _
,&,l
r,,."
f_
II
_.-,4
3-22
! I
e#
g
m e.4 ,eq
"
| e_
.,-
3-23
! I
When the it 4.7 Note so ment these was total found estimated that the weights DC-10-10 were and compared were with the total actual by 5.5 not 2.9 weights and | C-141A was certain for the low engine. are nacelle s_gnlflcantly aircraft seats, items oxygen is taken Several weights because the under-est_n_ted by were propulsion exclude them.
d
|
respectively. the case could the only are the are of the not
!
| ]
systems
actual
was
However,
The DC-IO-10 because of weights heavy due C-141, the are to the the double low use i
The estimated
because material
stiffening
the
and and of
system into
litters
account,
good
comparing not be
estimated explained,
could
however,
adequate
available.
I.
. study i basis a_rcraft i system, turn. ,, " The production were for presented each CERs system or logical The syste_ cost
4 SYST COST
estimating 2.1 relationships of Section 2. (CERs) derived In this section, for in this the each in Table discussed
in detail.
or major
components
grouping is first
of systems de_scribed
cases, these
discussed
descriptions Then,
1374
as noted.
derivation that
of the
in detail. in general
much of the
cost
terms
considered for
by the
Finally,
or system
constant
1975
to be in data
1975 do11_rs.
documanted 4.1.
in Table other_rLse
costs
indicated.
A quantity
or "learning an 86pexeent
curve" learniu
on C-5 and C-141 data. (6) was used base learning on a curve
learning systems
curve
a 94 percent
., _.' ._:'
..
descriptions
presented
in this
section
are
_::
** Reference 6 normalised costs to 1973 dollars. For this report, these costs were adjusted from 1973 dollars to 1975 dollars usin$ factors of 1.249 for airframe and 1.i31 for avionics. These factors are different from those indicated in Table 4.1 since" Reference 6 used proJecte_ escalation rates which have been corrected in Table 4.1. ***These learnin_ curvo8 are incorporated in the CE_ equations in Table 2.1.
:,._
4-1
Table 4.1 ECONOMI.CESCALATION FACTORS Calendar 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Year Airframe Production Avionics Production '
3.074 3.055 3.016 2.854 2.665 2.573 2.471 2.377 2.292 2.231 2.163 2.098 2.003 1.900 1.807 1.709 1.585 1.483 1.409 1.309 1.202 1.093 1.000
2.575 2.559 2.526 2.390 2.233 2.155 2.069 1.994 1.926 1.855 1.796 1.737 1.688 1.624 1.532 1.441 1.363 1.295 1.234 1.176 1.123 1.062 1.000
! i
'
apply for
to
the
mid-year.
instruments. DoD Price Indlcles, Revised 22 Nov. 71, OSD (PA&E). Cost Indicies, USAF/ASD
Sources:
1953 to 1957:
1958 to 1971: Historical and Porecasted Aeronautical USAF/ASD Coat Report #110, January 1973. 1972 to 1975: Cost Report Aeronautical Economic #110B, July 1975. Escalation Indicies,
4-2
!
_ A. WING, TAIL ANDBODY SYSTEMS The wing, for "_ _ "i _ , _. they have tat1 and body designs the of structural and wing, use tall systems similar and body aircraft, costs because the are considered together of similar Although the total to the in to cost materials account and methods for about small research objective systems. compared compatible of Some with with new the
40 pereffort bad i
a transport of their
a relatively previous
principal
was
obtained research.
IS
'
previous those
developed
derived
for
Systems
Descriptions The wing system consists of the wing box structure, leading and
"" o. _.
trailing Actuation
edge structure
edge control
through
system
ice system
systems.
gear designs,
trunnion
attach gear
and auxiliary
spar structure
to distribute
landing
to the fuselage
are included in
attach bulkheads
located
the fuselage
are included
.=
or empennage
is defined through
similar
all carry at
structure,
-_ :'" i: _
loft llne (top of fuselage). the tall system. structure, door and win-
The body
shell
]-
dow frames, doors, windows, floors, bulkheads, cockpit windshield, radome and tailcone. Door actuation mechanisms and alrstalrs are also
i i
I_'i
4-3
i-li
.....................................
? ........................
.... ,=
__ : _
_r_
=,,,
,_,_,_,...
Z _''
i
:
i i
i, !
I
i
i i i
i-"
included
with
the
body
system.
For
the
C-bA and
AST(M),
the
body
system "'
' _ _ .:-
includes the cargo loading floor structure. Sidewall instrument and panels
and consoles
equipment
system,
i,ii:_
b.! .
Systems
Costs Subcontractor cost Because it can information this be information discussed cost _nly was avallable is in considered general for several proprietary terms. military to
-'
_-
transports. _[.
Ii Z
(6)
"_
the_contractors, complete
Reasonably ......
wingsubcontractor
wing
parts amounting
to apply
For each of these four aircraft, tlally the entire tall system. was a cost of $81 per pound represented 27 percent
o oo v uo o
for the C-5, C-141, for tail weights KC-135 and C-130 and ranged to 12,000 pounds. supplied of 3,000 a single subcontractor essenThe only subcontractor data for the _ for one section of the KC-135 body which of the total body weight. at a total system level cost, the wing and body to arrive by an approximate factor of 1.33 as cost to 2C. In the case of the tail, hence the subcontractor level assembly, a factor of 1.21 was applled adjusted in and cost subcontractor cost tail per per pound cost is data observed data for are plotted as weight C-141 can _s as a function increases. and be C-5 wing in subcontractor pound is as weight the the
in Section system
'
of For
weight, example, a
a reduction the
show stated
reduction as follows:
which pound
as weight
double_
reduced
4-4
! ! t
to 93 percent of structural to as "weight i '_* for the wing and 92 percent cost per pound scaling" with increased for the tail.* This reduction weight, which will be referred by airfor convenience, In discussions is commonly three experienced craft manufacturers. two indicated is reduced ,. indicated with aircraft manufacturers, is doubled the cost that an 80 percent slope (as weight
to 80 percent)
reflected slope
their
experience
and the third the wing and above indicate since ............
was typical.
Although
tall subcontractor
_a
slopes, were
not typical
resulted
high costs
am
transports
of scale
difficulty
the aircraft
manufacturers,
a weight tall
slope of 85 percent
is assumed
in this study
,.
and body.
relationships
for the wing and tail shown data and an 85 percent data is not shown
in
4.1 are based oD the subcontractor slope. The actual subcontractor proprietary.
weight 4.1
in Figure
Dynamics
to provide
information
Ing relationships
developed
by General
Dynamics
To make
costs discussed
above,
adjusted
for sustaining
""
_b
* This reduction in cost with increased weight same manner as a learning curve, which shows increased quantity.
_'
4-5
............
_ ___,,_"
o-_"
'
l
r"
b
ii Qw i ""
A learning
curve
slope
(6)-
and 4.1
factors
The adjusted General Dynamics differ by from 0 to 23 pernot costs clear how comparable nor is it from the
from the
Central certain
collected used
learning
of 86 percent
to adjust
. : ..... ,.
first unit cost to CACIo0 ts appropriate for the General Dynamics data. Even a small change in the learning curve slope would introduce a large change an eight Dynamics in the CACIoO. For example, a one percent change in slope introduces
percent change in CACIo0. Given these uncertainties, the General estimating relationships for wing and tail show good agreement with from the subcontract single between (1.19) subcontractor the General was applied data, data point for cost the body was of limited estimating relationships an approxi-
am
those
value_ for
the ratio
Dynamics
the body. values for the wing, tail, and body of 8.0, 9.0, and 7.0, i j
Confidence respectively,
were
assigned,
Emerging Technologies _ Engineering studies and development substantial weight savinBs can be realized materials.
_m
programs through
Until utilizing
experience compostte
is
gained materials, is
with
of composite
of aircraft substitution
structures
the
be reduced
_10) Thus,
total
the cost
wl
See discussion
lb
in Section
2C.
_[
4-7
B. S_stem
ALIGHTINGGEAR SYSTEM Description The alighting gear system consists of all items associatedw/thmain
and nose gears. of struts, side attachment material : comprise steering. cockpit system System :_ : four tires. _. _" for the
This Includes landing and drag braces, bogie and _rXng attachment grins _ounted for also such
sear structure which is made up beams and/or axles, trunnions, bulkheads, gears. and extra load-path gear braking controls and
wing for
components
functions cables,
include gear.
or lines the
In addition, brakes
alighting
0f wheels,
and tires.
gear
cost
information structure,
into and
categories:
subcontractor
and vendor
C-141,
KC-135 and C-130. (6) for cost the structure were is for obtained
data
of the
considered
can be discussed
: " i :
only
in general
gear
supply gear
com-
84 percent
of total transport
It appears of the
about
the
structure the
co_nercial
aircraft.
the wing of
structural
no cost
from $76 to
i'.
4-8
! l
._
/m
sear based
controls on the
per
are
component
in Section cost
_|
$78. controls.
total
weight for
Cost data i_
G
and brakes
were
obtained
for
the
C-14l,
and KC-135. The C-5 components were unusually expensive. probably due in large part to the use of beryllium brakes weight but increase For unit the other costs. The C-5 data, wheel from 2,100 of total are the total therefore, and brake to 2,600 alighting
This which
:_" _-
considered.
from $10 to 14 per Tires _I. : cost. For per pound. per pound. In order " _" i!_ _ ! to are
pound for
a negligible
or $2.10 or $1.50
to arrive
system
level
cost,
the
costs
dis-
for profit since other factors related to system Theme adjusted cost data were used to develop the shown in Figure 4.2 for the gear -- structure, controls,
estimating relationships portents o the alighting and tires. Oniy in the ....... be a reduction to cent slope, which data small greater that cost for alighting case
_s,
; " _ _, i _ _ i _[
of the
alighting
gear
structure
did
there
appear
in cost per pound with increased weight. An 85 perwas discussed in Sectiou 4A, was consistent with the gear structures of less than 10,000 pounds (i.e., weights indicated
increased
weight.
I-
Table ALIGHTING
4.2
m*
GEAR CONTROL
Major Component or Subassembly Anti-Skld Actuators Hydraullc :i Fluid Support, Attach, etc. Gear Plumbing
e Weight Cost per Pound $175-200 175-200 5- 20 0.68 25- 75 $ 63-93 (avg. $78/Ib.) 5.0 ' Confidence Value 5 6 5 8 ..
" :
;
i!
i
i t_ *The total cost per pound is a weighted average control weight. The total (overall) confidence based on the percent of the total control cost. explanation. based value See on the percent is a weighted Section 2C for of total average further
4-10
J
,
for
the
gear
wheel._
and brakes,
.. 1
The con-
as shown In Table
4.2..
i f
4-12
C. _
NACELLESYBTFM......
S_stcm DescrIpt,ion The nacelle _ysCem Jncludes the cowl structure, th_ pylon structure
sound the
suppross_ou structure
riligs from
thrust
structure. aft of
duct, face is
cowling
reverser
p_
the engine
inclur_cd inner
with
propulsion ducting
and core
length
reverser
'
included
system. engine attach mounts and wtn_ bulkheads are or fuselage with
The pylon
s_
th_ apron,
attach their
included
Includz to the
the rings
protection with
suppression system.
and nacelle
included
anti-icing Cost
System
Subcontractor KC-135 and C-130 -dated (except . greater includes propulsion nacelles.
t
for
the
C-5,
from government
the
nacelles
aircraft.
for than
additional primarily
a part
may include
and lubricaducting.
tton
systems,
fuel engine
tubing, for
The specific
accessories
4-13
i
I they the no_ were cost adjusted estimating further to remove the cost of those in engine Section accessories 4D. by using was I I
relationshlps because it
discussed was
considered
abnormally
expensive because
exten-
rather than pure _et engine. from $88 to 105 per pound
to develop
for nacelles
with no acoustic
treatment
ratio engines. Additional pany report (ll) cost which information contained was Alllson provided in a Douglas data Aircraft Com-
Corporation These
nacelles
for high
fan bypass
ratio engines.
nacelle
from $154 to 115 per pound In order to determine costs were adjusted :
i
for weights
of 5,0U0 level
to i0,000
a total system
by a factor
to account
of engine
components
system because
the nacelle
"engine build-up." adjusted shown pound the with cost in data Figure were 4.3. weight body used to develop percent assumed. the slope This two cost e,_timating in slope 6.0
An 85 was
for is
used
wing,
structure.
A confidence
value
i_ _.
of advanced
compos-
thrust reverser)
in weight
and 12 percent
in cost.
would be unchanged.
4-14
"'
l 1
4-15
.4
D. System
SYSTEM (LESS
ENGINE)
"
system fan
the
englves
not
..
in
this
study),
the
exhaust system,
reverser engine
engine system.
thrust
reverser/spoiler
_ybCam
system
includes ductlng
blocker
fan exhaust
The engine
reverser/spoiler
includes exhaust
and systems
located
Include
components
lubrication,
and starting
controls.
fuel distribution
integral wing
tank sealant,
and supplemental
fuel tanks.
System Cost Propulsion following system system cost information thrust reverser is conveniently (includlng exhaust grouped inr_ the
categories:
system), engine
and fuel system. Subcontractor cost information was available for the C-5 and C-141 some approximate and exhaust ranged cost system
thrust
reverser
and exhaust
system. (6)
In addition,
information
reverser
from a Douglas
Company
These costs
from $108 to
of 3,200
or not acoustic
system co_ts were estimated The percentages C-141, among of the engine data.
based
on the breakout
shown
in
are based
aircraft,
into the
total
4-16
tR
Ii
im
engine provided
system in
cost Table
is 4.3
not were
more
than
__lO, in
The
cost manner.
per
pound The
values
estimated
starters wiring in is e
for the C-130 and C-141 cost about and ducts were Section 4H. estimated
Miscellaneous as discussed
Most
system_
in the mechanical
throttle
used.
ducts, plumbing,
valves
components
estimated
are discussed
systems
costs were
estimated
based
shown
in Table L-1011,
The percentages
on DC-8,
estimates system
are based
on similar in Section
used
in the hydraullc
In order to arrive at a total propulsion and engine system discussed costs were adjusted 2C.
system
by an approximate
in Section
A factor to account
for assembly
integration
the nacelle.
are located
extensive
The cost estimating separate different in cost cost types per estimating of thrust was
4.4.
The three
thrust
percent slope
for the
pound
assumed
4-18
! 1
A confidence w_
D
,4
L
*
value of 6.0 was assigned and fuel for the thrust reverser. at Conftdence 5.5, values for I:he eng:Lne system system 4.3 were estimated and 4.4. and 4.1, respectively, as shown in Tables
_idr
4-21
! , ,_ -............
...... --
,-, L_
.........
m,
E. System
FLIGHT CONTROLS SYSTEM Description The flight controls mechanical and fluid), flight rub autopilot strips, in system controls, control guidance and the includes hydraulic surface and the ...... following controls dampers, controls), components: (actuators, electrical cockcontrol controls i 1374 some " : . i 1 !
!. "
pit
controls,
plumbing the
attachments. control
also
includes
flight
transport
aircraft,
to separate
system because
Therefore, fllght
is included with
and control
may be broken
those
per-
formed by the primary flight c_ntrols. for the horizontal provide pitch,
controls
Primary
essentially
stabilizer,
ailerons
and spoilers,
about
flight control
fur symmetrical
edge flaps.
This action
1lit augmentation
_nd landing.
powered
of
the hydraulic
the pneumatic
or by separate lucludlng
electricity i_ _; % I! medlumwhen
(electromechanlcal it is already
controls)
The type of flight controls depends Although offers I_ _ largely any certain type on the of type coatrol
can
accomplish For
function, mechanical
unique
example,
controls Because
and offer
automatic
synchronization. to the
llttl_ space
4-22
{,
gm
control thiner
at
poises,
mechanical
flight
controls
permit the
a distriI
_neu_tlcglight because
of
require sizes
of
a larger
i Im
volume button
the
the
_ both
are
in the
flLsht
system between
from
a cost
control i 1
the aircraft.
The te_nactuator
as used
components such as control values in the case o (also knov,m _s eervo mechanisms or servo actuators) in the case of meclmn/cal actuators. ! catesortes for the flisht of maJo_ controls controls, components system: electrical and subassemblies hydraulic controls, Detailed to develop are
_o 7 used
in this
study actuators,
mechanical fluid,
supp_rt_ into
controls control
es
for
is
The cost
of subcontractor
supplied 747.
actuators
pound on the
Srouped
of about
_a indicated
hydraulic
a cost of $122 per pound is indicated for the pneumatic actuators and a cost of about $70 per pound is The htsh is the result edse fltsht cost of indicated for actuators L-lOll technolosy which are primarily edse enabled sisnificantly. for
....
pound for
leadtns that
ll_htweisht
compares edse
to 1,18A actuation.
pounds
DC-IO-IO leading
4.5
Actuao_ 747
Type
Cost
Weight
(lb)
per
Pound
Aileron (hydraullc actuators and control valves) Elevator (hydraulic and control valves) actuators
$ 46,000
263
$175
95,000
483
197
Rudder (hydraulic actuators and control valves) Leading Edge (drive shaft, rotary actuator, ball screw actuator and transmission, pneumatic drive unit) Trailing Edge (drive shaft, gearbox, transmission, brakes, drive motor, ball screw actuators, hydraulic control valves) Spoiler actuators Horizontal assembly, hydraulic L-1011 Leading actuator, Edge (hydromechanical control valve) Speed _rake and control (hydraulic valves)
33,000
186
177 !
126,000
1,029
125
i00,000
1,478
68
61,000
312
196
37,000
516
72
100,000
249
402
, ,_
4-24
I
". !
are
the
shafting It
and was
linkages that
that the
connact coat of
the
assumed actuators
similar per
indicated metals
4.5 to
pound)
expensive
tolerances. controls and ass_ed and sisal to avionics be the _560 which monitor flight per is the crew pound positions re_arding as they lu and any are Section operations malfunctions. to the cost of the
Q .
similar 43.
discussed
items
such
as of of to _Ich
control $40 to
column 60 per
wheels,
A cost t_e
be
appropriate these
this
available, than
believed actuators
mech_ical this
pound.
total
only overall
percent
": !.
iL.
..
of
flight is,
relationship ' _e
influenced
_-
pluming,
hydraulic
fluid
and
supports
and mlscellaneous
i! }. _
,_ .
ment
costs _e
are cost
based info=atlon
on
data for
in
Section component
""
weight above
confidence isandsummarized
in value. Table
weight with
"
--
(DC-9-30, DC-10-10, L-1011, 747 and C-141A). did not vary disce_ably by s_ze or type of
ii
" L
transport aircraft. _e made for small, medium and with the total flight
per
associated
excellent
data were
i|
4-25
I
T_tble 4,6 FLIGHT CONTROLS SYSTDq COST I
t
Component of Total
Controls Controls
29 4 4 6 3
70 560
5 4 2 5 8 3__ 6.9
Controls
13 100%
Total Flight
*Weighted
average.
See
footnote
to
Table
4.2.
4-26 .'_
t !
I costs I was The The only. adJustod adjusted
coBt
tnforwation In order
presented
in
Tab:e
4.6
to determine
a tota.t
system
by an approximate factor of 1.33 a, discussed in cost data were used to develop the cost _sttmnt_ng
ahip
shown
in
Figure
4.5.
i /
,j
_,
EmerginR
Technologies is system flight is an applicat_on could of fly-by-wire technology change In power to servo both the to the
which
design
,w
and
cost
control
by wire, and
pumps at the
plumbing
greater that i_
associated surface
loads design.
thereby, an
adversely
system
required. i discussed
system two
Section
However, future.
r,o applications
power-by-wire
i
--,t;-27 i
! 1
. HYDRAULICSYSTEM System Description :_ provides control power to o_erate components. This the system alighting is sears to
[
]7 _:
system flight
required
,
i
meeC peak system demands during tions. BecauSe of the criticality For example, the L-lOll hydraulic systems such inoperative inoperative systems systems.
the most critical flight and landing condiof its function, it is generally redundant. operating two three
has four separate, parallel, continuously that it can complete its flight plan with control and land safely with
L_
Engine driven hydraulic pumps are the primary power source These are occasionally supplemented by a pump connected motor for emergency auxiliary pumps powered by the or peak power requirements. power unit provide checkout and preflight pressurization. provide the
L ili
In addition
accumulators, system
filters,
valves,
L
several stayed shelf !i ure
have off-thepress-
same..
frequent
of standard, have
Recent imply
weight
advantages hydraulic
to be le._s have
transport that
aircraft
remained
tehnoiosicdesigning Thus, ,
commercial
interests
are
to pay for
system this
such as pumps.
hydraulic
advanced
: :
System
4-29
i,
i,
'"
_'
.It
been used in this study voirs and accumulators; plumbing detailed develop
"
i!
or the hydraulic system: hydraulic pumps; reserfilters, regulators, valves and manifolds; hydraulic fluid; and _Lscellaneous into these material. categories system. The to
|,
3
f
has been
aggregated for
relationship
r f
of representative Hydraulic
components $1,200
in Table of
and their
unit
weights
vary
about
Thus, pumps
i: !
I
a cost
has become a significant soma procurement co low bidders higher awarded priced to the contracts even
: !!
i'
hydraulic product
though
o their always
_
_ !
_
reservoirs
cost
be-
was no cost
available
for
filters, an average
-. _.
to have
of reservoirs
Thus,
by averaging a cost of
of the
Chose items,
$40 to 50 per p_und was obtained. of $5 per pound for supplier. However, _us, hydraulic use plumblng and supports would .
cost
by a parts cost
steel
by thr_e
to fourfold.
$5 and
20 per pound was used. , $5._5 pound. Hydraulic per gallun fluid or, costs based about $300 for a _$ gallon barrel. This $0.68 is per
on a weight
,a
:..
i_.-
_-30
REPRESENTATIVE
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
I;
Item Description Englne-Driven Hydraulic Pump (15HP)
Approximate Unit Price $1,200-1,500 Comments For small aircraft such as F-5. For most aircraft. transport Typical
i"
Engine-Driven Pt,mp (45HP) L Reservoirs 500-I, 000 Hydraulic 1,800-2,500
L _
Fluid
300
L
i 4-31
_
i
material _25 to
controls, This
and is
s_rltche_ used in
was
places
this
'i :} :_
ducting and
some of
pneumatic this
indlcates
_ cost be of
per
pound
about of fifty
._is_ellaneous
cost
for
each 4.8
ma_or
or
subassembly of
together
and
and
it
was
a percent
hydraulic order to
costs pound
In
a total factor to
system of develop
.,
a.lJusted _e shr_an
by an
i
+" +
Section relationship
2C.
adjusted in Figure is
data 4.6.
used
Installation given venttonal for the entire expected, significantly calculated for materials assembly aircraft however, greater the the many feet Fl_ber's and and
for of bill
the
hydraulic
system and
be2 l,,ved
to
be
very to
,. _ ..
may Le
analogous
._
includes
a relatively in Section
! i]
a large installation
As noted is believed
factor be_n
'
nct
adJuste0 for
be was
A confidence
hydraulic
C_R.
..........
_-32
[
-_ Table 4.8 I
HYDI_&ULIC SYSTEMCOST
,J
; i
Confidence Value 9 7
Valves,
$ 36 22
3 5 8 3__ 6.3 ;
_, L
;
fC
1.__2 IO0Z
ii
'
+,
;:.:--"
,.:
J,
I:
_"
t
i', ,'+.......
.:
_"'
""
'
''
' ' !
, i ,. i I . _
] i |
'"1
_.;! ,..r,.,t .... :; ..;.., ..........................
+
I
..... I, !i ..... i . I. !.' ,_1 iii_tit!ttHi!',t.+!-liii+iiti!tiltlitii_it{t li;iiii [I,!HI , _ll; l lll _p+lIl_l ;!1 ! 11 ......... ,, ' .t .... I : _ l_ll '+i:;l '.+li',i'_i+i'_ liii_'i t'l '''.:
I. _
_+
i:_
I I I
:
" : : ,,_ ,-,
I ,
,,o
;:i: "!i!i:_!l. _'+;:+:I ::_ .::,_! i, i t i ii;I-_. .......... ,_. .............. !!i': ..... .... : !!iii!i!'iiii:i!!ili!_i:!ii -.:;;_'.._._i_ 7.i! Liiii_!' !'.._! ;li : ...... .;_ ........ -.':m- ! H,_: ;;'.' ::'.:: _ . ++;I ii!i ........ _ti!i:!i!!!++, ..... ............ '. : " .....::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :": ::::::": !........... '. , f ii iil;!i_i!i i t:!!':!l:!i:?!i:".!'i!!!'!!!::!!!:/
. .....
i : i :
:.
;..
"" !!+m'm i!!! _:!+_Ii!11111iiiJ +I_+ lt_ +If NilIII _........................... _ '!'.:':t_;_i:_':::;ti++:t_iliJJm_Ni il............................ :::_ : : i!ii+"t' _l, i ....... .......... I.,.....:::'l::::._::"':; ,:'::: :':" . ...,. ...._+,: _ +_ : .i .,_- ::':: '" ; _ J: .: :. "::.:__ _ ..... : : : P,7:i!!T: iii! .+!t!-!ti!i ....................... .... ,.+ ............... i!_ i! i +... !!ii : ................ . ............. . ............................... : :
'++l"i'r+l+ 'i .... + .... *_+i'_" _i;;F".!_:,'.;;+,;';;;_';_+I.+i++;;i',;;,,.
"" ++' 't ' "-' ...... ..... ,++ .........
..I_ ,.i
:'!'-+!_!.
+_ .......................
_:'.l: i '
, ;i
"" +
+
iii,
i
1_ +'P.
+ * +
*'T : t :.; +_ . i. + i
.... +
I
. _,i .....
_'+'
_
;..+ i,:+.++..; _Ifr.,,p.''+'+ .... _ _+l ................ ++ + " _...;', ..; .... :: ,..: ,.._........... ,_i
..... o.o ....... l _i_i "'_:il "':::_: ............. ' i ..... _7;,i.i+ .... :::;!:':;;::::i:;:: i!i! !;i
"I ...... i i+ I +++Iill ....... iI';''I''''I l ...... .+-+IF., ...................... | +. I"........................ ; . . ; .....................................................
[ ;
, ::i:
I :; :
2r _
(_--I_
+ ++ o. +liiNIIlII +i:`+:'' ........... :_,+ :+i:;_++ I I ii:':,i+i ++++ .;.,........ +............ + - . : o,, _ + i:+'';.++ ................................ :. ....................... :;+::+++i+ ,mNill+i.lll il. ;:+: ..,: "
"" """" ' ' _........ +l++ " " " ;"i_' I::_:_::i:l:d',':.":..-'!:.:'. : :;:F: ::. i : : "
;: ..............................
'
=o
:.
':
_.!itli+:!t ti_l+l_illl_illl t +t!+ '_*' :_ii !t! _it_t_ ,,,,_:'i ,+ t ..u'.m .................i+!ii!!:tm +,._::::
:,,H:::,. ::i i :+.+':::;; .!,.i,,,,_:_, -ii ........
:+I: :.ill il-il : ::, + :::+++ :+ t ' . +mllli:::,+++ ...... +.:::i+_+7i;.i:++ :7++; =+l+y+++i+l+:]l+tli+++L:+++_+: 7:7+:. + . ii[ '+; _ ! !. ,:;:iiii!iii:!::!i:i!i:i_::..!:i:::::!:!::_:::! i _. L
' . :: ; :
<<'
II
+I,
,_ 0,) _t
--
. : :
+: "
"> _!_iiiiiltt!"-ti_ :!i!Miltftii!i:N:iJ "i[i iiii lll i iiliilii!i_t++_'-_l_+_:_ ;-_-+-::.,-:_::-_i:+-_/:!,: ++ _ ._:+ _+:.._,+.::+,:.:-:_:.:::.=:._._ _;_._!t _._ ,,. .... :-;,';; .... , :: .,;+,,i+ +i !I _i_itiiii+iliiT{.!!:l::7,_:_; +i+..i.iT_: !!_iiN!l!!tlli:_"l!t!!!iil_tittt:'_it,'-"_:' t ' +' ..... :.. !i_Ti:: ;!7: ..i _.,........... I...................... . , t .... ' _+!!,+:'+' !_+i!'.i*: :,iti i!'_, : ,, t ........ .............................................. ' +" ' "
0 + ' 'L
" ,<,
i,,,,
"
..i!!ii! ............ ,,.,.... ..... :.:....._ ,,,,_,ii ,,+Ill...... _!!,,,,,m!_:i+'... ,.. _ ,.,.,_ ,.....+.;i_.,. .iiii+...t_!...... ,, !i........ ,,, ......................................... .. ....... , ................... I................... +.,..,,,. : ....... ,+,+,_,+_........
I_ ....
,I,
....
t i
, i
,,.,
<"'
11
.................
'
+'
.........
......................
I ..'
01,.+,
.......
,i
.,.,
++ +
I+,,
, ;
,,
,,
..,
.....
,I ........
_i;;il;iili,l;;-_,;. ' + +++' i +|i,.++ ,, .... ........ ' .... , . + I ......... , .........
i+ii .I+. ,i._; l-+i+
....
I i ; -::"-':,'I:;;:I'+:--..::I"'" :,'':" i ' ''+'"l'"l'''t "''I .......... + ......... L ..................I'"'I ......... I...........
.+t-+_
""I; j.
'
................
+.... t ........ ......... I........................ ! I,-,,I i ...... ' .... l..ill ........ I.... +........ :.. , .......I....I...... I , I . ......
t ........... I !........ i. ., i
I""I ............... + ............. I""
....
, I .... I ....
, ....
I''" i
I I I
I
. . '
.+++,,,,, .............
i,i_,,ii; ......
,+ ; ..................
" '
>t+.+._+ ..........
N. i+._,_,i,+ :++
tl ...........
I" .....
. +.
:
", t + :,
...........................
; ($ g&6I uT s_Tufl OOI ,tol _ _ ,.,,- _
p.
,.e', ,,.,l' _Od
,
<,,", U_d
!
,"+ SO0,
e_e^v)
L!III
....
'
!
G. System t ponents i_ . menta, f_re ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Description The electrical on an aircraft passenger extinguishers, system supplies power to a variety lights, of operating avionics, control comlnstrusystem, (APU)
power unit
_ _-
,.
startlns, The electrlc_l system consists of the AC power system, DC powe_ system and light.s equipment system. The AC and DC power systems (i.e., constant speed drives, generators include power' generating an0 batteries) and the to distr_bute power center. of
_ _.
necessary controls, wiring, cables, fittings the electrical power from the power source The AC and DC power systems also include
the
and circuitry
,_._ + +._
the electrical power center. components using electricity The lighting their supports lighting The constant engine gearbox system
Circuitry from the power center are included with their respective includes allLnterior and exterior
circuitry. the
t : _i i
interior
between speeds
variable
output
so as to drive differential
the generator
at a constant
frequency.
CSD, a hydraultc
CSD introduced
in the 194Ors, hours before use. The greater reliaThe ACD CSD
had very limited endurance (a maximum o_ about 1,000 flying overhaul) and was, therefore, not practical for commercial axial sear differential (AGD) CSD was developed to provide bility, longer life, applied lower operating all costs ant lighter aircraft. the integrated fighters cooled oil
!!_
weight.
to virtually
transport is
generator in '
an advanced reduces
a common housing
and thereby
weight
by about
35 to
', _
l
The generator CSD to electrical been oil incorporated cooled, half converts energy. into oil mechanical Like energy from the engine gearbox have to weigh and CSDs, many technological They have Current spray evolved oil advances from air cooled | ji generators. cooled. lightest cooled, to spray generators and As noted [
_w
about
generators
available of
in 1965 ten. of
increased
oil
cooled
generators
part
A generator control unit is required for each generator to operate independently. It contains the generator voltage regulator, protection In normal parallel operation the load is one or more generators generators to the electric limit power. fails, all AC buses capacity.
circuits and logic clrcuJts. shared !_ are panel used by all generators. If
of their
The buses
..
phasing
voltage.
Current
transformers currents.
used both
system
The _lectrical as it
control
breaker
in function condition
automatically
interrupts wire.
le
electric Transformer
and protects
distribution
rectifiers AC supply
changing _ !! _i _iii
it
controlled
The static
the battery furnish flight critical AC and DC power for instruments, navlgation and selected lighting when power is not available from other sources. The battery functions to start the APU as well as providing standby and emergency the power. Battery charge is maintained by a charger energized by
.J
,'.,
i
AC system. Aircraft lighting cabin by the aircraft specifications retrofits are is provided in four general Exterior areas s exterior, requirements the military exterior have a FAA for aircraft. _"
compartment. government
lighting
common.
Aircraft
performance
and a profile
4-.36
'
:i
tI
major Impact on cost of many exterior lights. For example, four lights may be required ments severely to do the work oi limit one or two when aircraft location performance of lights require-
the potential
and protrusion
to meet functional requirements. large, subsonic transport aircraft. and interior function they the cost considerations right aircraft
This problem does not usually Like exterior lights, the cargo compartment must perform. cabin lights are
design and cost of crew station also dictated primarily by the The design driven largely there lighting is and, thereby,
..
of passenger rather
lighting
by aes_etc no clear
than
by function a cabin,
_ am
Since for
Illuminate
comparable
by as much as
30 to 40 percent.
li : _
Systemco,,s The followng categories of major components used in this study for the electrical system: conversion; AC power distribution; and subassemblies have AC powe_ generation; interior and exterior categories systems.
been _ _._
_i
.-I
_ _,.
_
_
AC power
DC power;
_i _ __/ _
set the
AC power generation equipment represents per engine is required and an additional APU. Approximate is provided although employ cost information 4.9. for
a significant expense as one set is occasionally fitted to AC power generation cost indicated for Is felt airThis to
recent
equipment be typical,
_r
to 30,000 to the to
transport possible.
craft. is
C$Ds
extent
illustrated
by the for
DC-9, _:
example)
95 percent
significant differences between those on commercial aircraft. The cost to about $3,000 of generators to 3,500
CSDs Installed
on military
transports
and
$1,200 is about
to 1,400 equal
In 1955 to the
today.
i _ _
and design technology improvements a large extent that more than half
: i t
4-37
!
........ _ ...... , ...... _" .... _ -:,_
J
Table 4.9 REPRESENTATIVECOSTS FOR TRANSPORT A_RCRAFTELECTRICALSYSTEt4COMPONENTS Descr_ption AC Power Generation ACD Constant Generator = Quick Attach Detach Kit (qAD) and Plumblng Heat Exchanger to Cool CSD O11 AC Power Conversion Static Inverter 2 or 3 per aircraft 3,000-4,500 6,000-.13,500 Speed Drive I per engine 1 per CSD 1 per CSD 1 per CSD $ 24,000 3,000-3,500 500300700 500 $ 96,000 12,00014,000 r _. , _ ! Approximate Quantity Required , Unit Cost Total Cost ! 1 |
! :
._ ,_
'!" / -
'AC Power Distribution Generator Control Box Contactor Bus Protection Panel Relays and Circuit Breakers I per generator 2-4 per channel 1 per aircraft 1,000 per aircraft 5 per channel 2,000-3,000 500 1,200 50-300 8,000- 12,000 4,0008,000
,. o :,
Current Transformer
Electrical Unit**
Load Control i per CSD (600-1,200 pounds) 800-1,200 -3,2004,800 "_ 30,000- 50,000
Wlrlng-Tnstalled
1,000 750
Total Cost
' :
* Assumes four channels per aircraft. Does not include lighting - see Table ** Current transformers and load controllers may be used interchangably. If a load controller is used, only two contactors are required per channel. ***In addition to 3 included in generator and part of generator cost.
"
4-38
,_
i1
I
of the L price increase materlals may be attributed _o the greater use of more expcnslv, 11shtwelght _-i _. "1" ,, , "" cost about
t
The cost off AC power generation equlpr, ent averages 928,600 per engine The weight rangu from 165 to 205 pounds. Thec_fore, a cost of 9151 to 188 per pound was estimated, l_ie generating equipment employing AC power conversion about 93,800 applies to AGD type systems. AC power the new IDC, costs roughly 20 percent more. consists in Table of several 49. Their static unit inverters weight is which .
equipment
_.ach as indicated
15 pounds, therefore, a cost of about 9250 per pound is estimated. AC distribution equipment are a diverse collection of items that control breakers, wire, and hence wire, conduit boxes relays
include
_ _ f : ""
gi_er_tor circuit
and panels; voltage regulators, contactors, bus panels; and switches; distribution boxes and panels; and and supports. of circuit vary Of those breakers greatly items listed above, the
conduit weight,
and supports,
i,
pounds 190 to
relatively
range
of aircraft it
contained
in Table that
detailed of
was determined
these
on the order
system relays,
includes limiters,
chargers, bo_es
breakers, wire
By using detailed
information data,
4.9
a range
$50 to 58 per
for
the DC power system are the shown in Table light 4.10 for a variety for of aircraft controls comprise and 40 to 60
These
or power
supplies
unless of
otherwise total
noted interior
and fixtures
weight. The remainder of the weight plugs, etc. By correlating the coat
t
4-39
t .... _ ! 2 ! .... ......
i / _ data in Table 4.9 with per pound to represent detailed weight statements and using a factor of $50 miscellaneous material as di_cusBed in Section 4F, both exterior and interior are part of the avionics subcontractor and their cost
1 1 a f _ !
_ :
a cost of $45 to 80 per pound was determined for lighting. Although caution and warning indicators system, they are often provided by the ligh_ng is shown on Table 4.10 for information only.
The above cost information is summarized in Table 4.11 together with percentages of system weight and confidence values for the four classes of aircraft electrical larger. relative defined in Section 2C. system as a percentage However, there is As might be expected, the weight of MEWdecreases as the aircraft lack of consistency among the regarding classes of the get the
_+
_'i
a notable system
mix of electrical
components
of ctrcraft. _
While there is no apparent reason for many of the variations in the mix, som_ can be explained by close examination. For example, the large decrease in AC power generation equipment weight between medium and wide-body aircraft is the because three most medium aircraft wide body aircraft provides considered have electrical This 2C. only three have four engines while two of engines. cost information for each the pound is
ii t
" "" ,
4.12 classes
system
.m
of aircraft. in Section
methodology
described
appropriate for small end medium commercial aircraft and for military air+ ! craft. in these $89 per pound is costs is appropriate for wide body aircraft. components The difference included
in the mix of
in the electrical systems of each of the various types of aircraft. :_ Table 4.12 also provides 7.9 confidence to 8.3 4.12 level values depending represent costs, for the electrical aircraft system
-m
on the
+ +.
In order
to deteruLtne
in Section
were used
to develop
estimating
relationships
f!?
44,
t !
Table 4.12 I ELECTRICALSYST_ COST BY AIRCRAFTTYPE Small Medium Wide Body Military Transport
tea
(avg. Confidence Value
lss-n3
$100/lb.) 8.3 (avg.
$94-118
$106/lb.) 7.9 (avg.
$76-102
$89/lb.) 7.9 (avg.
$93-118
$106/lb.) 8.0
r
_"
Emerging TechnoloEies Technology related to the electrical system is rapidly advancing and
...........
""
mD
many in_ovations should tion of new t_nologies and distribution Variable eventually variety input are speed
be implemented in the future. The potential applicato current methods of electrical _ower generation below. fr-quency VSCF is solid state (VSCF) teehuolo_ actuaily tec_ology el,_ctrical is seen by some as a
replacing of options
includes the
i
.m
for
using into
of the power
source
a constant
Cycloconversion,
DC llnk and high voltage DC are three such options. Cycloconversion input from the output. a high generator Since speed enploys a cycloconverter selected which points uamples in order only the irregular to provide frefrequency 400 Hz acceptable .... a
at several
constant quencies,
a cycloconverter generator is
can convert
to lower
required
to produce desired
to the
This
problem required
' "i
tl
frequency
a problem
because
to 4,000
solid
_|
.)
;1
4-44
....
,J
_1
! l:
' L
-'
1 1
T High voltage constant frequency DC is theoretically a more efficient means of providing output without a CSD than either cycloconversion or DC However, ultra to be achieved. mv-t used. be noted _ince high
1is
link and is presently being studied by the Navy. voltage circuit breakers must be developed for it In comparing different i i technologies VSCF and CSD system (static vs. costs, it are
that
very a VSCF
...............
i __
dynamic)
a CSD is
rotating apparatus, it has an inherent overload capability. Solid state components do not have an overload capability in excess of _heir stated max_num load. peak load currently an overload equipment. The electrical distribution system is a major target of opportunity distriL-lOll being This requires extensive to develop thereby, analysis to be performed on them. heat sink regarding is to achieve electrical
requirements
_nd design
must be based
Research
conducted and,
"T -, _,
_*
capabillcy
damage to
technological advancement. bution technology employed and DC-IO) is obsolete as it would undoubtedly and programmable A feature control
In fact, it is felt that the electrical in even the most recent transports (747,
compared to an aircraft that would be designed today employ more remote load control, signal multiplexing logic, distribution system loads. feeders is the relocation of
of a new electrical
the major distribution buses close to the major wiring, and thereby weight, to be s_ved because to the buses and wiring Relocation of the buses necessitates indicating minimized ,everal reduced
"" -i .,
from the buses to the loads are shortened considerably. from the cockpit to _arer the major loads, however, controlling circuit protective purpose, signals Wiring relay devices and
Wiring is needed for that the control and indication by using a coded logic signal).
.1
different
functions
Q4
by substituting
solid-state
for mechanical
logic,
systems for such control and sequencing functions the landing gear. That improvement also does
"1 .|
L
_' _i . ' _ away with logic. wiring wiring stanti_l a large _esides source enabling of failure costs, the and maintenance of significant elimination cost--the mechanical in of subquantity further relay '_ ' 1 i _ the achievement reductions and matntenance _ght enable of a si_nificant allowing
structural
volume
to be reduced
savings Moreover,
would
greatly
s_nplify
L ']i
growth and modification by making computer permits automatic control need for especially manual supervision during anomalous
prograznable. so as to reduce
self-test an aircraft diagnostics to accommodate new to further by a simple maintenance possible avionics simplify software than by expensive k_ile the basic red, ring. technology exists today to achieve many of
change and
the advances
in the distribution system above, problems electrical be overcome to make them discussed must a _ost-effective Multiplexing, like aircraft, requires
1_ dra_ntheltneontheproliferationofco_putersandfurther
iii
development !_
is
expected
to be delayed
until
a single
computer
is
circuit
breakers
are
required
to replace
manually
_i " e.
operated thermal circuit breakers and thereby _he electrical load center from the cockpit. cuit exotic breakers currently cost techniques get into from $1,000 to
enable relocation of Remote control cit2.000 their each price they cost will using will limited, drop
production, which
never
circuit
breakers
:'I
4-47
! i
B. INTEGRATEDPNEUMATICSYSTEM Integrated pneumatic, these air pneumatic conditioning, are treated system (IPS) is a term often applied to the combined Although for T wr .. ,, | T dk and auxiliary in _Ltlitary power systems. 1374 (except anti-icing separately systems Standard
the hydraulic system) the consider them as part of a single an aircraft and production IPS are discussed separately, much of the manufacturer of all below. cost costdata
commonality.
of these Although
comprise
information
each
system because
Jointly
"_ '! 1 _ i
i
Pneumatic
System
Description system air fron includes each all heat exchangers and dueling and from the air for starting, driven which auxiliary cabin ice supplementery ., i:
! .
compressed engine
and turbine
power. To perform these function_, each turbine a bleed air extraction system. The bleed air the pressure and temperature of air supplied
pneumatic accessories and to the air air is distributed by a comprehensive service engine system, connections, normally but necessary controls
condtttoni_g systdm. The pressurized dueling, suitable pne,_natic ground and isolation air conditioning that air and check unit valves. and anti-ice
supplies
.!
isolation
such
from an7 engine to any system or engine scarcer. In the event of an tsolalion valve failure, it can be locked closed without affecting the crossfeed and distribution Pneumatlc Heat cost between S_ptem capability Costs valves and controls contained to in the pneumatic dace. system This of the system,
-, -,
exchangers,
subcontractor
4-48
I I
. value is supported out the IPS. by data for other, similar components included through-
]
db ; _ nically modern L the for Air Conditionin2 System De.scripti.on system" has been replaced by the more itch_ _q_e term "air correct transport flight conditioning
teem "environmental control system" aircraft. In addition to supplying station, heats galley load and lavator2es; compartment center cooling,
(EC$) when applied to conditioned air to the ECS provides conditioned cabin air
!
i ,_ i :! i 'i _
cabin, avionic
pressurization,
the cargo
and supplies
: L
i _
-.
and electrical
detailed
data
for
wide costs
body per
_ :-: _" : _ _i
When divided
of _152,
167 and 184 warP. indicated. values of air indicated dollars). end controls were
conditioning
has decreased
dramatically
that the average cost per pound was about $275 _ Increased competition in the ECS business was this significant High fuel costs could have cost reduction are now causing on the cost as it new concepts of future
:i
cited as the major reason behind spurted technological advances. and design considerations is is too early which
an impact
_;; i r
to determine
the probable
magnitude.
-_
System.Description functions can be performed which source by either hot bleed air or
Anti-icing ,. _ _ _"
electrical heat. Bleed air systems, all ducting from the main pneumatic hot air include surfaces cavities along the electrical plus all _irin$
are the most common, include and inner skins which form the
_
/
"Using "the DoD inflation factors $_20 per pound in 197_ dollars.
provided
._, Table
_.1,
this
is
equal
to
'I
4-49
--
Cost data air were not obtained systems in th_ is for either type of anti-icing to the of system.
j
anti-icing included believed co be similar it is J _ ! System Description system supplies These air all power for operations motor .... ground include: driven hydraulic opera. "* .. , IPS because composed
of the
systems
.. _ _ _!-: i i:: _i I
similar Auxiliary
Power Plant
of ground
equipment. starting,
ground air
conditioning,
turbine
power and driving a generator ground self-sufficiency, the in flight hydraulic auxiliary that to provide services emergency
or critical, is
ponents.
expected
to be operated steel
in flight, for
FAAregulations
require
in a stainless as part
housing
fire protection and this power plant system. _i proof The auxiliary enclosure, air components Auxiliary
enclosure
considered
of the auxiliary
the
auxiliary
power unit
(APU), backup
fire'' _
piping
and auxilit_ry
battery Cost
and generator.
cost
estimates with
for
APU8. cost of
One
per unit
$75,000.
The other
Thus,
an overall
$50,000
and $12_,000
! _ _:
APU is
indicated
in detailed resulted.
on APU engine
presented
in the
:i,i: _
! ", T
4-50
J
_ I __,. _-_-._o._ ........... _._,,........ ._ .-_ ..... . ....... _ ...... _o_._4ww,_,_t , _ _-v_ _ ' .'_
costs half
between
$145 cost
Since
the
cost
of
the total
power plant
system,,
a cost
J
i::_ _ -ments APU cost estimates are such as fire protection is of increatlingly to combat sensitive to engine and the accessories greater noise concern could size, that the installation it drives. aircraft increase requireNoise Industry the cost of reduction L _ within
significantly
of Aux<ary
and Emergency
':
occasionally
on aircraft.
These
turbine motors, controlled speed thf:se are not standard equipment included in the cost cost est_nating
motors and emergency power on most transport aircraft, relationships. items are However, provided a brief below for
are
discussion inforNation.
and general
information
on these
The ai'r turbine motor (ATM) has been used for auxiliary or peaking power requirement_J such as a hydraulic power assist for takeoff and landing on wide engine body aircraft driven and offers redundancy as a backup rotor, hydraulic system for the main power
pumps.
or electrical
upon the driven accessories (generator, pump, etc.) that are to them. The use of ATMs by the primary manufacturers of commervaries significantly. systems the four are Pot on the hydraulic variable control. power for for _xample" 747; Douglas systems angle, Boeing does on the positive has not an-ATN for use them;
hydraulic
and Lockheed
L-1011. displacement
motors built-in
speed speed
and stable
constant supply,
from a hydraulic
Controlled
power electrical
supply
multi-engined
aircraft,
ill! I
.,
i'
.4
electrical
source
for
small
aircraft
source
Some discussions
manufacturers
regarding the use of controlled speed motors on future commercial Controlled speed motors are, however, less efficient than other auxiliary typically power because used they cause hydraulic for power loeses. backup power
on military
aircraft
.. (EPUs) are power used only in emergency to start the They " ""
and provide
to operate
the control
surfaces.
Emergency hydrazine
power units
mode of operation
to supplement satisfy
air
demand. that
Emergency generates
of a catalytic turbine
chamber with
an impulse
integrated
a gearbox. pmnp.
then
supplies
power to drive
generator
completely
to initiate use.
operation, is
each
the
only
commercial aircraft
an EPU; however,
EPUs are
on non-transport
I
Costs of Other .Surces of Auxillary and Emergency Power Typical 10,000 $30,000 vary trols for for ATMcosts (exclusive unit unit of driven without that accessory) controls vary from $8,000 to Costs coni to :_
automatic includes
automatic with
within
horsepower
engine
speed high
motors quality
to $15,000 design
each.
of extraordinarily : reliability
because
and required
as emergency
equipment.
i
-.o u.
4-52
!
seneral petitive. _ubcontractors ware unwilling to discuss EPU costs terms because they are new add the market place in even the most is extremely com-
the composition
of
the
IPS was
systemThis breakdown each of the four clas_es weight for 2C. is provided in Table the for for pneumatic small small for system constitutes aircraft the aircraft types than a smaller for othe_ system for
These
percentage types :
of total a greater
(8 percent is
compared
to about
20 percent)
and that
1"
_
weight wide
body commercial
than
(24 percent
and 7
respectively compared to 15 percent). Reasons for these differences known. As eLisht be expected, the absolute IPS weight increases as from
i' 1 .. 'f _ _ _ _
the percent increases aircraft as a percent of NEWit vide body but 4.7 size of the aircraft cmmerclal for small to 2.6 percent got decreases comercial aircraft. for air "miscellaneous and enclosure) material" distribution were not (pneumatic system; discussed e_stem above. ducting They were
and power
conditionin8
and the
auxiliary
mounts
assumed for
to cost items
between
provided for
similar
in Section IPS;
information about
key components
of the
the averase
the IPS is
I
_i
,llS.
Cost comprise system information the often IPS are vary and confidence presented values 4.14. stge for the individual ranges are systems for affected each by the which in Table The cost because above. they Instances assumptions
markedly
by aircraft as discussed
design values
the neeessity
of makin$
IPS components. The costs presented in Table 4.14 represent costs only. In order to determine a total system level cost,
_i
+/,
4--_$
te
factor
o 1.33 the
in Section esttmatin S
to develop
shown in Figure
4.8.
...............
i
lIB _i
WJ .
:
ira _, o, ot
.!
4-56
I [
.b
I. System
FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENTSYSTEM Description Furnishings and equipment cargo compartment. includes In the a vartet_ cockpit, insu_tion, of items this in the cockpit, -_
main cabinand
category lining,
includes 19
all _nstrement and console panels0 seats, system, and cockpit door and partitions. In the main cabin seats, floor covering, containers, including of the insulation, co_aerctal side
crew oxygen
aircraft, panels,
this ceiling
category structure,
includes hatrack
complete lavatory installation, food container inserts, ovens, divider cool partitions, air and call portable _rlth the is stowage buttons, emergency electrical in
wLndow shades,
-_ ._
seats, bottles.
oxygen
reading it.
lights
In the includes
""
insulation floor
..
equipment
category containers
includes
""
tion
and cargo
The cargo
are not ,,
P
included
items. the engine finish, ax). and cabin fire extinguisher _nergency elides and
_scellaneous systems, equipment life rafts fire (i.e., are warning first not
included
as they
operator's
SyeteJ
Costs Cost and technical furnishings characteristics and equipment related components to cost are dtscusled Ae_,te, below
for
the major
including:
'I
4-58
......... . .... -,, : )
galleys, lavatories, toilets, Cost est4mating relationships and equipment SMtina represents items a sipificant erystem.
cost aircraft
Passenger
seats with
are each
chiefly
custom
on cc_nercial
in accordance
customer's wants and needs. aircraft where the purchaser _! quality unique seats least of equipment seat design.
on their various aircraft types. For example, TWAcurrently has at five different models of seats as it has elected newer designs for rather frmne than selecting i8 typically less a standard a standard seat design for all of its such frame ,_
item
even
features of the
or recessed
i8 relatively low because of large production special features such as entertainment units, _ _
volume. The seat covering and trays, or breakover are the generally sam_ price. seats. is viewed
primary determinants of cost. It was no-_d that U.S. airlines buy about the same quality seat end, therefore, pay about the Foreign It airlines, is stated on the that other hand, often order cheaper
the weight
of furnishings
(including
11 _-
by aircraft m,:lnufacturers with the same concern as the weight systems. Evidence does not entirely Support this contention, the weight of coach seats has been reduced dramatically the first 7078
as
pounds of less
seat
on one of seat
65 pounds
while seat
I_
seat
at about
45 pounds per
apparently I opportunity
to sacrifice
any luxury
at the
of saving
severai_'hundred
pounds not
to mentlon
(it would still heavier than a For example, by be 1.5 tines reducing the weight of a firstcoach soar), c_.ase ceat the weight to of an from 45 34 pounds L-1011 with 20 percent first class seating (52 passengers) could be reduced 1 by nearly 600 pounds. 4-59 _ !
W_
4.15 provides representative seats. The cost indicated including The cost some optional of seats wlthout
costs and weights for passenger seats accessories accessories $700 by adding such as is
for several types ($600) is the fold down center $550 per seat items. Both they are
_.,_
me
backs.
about
_; em ,-_ N -' -, _
to about seats
optional
vary cost
in accordance
wlthwhether
as double
seats
78 percent Thus,
than 67 perc is
configuration
estimate
should
cost
for
flight fact
seats
on Table
and the
made in very -_
Interiors There ins, lining of is a little and trlm| utility c.nmparable are difference utility size racks in the cost of _.ntertors service is chiefly (including: units; panel!! "i
trays
and divider
materials
pr_artly
of aluminum honeycomb, .!
fiberglass
were available
data
include Air
a !
DC-9-50,
United
in Table DC-9-50 is -I -_
about is
larger),
difference
surprising.
was built
from aircraft
and the
retrofit 727/100
interior cost
were not
cost
Since the design and construction of aircraft estimating relationship for interiors covering
Ia
4-60
!
t
i
L Table 4.15 REPRESENTATIVE COSTS OF I_IRCRAY SEATS Weight _Pounds) 45 22 18 58 52
l
!
1
Seat ,,,_, .q _
Type
Cost
per
Seat ,.Bottom
Cost
per $29 27 83 36 30
Pound
_i,
'-5;"
I :
i,.e
,i
|
4-61
1_
i
L
mm
Table
4.16
mD
Item
m
Cost
_
Couents
L_ m
,m _ ._
DC-9-50
i
Side Wails and Window Reveals Storase Blne, Cabin Ltshtin S and Sculptured Ceil.lnsPanels Complete Interior
$20000-25,000
DC-9-50
II0,000
Since lIshtlnS is part of electrical system, r_duce by 25Z to determine interior cost only. Includes equipment such as passenger service units and amortized design and tooltns costs.
"_ .. _. .i
4.
727/100 _"
225,000
'i
: i
"* i
t
i.
o&
..
i
,t
_4
.i
i
": ' 4-62 t )
! |
_ on one side to the floor on the other length. About _l,O0 per linear foot aircraft L vtndow lighting _ of normal reveals, width (six bins across side mlght appropriately be based would be a reasonable amount for seating) and would ceiling include side on walls, storage and sculptured panels but exclude
and passenger service units. A cost estimating relationship based for aircraft would be on linear feet wide body interiors greater only by the greater width of the ceili_ panels as all other components are comparable. A wide body ceiling However, even this is approximately difference might fixtures in lieu seven feet wider t_u a normal ceiling. be offset by d_sgns which incorporate of ceiling p mels.
I_ &-m
additional
lighting
@alleys Galleys each aircraft are made in modular type. Like other units which fit galleys th_ space are available on
f,_rnishings,
regarded is
as marketprovided.
by the airlines because they affect the service that therefore, frequently modified to stttt the customer.
ings and equipment by food purveyors. frozen foods which There are
components, it is greatly depend_ut of trends established For example, the current trend ts the extensive use of has meant more use of microwave ovens. types of galleys, those for wide body aircraft as
two general
i_
which and 737 whichand lover facilities contained those the passenger and on other aircraft DC-8 have upper are completely in cabin. such
this
747 galley _ is about $700,000, bu_. to more than $1,000,000 depending A complete facility
on the desired class of service and manner of food preparation. DC-IO galley which includes a service center, aft bar and lover
I
I
makers,
refrigerators,
bar
and tray
4-63
.......
costs i i i ! for
about
_250,000. because
are
risnificantly 450)
less
than -'
747 galleys
feed
(200 vs.
and because
flights $50,000
are generally o shorter duration. Other example costs are about to $100,000 for DC-9 galleys and $100,000 to _125,000 for 727 salleys. Lavatories
-,
Wl
Lavatory
design
often
from manufacturer
to manufacturer
as,
for Douglas integrates while example, manufacturers other use I_ a complete unit. Further, of the for the
structural walls into that are simpty bolted of lavatories are differs
space
in which
they
to be placed. however,
locations
a tradeoff
!
.'l A typical Toilets The various design of toilet lavatory tanks locations on a particular several aircraft different Design influence toilet are with toilets. DC-IO, they a tank the lavatory module costs between $10,000 and 15,000.
ii!!
"" +_, _ _ .i
and vents
may be required toilets, as for them and the L-lOll were tried
options toilets
example, useq
Although
on the 9(:-8 and again and were time soon eliminated are
_i
problems
in proadvantage
ground service
requirements
as well
as innovative toilets.
designs
has significantly recirculating steel along with that flush for both many of the
the were
of aircraft Fiberglass
and tops.
now used
plastic original
weight weight
to less
however,
remained
constant
-,
4-64
[ L
I
in recent Impair
years
and is
at
point
where integrity.
further
weight
reduction
efforts
could
I! _
L varies quality
data
for
aircraft
toilets.
of
toilets
between
upon size,
and of $2,000
of motor,
and valve.
An average . toilets Is
L
L i |i.
is
technological
advance
in aircraft
likely
to be of colerenable
L
" L
fluid to be filtered and reused, thereby substantially reducing flushing the weight of fluid carried. Furthert only one ground service point would be required and maintenance Oxysen systems a state at a high has are required to enable of useful consciousness altitude. been tanks provided by fixed compressed has been gaseous oxygen used oxygen and a on the chemical the flight crew and _n the event that costs would, thereby, be reduced. !
Emergency
...
1:
oxygen
....
8 equipment
consisting
containing
per-chlorate storage
_" _i _
concept
eliminates
the use
of oxygen
pressure with
reducers, associated
automatic connectors
Safety oxygen at
pressure
available
of general aircraft fire, chemical torch*' fashion of high pressure oxygen or support a crash fire. automatically presented
generators and.
activated, passenger
i I 4-65
li
: : :"
: ;_ _
.i
Table
4.17
COSTS OF AIRCllAFT TOILETS Toilet Type Jet and Military t 3_500 Old technology stainless steel construction. Total cost of 7 toilets Is $16,000. $ Cost 700-800
!! _:.
i_ i
,:
q
" ",
__:_il ._. : _
L-1011
2_300
ta
i1500-4,000
_d
= :'.
:
location, altitude
cabin exceeds
attendant
station,
galley feet.
station
and lavatory,
whenever
cabin
, i
12,500
" :! :i
_ !! ii are
Recent provided
costs
in Table
the number of passengers. Furnishing, Using and Equipment weight Costs the composition of the furnishings weight These for
, i
:. _ " :_
i
detailed
statements,
; :
/: i_
and equipment system was determined as a percent the three classes of commercial aircraft defined breakdowns system is are provided relattvly following in Table 4.19. for the
: !.,: _"_
_i
consistent notable
wtb the
-_:
_ .... _ il .....
As the aircraft size increases, galley equipment becomes a greater percentage of the total system
i:
5 to counonly 19 percent). because complete shorter meals not served This the as expected on is smaller aircraft which fly routes.
_' '
I I
Table 4.18 4. COSTS OF EMERCENCYBOTTLED GAB OXYGEN SYSTEM COMPONENTS _
Crew
Sygtsm
li
'!
Io
Ite___mm Crew Regulators
Cyllnder and Valve Pressure Reducer Exchange Recharge Valve Gauge Assembly _ Miscellaneous
1 1 1 1 1
___" Cylinder and Valve Composite Regulator Latch Valve Manifold _. "" _" Portables for Emergency
, ,L , ,, ,
System 2-3 2 i for each row of seats 1 for each passenser 7-14 .$ 350-525
1,600 1,200-4,800
Masks
I0
1,000-4,000
130
910-I1820 $5,060-12,745
i_
$7,600-15,300
t !
I 4-67
,
._
i i
Thermal/acoustic material of the total aystemwetght i
|
and interior become a amaller percentage as the aircraft size increases (from
44 to28
percent). equipment is insignificant on small and medium sized system that this
Cargo handling
comnnerc_1 aircraft, but constitutes four weight for _rlde body commercial aircraft. I _
!
of length of trip. Also, perhaps, enabled the economical substitution cargo handling labor
of body
_i !
!
_" =k
manual
on the wide
noted
of MEW to 14.5
i !
capacity
passenger _
that
are
on_rXde body aircraft. considered in the C-141A, are all passenger aircraft,
coun_ereial
aircraft (C-130_,
included C-135B,
furnishing
and equipment
transportation
functions
including
.b
tics, airborne refueling and troop transportation. Thus, equipment on military transports represent a much smaller percent) of MEWthan they do on commercial of furnishings 4.19. aircraft. and equipment
Cost per pound esttmate_ i ents are also the bases for
e
system
compon-
provided in Table these esttmate_: for per pound and in the rel_ted
discussion
indicates
The 4.15
coet8
in Table passenger
($25 to 32) was determined by dividing the cost ($550 to 700) by the average weight (22 pounds). per pound of first class seating ($29) Is within
I
d
.i
,!
Crew these
seat seats
data are
were not
available as
for
military as
aircraft commercial
only. crew
Since seats, ..
sophisticated
by 25 percent of commercial -.
1 I
sophistication
_i
calculated i I I
(707 average
divided by average weight of 214 pounds equals $15 per pound) and new technology (I.-i011 average unit cost of $2,300 divided by average weight of 66 pounds extreme equals $35 per pound). the newer As noted above, _ "' for the fresh water indicated system; "_
I!
values with
(L-lOll)
technology
to be more
representative.
_ i :
a review
Therefore,
the range
i_
toilet
by about
25 percent
,, i
$12 and 26 per pound was assumed The cargo handling the drive mechanism for these; however, actuators tlon. also make system
It was,
therefore, control
that their cost is the same as ($60 to 80 per pound). $I00,000 for medium sized air-
.i
mechanlcal Typical
flight
galley
costs range
are about 800 and 6,300 pounds $100 and 150 per pound in an aircraft
respectively.
of between
Floor covering
is of high
A non-aircraft
carpet supplier
be appropTiate.
By using
4-70
,
dimensions mined _" that and dividing 4.$ by total floor yard covering weight, it was deterand pounds per square $3.50 was a representative per pound is consistent cost for No specific Thus, the weight. Hences floor covering. to 4.50 a reasonable cost data were Obtained for thermal acoustic material. assumption was made that its cost is about two-thirds as to 60 per pound). consist of items much as the Interior(S28 Flight crew accommodations such as consoles and pedestals. Since no cost data were available assumed to cost the same as the cabin interior The detailed cost provided in Table ($7,600 aircraft _: for them, they were ($42 to 91 per pound). system coats is
!
:_ _
for a fixed gaseous aircraft oxygen 4.18. By dividing the low and high
to 1S,300) sizes typical and 550 pounds, respectively) by weights for oxygen systems of those (150 for small divided and large
forcosts s L_craft
systems. A cost per pound of $44 ($13,800 was calculated for medium-sized aircraft. As indicated, that the discussion this the interior costs is composed for the
all
by 316 pounds)
It
is
felt
interior
provided
in Table
and tn the
relevant
are category.
paneling,
the items contained in lining and trim, utility and storaFe for cost for _se !
items comparable for pounds) ($107,500) a_e dividedand by their cost weights ($225,000),
extremes range of as the weights pound.the This is thought to represent which $41 to 92 per for DC-9-5Omay include items two m_ght not be included in the cost (thereby increasing the lower end the value) for the weights 727-100may exclude items included tn the cost (thereby reducing the higher value). Table and equipment 4.20 provides for costs each and confidence of the four classes values for the urntshtngs defined in
system
of aircraft
.|
i 4-71
'
!i
Table 4.20 _ ,i t '.
Small CgR
Mediu_
Military
i
'_
i
Confidence Value
7.0
7.2
7.3
5.0
Section 2C.
the confidence values is caused by the different mix of components by weight found on the four sizes of aircraft as discussed above. Further b since most of the cost data were obtained is for co_nercial questionable, aircraft the and its confidence applicability value for
ii
to military
transports
somewhat
military transport aircraft furnishings and equipment is much lower than for commercial aircraft (5.0 instead of 7.0 to 7.3). The costs In order presented in Table system 4.20 represent cost, subcontractor these costs 2C. costs only.
to determine
a total
level
factor used
of 1.33
in Section
to develop
estimating
relationship
shown in
Figure
4-72
.._
.......................................
......
!i;
a
q m.
J.
they
are
separate they
systems,
instruments
and avionics
are dis_!" _
ih
bacause
Description Instruments perform of bastc monitoring control operation, includes and warnt_ surface engine cockpit posit1 operation indicators input functtons assoctated o"
vlth
the
flight
and pneumatic The instrument electronic the black black boxes system
..
as the points
The avionics 1.
subsystems
as follows: includes
o.
guidance
subsystem roll,
director
gyrocompass
These units are interdependent and are, into one operating unit. Although a the auto-throttle/thrust management
_ t _ t 'i t
subsystem,
system is functions
included _Tith the propulsion system because it a8 an engine control. All indicators, servomechanism, circuitry, flight supports guidance and attachments related are to also
and controls
subsystem
2.
subsystem
is
separated
by its
internal
and
_! communication public address system system, includes and the the tnterphone (I_UX)
multiplex
is a signal call
transmission system,
source
for
the
passenger the
entertainment
address
system,
4-74
1
-T mm i --.
--_
reading system
light
system,
oxygen cool
latch air
and the
passenger
system.
speaker
._
wiring, supports and attachments related communication system ate also included. coummnication use_ for system includes to aircraft the radio equip:_
aircraft
or aircraft
to ground communications. It is composed of the very high frequency (VH) system, the high frequency (HF) system, the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) system, provisions for satellite co_uunication, the selective call (SELCA) '! i!
_._
__. 7_ :
system, and the voice scrambler system. Most overwater airplanes are equipped with HF or UHF equipment All radio units, antennas, and associated coax, wiring, supports and attachments related to the external communlcatlon system are also included. 3. The navigation automatic subsystem includes all radar equipment, distance the measur-
direction
finding
(ADF) system,
the
ing equipment (DME) system, the long range navigation (LORAN) system, the doppler system, the navigation computer systems, -:
the statlonkeeplng system, the tactical air navigation (TACAN) system, the variable omnirange (VOR) system, the marker beacon ._ _" i_" system, the instrument landing system (ILS), the colllslo_ avoidance system (CAS), the airport traffic control (ATC) system
the radio altimeter system, the glide slope radar beacon system. Most overwater aircraft LORANand doppler systems. togs, antennas, associated supports are also and attachments included
with
i i
i I
I
I 4-75
!!
+.
The _cellaneous equipment and crash recorder systems, malfunction the weight structure detection and balance analysi
flight, data
voice (AID)/
system,
-"i' _:I t
and _tscellaneous
hardware
and circuitry.
System
,Cst s _nstrumants and avionics technology the is costs rapidly are difficult advancing. the past to estimate Thus, for several with at a _ _
reasons.
First,
equipment
as in
unattainable
may now
u i
_, i"
perform elsnl1cantly
above largely
is
mission,
the extent
to which
unique Very
for
instruments the if
and cost of .F
I
+!
aviont_:s. inrJtrumen_
approximate However,
and avionics
contemplated, Instruments
o:
estimates should be adjusted costs are costs of accordingly. two distinct types - equipment hardware, and avionics costs and other Including installation,
:!
+: -_
[ ..P p
i" _
information was available for some instruments The cost of government furnished instruments
and equip-
_ For example, military transports generally have more complex and, therefore, more expensive avionics than commercial transports, and commercial transports flying overseas generally have more complex avionics than thole flying only domestic routes.
-'
._
I
4-76
i,iI
_ _li _ [
about
$590
Avionics
equip(15)
a conceptual
STOL aircraft.
In addition, detailed government avionics cost data for attack and fighter aircraft from an unpublished source indicated the follo_ng costs for nonweapon related avionics: average_th a range of radio navigation equipment $1,130 per pound on the $130 to $3,990| radar navigation equipment about
i _, _ "
_ L _
$960 range range about per pound with awith a of $390of to $2,120; $930 per pound about $40 comnunications to $1,670; and equipment comairborne
_:
typical cost
UL_Xof these
types
of equipment
for $1,000.
a transport It is not
aircraft, surprising
per pound would be approximately for non-weapon related avionics than the
_i _ _
cost
aircraft transport
of avion_,cs
equipment
to be $620 per
an average might
be apparent, slightly
however, if
cost
or reduced is required.
a more or less
sophisticated
for "other" costs such as In general these nonequtpment systems ite_ weights.
I i
An average in Section
as discussed
in Reference 15. when adjusted to be comparable to costs indicated that a cost of $53 per pound _as approprlate components ocher than equipment.
and avionics
_77
]
The above costa represent only subconttactol mine a total system level costp they _ere adjusted of 1.33 develop brackets avionics. costs. In order to deterby an approximate factor used The and to I m r" r as discussed in Section 2C. The adjusted cost data vere the cost estimating relationships shown in Figure 4.10. indicate
f
the
approx_ate
ranse
of weights
for
instruments
r t
w
mm
1'
I I I
4-78
4-79
K. '_ System
The load visions stabilizer loading. blstem Costs The load production
Ii
system
consists
proma
for
Jacking, Jacks
to hold
in a rigid
pm
and handling
system (less
revresents
in the item,
""
than 0.1
percent). system. it
was devoted
to this
.. same
in the bo_y,
was asau_ed.to_have
'
4-80
i
L. FINAL ASSEMBLY Final assembly costs constitute a sisuificant portion of the tot.1 cost tractor o an aircraft. costs including As system-level, di_cussed in assembly Section 2C, considered 25 percent is e of the subconreasonable
approximation
of
this
cost.
1 t
I I
I The weight _ oummarlzed discussed i !; as for estimating 3.1. in Table Jn detail. major components
SECTION 5 DETAILED SYSTEMWEIGHTANALYSIS relntionshlpB In this section, derived for (WERe) derived the development each altc_aft in thls study were
of each system,
WER Is as well
WERs were
of several
of the
systems. is
in Section
descriptions
These system descriptions correspond exactly to the standard weight groups defined in Milltary Standard 1374, except that the Milltary Standard i combines the i_ _ hydraulics with and pneumatics flight controls. weight and design or performance charare presented for each system, and the dlscussed. (take-off appropriate a_rcraft. Special gross attention has been as one standard weicht group m_d Includes
autopilot
In _he following subsections, act_rlstlcs for existing aircraft derivation given 150,000 of the WERor WERs is transport ai_-:raft and where for small
to small
weight
!i
to better
in this section were defined in Table _.2.' In general, data are presented for 19 co_,ecclal and 7 military trans_ ports including different models of some of the aircraft. Three study
aircraft (the MDAT, SCAT-15, and AST(M)) are included in order to prov*de a more comprehensive data base. of the aircraft In the weight the data considered various are tables The sources of weight data for each. in Table subtotals 3.5. and totals level for the of
symbols closer
descriptive the
hand margin
aggregate
data).
1 !
i
* Leaving
the autopilot
as part
of the
flight
controls
system
would
have
system weightarbitrary on newer aircraft flight required the distribution between the flightcontrols of gulda,ce and avlcnics _and control systems; whereas, the autopilot weight f_r older aircraft was readily available.
5-1
' A. WING, TAIL AND BODY SYSTEMS Wingp lals and tall and of body systems have similar designs and use similar materi
I ! I
methods
fabrication
Weight
and Weight
Design and
Characteristics design and characteristics 7 military are presented respectively. in Tables 5.1 and 5.2
for
19 commercial Estimating
transports,
Weight
Relationships
The wlng weight acteristics. a wing weight design index. I w This index Is related the higher =
is sensitive
to several
wing
char_'
into
material Is: ,,
to weight
U (AR)I"5(ZFN/TOGN)0"5
.(t/c)
(cos _
(1+ _ )
weight; the higher the index, of the area
"'
i
to thewing
required.
The remainder
wing weight,
structure
weight,
is related
to the wing
(S w)
Therefore, weight index Chewing weight (WI) was correlated (Sw), For medium with the bending material ,,
a +
bIw + cSw (WER) derived S + 390 w Is: Medium and Large Aircraft and large aircraft for the C-130 are shown
relationship 0.930
I + 6.44 w weights
estimated
for medium
The correlatlon
have
design
lift devices.
5-4 :
i_
Qe
I ,
ii
!
For small aircraft (S w less than about 900 square wlng weight was correlated using the functional form: W1 $w = a + b tw Sw
feet;
F-28
nnd smaller) b,
_ ; i!
_:
"
1
!
In contrast
than S
W
is
considerably
for predicting
the weight
aircraft.
This Is posslbly
-.
surface_
and lighter
secondary
_e
estimated
wing weights
unlt weight
This is in
.,,
weight. is:
The data
plotted
alternative
WI
The SCAT-15
-,
"'
of correlaare WER.
hlghp design
which of the
those
the
This
some
WER Is not
suggested
appropriate
newer aircraft
for
newer designs
higher aspect
or
provide
with
predictor
weight. 5.4.
plotted
this variable
in Figure
weight
for to the
of a conventional
vertical the portion horizontal
tail
of
for
the
same tail
must into have the
area.
extra fuselage.
This
stiffness
is
obvious
and strength tail
transfer
The DC-.10
.................
. ....... _,_m
i:
"
'
.............
"
'
.....
'"
'
m_
is
be expected heavier
than
loads
because
have
were not
used because
unique
as ntencioned
The equations
are:
W2 W2
= m
5.03 St 6.39 St
For the commercial aircraft, body weight correlated well with the number of passengers. This was expected slnce all of the bodies in the
data base have been designed for about the same pressurized loads and have other falrly comparable design requirements. transport seat pitch could carry was normalized This seating The number of passengers each all coach seating seating for the at -
by assuming
represents for
6 abreast
in Figure
to have
a higher
per passenger. In order to better fit separate WETs for commercial transports 100 passengers. The equations
the data, it was decided to with less than 100 passengers are:
................
W 3
161 Np - 5o110
W5 Derivation passenger shrink of the WERfor medium density ground rules for
small study
of thestudy
these
5-12
....................... J,
...................
:......
:: : : .............
...........
P
iJ
I
o
e,
For military
aircraft,
correlated
well
with
the body ..
wetted area (Sb). The wetted area and excluding wheel pod fairings. _n Figure able 5.6. There Cusela_ea
is the body wetted area without cutouts The cilitary body data are plotted and are falrly comparhas a and 1oad-
but it
.separate visor
1oadlng
system, tall
to the is:
Ing c_pabillty.
body WERderived
W3
0.467 Sbi'277
Military Aircraft
5-14
i
I
'
L
..
'_
M_
" ii_lii!il_ :ii.l:_i L::i:i_:li:::Li:! ::::;I: !:i:l!_.: :!!i!!:._l::i! :i! '::::!:i: I::i.... = !:iil::i!ll 2!!ii: ii_iliii!li::]]l:: I _ I_i] J_!:]lii:_]i_l i:iiili::ii,::-il;iii_:_i_ !:I : _ i _; I m _ ii_iliiilili I I_I I ii:l::!iL.:l!:i!L;i[:!_i_;.illiil_a::l,_l: ,',:::i:iil_i::?i:::l_i! = _
Ill I.-i
....
i :" : ;"
i
' :i .....
! :i-ii:.:i.::ii.'; : : .,. ,-i: L:.',.I:: -.-i " I ;..::.:! '. i.i:l. 7.:L! ! .ilL:i _'ii. _..
:" 1.'_ "'::'"::: .... t': ..................... t,..) ..... _ ........ 1....
""
.,-
_'.:::':!:;t'::-' !; !
:" :t::,
:!::'
" '
::
'
.!.
': : ! :'
, :
L._
_.'
: '
" i
i..,,.l"
i ', "
'
t::-:-:-:-:,:"j-i_.--
_ ...... H-" :
"+T-: , .....
-+-".-7"--[-".-_
!
_I
I ..... l:i:.].., t _:l ;. : ,i:: .t::: i .... !_,..L; ::._ . " l _" _ i... l I ::J:,: . , i i:
1 , '.
:_'-_d_: _ i , ---ill,: _ i
'
'
7;
( I;/_..)
( ,_p'_nod
.,'() ,_ptil;,_ll_ll,l,
Lit,)!'
i: 1
:_. 5-I 5
II |
B. Welght ALIGHTING GEAR SYSTEM J and Desig R Characteristics Weight port aircraft tively. subsystems brakes, and and design allghtlng characteristics for commercial in Tables and military trans-
|
5.3 and 5.4, respec1 and 1
structure,
Certain C-133B,
have special
alighting
gear features.
The
C-130E,
crosswlnd AST(M)
has a relatlvely
_,
to exclude
of these weight
adjustments
tire weight
adjustments
from parametric
descriptive features
| _
adjustments statements.
are based
weight on trade
I
Relatlonshlps alighting gear system small were developed separately and military are I _ | I
t
,[
aircraft,
commercial
aircraft
in Figure whereas
Commercial transport
alighting gears
military
because
|
i I
wing attach
bulkheads
gears.
bulkheads Therefore,
and fuselage
developed
aircraft. with
data correlated
!
I I
the takeoff
weight.
5-16
I ....
to remove
the weight
requirements.
No adjustments
were madeto
the other
aircraft.
al
Lbs/Arplane C-130E
Group Weight Statement Weight Tires 5,077 500 4,577 ,
-.
' "" _
LOw Co High Pressure Adjusted C-133B Group Weight Statement Pressure Gear Alighting
.,
High Alighting
..
Group Weight
Statement
Weight Tires
""
Removed weight increment resultlng from _,._eeling, preposition, and Inflate/deflate requirements Adjusted Alighting Gear System Weight
.,
30,209
AST(M)
Group Weight Low to _, Reduced from Adjusted Statement Pressure Weight Tires requirements to 10 ft/sec. Wei8ht 9,360 641 High
4,
t
i _i
- 2,700 6,019
Alighting
Gear System
5-20
The equations
V
are:
IP
W4
0.0440
(TOGN) -
672
W4
0.0439
(TOGN) - 2,050
"
m%
The data .for snmll transports, Figure 5.8. The equation 0 W4 = 0.0395
are commercial,
are plotted
in
derived
, (TOGN) Small .b ?
=#
The "prime"(') on W 4 indicates that these ace equations for the basic allghting gear and do not include special features which are discussed below.
Alighting by plotting
[
gear NERs
were developed
as shown
in Figures
ii
!
= = = =
W 4 N4
!
[0.450
+ 23.1
X 10 -8
.,.
W4 W4
L
are required estimated These the WERs developed features .. above if there are special include: kneeling_ brakes low pressure crosswind design special design
tires; high sink speed; and provisions tire Inflation/deflation; AdJustlnents to the alighting terms in Figure
for special and carbon gear weight The data These _'
prepositloning,
5.13.
in this report,
5-22
..............
,..
(,_/_)
&HDIaM
HV_9
ONl&HOIq_
qV&O&
dO
&Na3Had
5-27
! ! I
special _" I fe4tures all ncrease brakes _he weight whlch of the the alighting weight. gear system except foL the follows: carbon are as use of decreases The equ_tion_ Add for Low Pressure
0
Tires
W4 [0.125 - 0.0102 X 10-5 (TOGW)] Each _oot per Second Increase in Sink Speed
!
_4F
:' _ : i! i, .o
_Sm
im
,Jm
i I ! !
I 5.-29
C. Weight
NACELLE SYSTEM
|
Characteristics design characteristics and military for nacelles are presented in Tables
J | _
t
5.6 an4 5.7 for counerclal The data base The blanks includes
transport
aircraft,
aircraft
with wing,
fuselage
available
WelghtEst_natlng Separate
Relationships WEEswere developed for the nacelle design features cowl and pylon. These tall --
for special
treatment.
Wa
Cowl:
q -
.... weight
_f co_
thrust would
However,
of the
data obtained
to be
is apparen_ as engine
5.1_ _'e_e
Such differences
Inlet dimensions
(i.e., JT8D), fan duct length, and by-pass ratio appear correlation of cowl weight to thrust impractical.
A cowl
we.ight
to
frontal
area
relationshlp
was
then
examined,
but
pure
significant t_th
scatter size.
unit weights
to a weighted
area index.
t
[ !
as discussed
the cowling
should be divided
segments.
in Figure
front
5-30
At*
1
J
,4
..
Lfd
i I
.... 2-_-_.-_.-..,Jl
I
'-::: .... -
L--- --I -
i;
'- .,_
wt , , ,,m
LONG
DUCT
NACELLE
b r-
"_ --
-r "' t -i---,
<":
iI
I I I
I I
I
i
I_
U
(Lf),
3) the
fan
exhaust
ducting
(I.fex)
which
includes
the
inner
bifurcated
....
ducts as well as the outer cowl, important part of the fan exhaust "" The area weighted the Thus, term for each
and 4) the core cowl (Lc) which is an ducting especially for long duct designs. of the (Df) first three length segments of each is determined and or '
by multiplying " ..
?
by the
segment inches
by pi is
( _ ).
area
equals
_L i Df in square
_ Li Df/144 in square feet. not available so that the can be estimated 5.6, 5.7 i.e. by using
If a dimensional sketch of the cowl structure lengths of the four segments are unknown, uhe values for an existing ratio of the average design by the fourth core as given in fan core (Dc)
this
of the the
diameter,
cowl area, is determined by LC and byg . Weight these ments. of weights data were were
by multiplying
diameter
..
available
for
each
four of
cowl their
segments, respective
and seg-
divided for It
The weights
these
then
plotted of the
was found
weights fan
with
However,
essentially unit
segment
LiDf/144 Fan cowl: Wf _ LfDf/144 l Fan exhaust cowl: ......... Wfex _ Lfe x Dr/144
8_ c
ffi1.9
(2.5
+ 0.0363
Dr)
Core cowl:
_ L D _-_
CC
ffi 1.9
!
..
!
|
I
4_
5-37
it
was cowl
possible segments
to and
develop dividing
a cowl by 1.9
weight _ /144
index
by
summing
..
= 0.0415.
ms
The equation
for
this
index
is:
;J
Ic (1.316 (1.316 The cowl weight per engine + 0,0125 + 0.0191 Df) Df) LiD f + LfVf + ,_ Lfe x Df + LeD c of this weighted area "
is plotted
as a function
index (Ic) In Figure 5.16 and shows excellent correlation for conventional eubsonlc aircraft. Tall mounted nacelle weights are not included and are discussed later. for the total nacelle cowl weight is:
....
The equation
-,
WSA where: N is
= the
is
defined
''
As shown in Figure is heavier comparable pounds the of due to blow-ln to the others, inlet sound on the
5.1_ doors
Is above
the llne as It
To make
the 747 nacelle by 337 pounds ballast). ducting is (238 For part
JT8D engine
exhaust
of the dry engine weight front face to the engine weight _ince this is more
therefore,
the outer
with the fan cowl area and unit weight for the outer
cowl only.
The effect
of sound
of about
in the cowl
index as a result of one Inch sound Thus, for this example, (WsA/le). there is of
of the inlet.
a slight decrease
of the cowl
The weight
5-38
'
_t,nd buppresslon r_ngs and struts is not included in the cowl weight u _, plotted in the figure.
i,
_. i_
momlted Figuze
pylon 5.18.
the mounted
Importan_ nacelles
charare
dimen_ions
four
cimracteristicn
have
:J significant
They are: weight o the power plant pod (Wdem). _ncluding This tile is dry
system
_.
engine welght(N 6 weight) but less the fuel system weight (N6E). Nelghts for engine mounted components such as hydraulic pumps (hydraulic system) and generators (electrical system) wore not considered since they
oo
represent only a small portion of the demountable weight and since their _
4_
elimination simplifies the determination of pylon weight. 2) The h,3rizontaldistance from the wing _ront spar to the demount-
_. _i
q_
able center of 8ravlty (Lpy) which, whencomblned with Wdem, is an indicator of the moment applied to the pylon. The center of gravity position of va_iou_ engine installations _as examined and found to average about half of _he distance between the inlet lip and the tip of the tailplpe or
-_:: ""
pr_nary thrust reverser. Also, it was found that the moment (Ndem) (Lpy) should be increased about 20 percent for STOL type aircraft with sink speeds of about 18 feet-per-second.
3) diagram,
The height of the pylon box (Hpy). For pylons, as shown in the this value is the distance from the bottom of the wing to the For high by-pass ratio, short duct engines, this
value is usually the distance between the top of the core cowl and the bottom of the wing. For pylons which extenJ above and around the leading edge of the wing, half the wing depth at the front spar _ added to this value.
"
5-41
i i ,
5-42
4) ostlmated
The from
can be Figure
5.18.
.............
It of i side
was profile
the be
pylon
unit
weight
.(pounds
per
_quare
foot
Lpy and
inversely as follows: i
proportional
expressed
i If
QD
_Hpy
Spy / as:
defined
._
IQ
Wdem Lpy H S PY PY
, .
then:
WSg S PY WSB
a + b I PY
where: "_
pylon
weight, coefficients.
and
a and b are
-f
"
m_
The
pylon
index The
helps correlation
to
predict of unit
the
effect
of weight
the
engine index
off
_hewing. -_4
pylon
results
in
the
fol.lowlus equation:
: :--
Spy
Ne
(8.0
PY
above. in
_'tgure
above
equation.
DC-10
_; =_;
" _
reference to reduce
The fuselage
,!i i II '_i :
well cowl
by defining
Lpy as
the
distance
from
th_
slde
of
th?
fuselage
to
the
and Hpy as the pylon thickness. Tai! Mounted Nacelle: The weights of the taiI mounted shows nacelles are shown weight in Figure 5.20. to
1_e
a significant
penalty
relative
'
y
5-43
,. ,_-_
=- :.
I
"*' I
"
or straight
fuselage
mounted duct
nacelle. tall
Based mounted
on the
data weighs
for about
_he
DC-IO
nacelle Carry
the
or and
through through
fuselage and
the
engine
are
the
tail.
Irames
straight
about
or
fuseage
pylon,
discussed the
a tail to
"S" duct,
and pylon
following
deteru_ned
NERs discussed
earlier:
W5c
(WSA + W5B/Ne )
..
5-46
_!f:
_'_: .. ............................ ___ .......... ................ _ .......
I
)_
i
1"
}.::.
iiiI
I
J_
D. Weight
SYSTEM
(LESS ENGINE)
L
, Characteristics system are presented aircraft, in Tables 5.9 and The fuel data for the propulsion and military
transport
respectively. thrust
system is divided
subsystems:
reverser,
for which
CERs
propulslon
characteristics
in Tables
are given
to indicate
..
All thrusts
static and
i_
""
aircraft
with wing,
fuselage
engines.
In addition
..
CFM-56
engine
in one of its study configurations flow system weight has turboprop information. without thrust
to indicate reverser.
separate
R _
engine
C-133B
aircraft,
engines,
was included
only to provide
additional Weight
fuel system
i
Estimating Relationships for the thrust reverser, fuel system and engine Separate WERs were developed i_ "" systems. Thrust Reverser: reverser includes which the exhaust system. Diagrams of thrust
and exhaust
nozzles
are provided
in Figure
the
and mixed
reversers. (c and
diagrams reversers
represent (e).
reversers
The solid
represent reversers
I_
and exhaust
I I
5-4 7
'
I THRUST a) Fan Exhaust Cascade Type Thrust 747, Reverser and C-SA REVERSER Figure 5.21 NOZZLE CONFIGURATIONS
I
AND EXHAUST b)
Engine
Exhaust
or Target
Type
Thrust
Reverser DC-IO, Translating 707, Sleeve. 747 Type) with L-IOll, (DC-8, and
I
"" I ! I Fan Exhaust Flow I _ _
"
_.
La
1-I [
c)
I Df I
_._ ''''_
_-
_ ,,'1'
l ',I i1!'
d)
Simple Target Type Thrust Reverser Mixed Flow Exhaust Nozzle. (DC-9, 737, 727, DC-8-b2 Type) With
Simple Target Type Thrust Reverser with Separate Fan and Engine Exhaust Nozzles. (C-141A Type)
I--.-----
Lpex
--_...._. _1 \1
"
..
""
e)
Separate Flow Engine Exhaust Nozzle Without Thrust Reverser.
f)
Short Duct Engine Exhaust Nozzle Without Thrust Reverser. (KC-135A and C-5A Type)
Thrust It was,
reverser
weights
vary
therefore, reverser
necessary types
to develop
There
have is
of the
thrust
the
of the is
thrust
reverser the
approxlmately
length of the fan thrust reverser translating nozzle ( _ Df Lftr/144). the engine exhaust section, the turbine exhaust flange diameter times length of the engine exhaust nozzle is used ( _ Dt Lpex/144). Lpex are not known, they can be estimated by usln_ values for Dt/D f and Lpex/Lfe r and dimensions given in Tables 5.9 and 5.10, that The second engine the follows: has both thrust important a fan thrust split
Dt and Lft r from an existing design, is similar to the desired design. is engine thrust. Where the thrust ratio reverser_ (BFR) as
exhaust by-pass
total
(T) is
1 + BPR T i + BPR ratio thrust are given reversers in Tables were 5.6 and 5.7. with thrust and
of the weight
thrust
reverser has T
WERe for
each
equation
fan thrust
rever_er
5-52
i
11 Note that the zero intercept i_ about 10 lb/ft 2 . The HER ts therefore: i
QB
W6A1
(0.218
Df Lft r 0.0120
Tftr)
Nc
weights
reverser
aft section
For engine t
_
reversers
and nozzles:
W6A2 _. where: I ,. _
t_
a + b
ptr _ Dt Lpex/144
--_ D t Lpex/144 W6A 2 a,b The WERs = are engine exhaust coefficients. configurations
reverser
and nozzle
weight
and
are:
Cascade
with Translating
Sleeve:
Type Reverser
(0,131 Dt Lpe x + 0.0239 Tpt r) Ne with Mixed Lpe x + 0.0122 Flow Exhaust Tpt r) N Nozzle:
i i
W6A 2
e
I Seporate Flow Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser_
'I
"
W6A 2 = (0.113 D t Lpe x + 0.0144 Tpt r) Ne Short Duct Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser:
_ i
N6A 2
Tptr)
Ne
!
i
........................._ _........_........................................ _ ................ _, ; ._:,, , ,_. . ,,,: _.,,
,
5-53
_ _ _
1'
TI
Inul
,I_t.. !
E!!I!I;!III i
:':
"'
,
..
"
1
" _ _
!i!!:!
[i i :i_! :
' ' :
: ": :
' I
" "
{}
,..
-i.
,_ _
_
. I......... !. , "-'T,, ........ ...... ...:::.._ :................. _ iii;ii iI ' -"-....... T---'............ ,: : :" rI ': : :i.... ' i ]i;;iiii_,,,,.._!i. :-71ii il]il]iiiiii!iI _, _ -
'; --"_-i
!
"
.. _.
_['":_-_v
......
!.
i..
!22 ....
i
: :'"
....ii., ,i..... ,
.;. i ! .
l I;.... ,
,
: .
,... ." i ;
'
" '; :
, , "; .........
I
ir
...._::i:I_!II: i_Ii.. . ]i ..... . ..... i......_ _I I..:! ,..,..I_ : .:.' ": '1. 'x : ' :::: : !
, I 1 , , '
"
I ....I ... .
i '
__
Ir n i
qp,-
I,!
i, ir
J'.ll_ DI_
'lV_J,aV
!i
1
i ,
are Figure
very 5.23.
goad
as
shown
by the
plot
of
actual
versus
estimated
I ! 4
Sya_t ern_ system weight fuel number the of tanks are military commercial in the was correlated number tanks lengths of (Nft) for the Figure with t_nks several and wing the different span. best characterWing span results. and and vent The plumbThe developed the large Some we,-e as philosophy no
indicates
The number system commercial weights and between _,ere data was found between
indicates in
valves.
plotted
: '"
found to
determine would
differences design
which military
indicate and
appreciable transports.
..
differences
commercial
'Ii ''_ i
"
i I
fuel
tanks h,_wever,
are
excluded aircraft
the
purposes data
of
1 i ] il
m_tal
Ensine Systems : The engine system weights ably due In part to differences injection and auto throttle).
8hewn in Tables 5.9 and 5.1,0 vary considerIn engine operating requirements (e.g., water Also, In Pome cases the cr_ire systems may be
;i_I"'i I
included
as
standard
equipment
on the
dry
engine.
However
when
the
engine
I: |
:_- :_"-/_ : ........................................ _- ......... _" i ........ -:.... ....... _ ................ _ ................... --_;_,_i__/_ _ _ __--: .......... "___
5-57
weights
water
injection
BAC-111, DC-9-30,
adjusted
to engine is
size.
Included,
per engine
Either of the two values should provide satisfactory advance design weights. Without auto throttle
q
W6C
117 Ne 133 Ne
W6C _2..
iiL
:I
5-58
+ I
j
I+"
II _
E.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS and hydraulic because powez systems weights are comblnod weight and is _ J _ _4 _ i J ! .
purposes
of variations
in functional
....
,5
allocations .. : , D
t
interpretation
among
a large portion
actuation
requirements
requirements
_+ i_
D-m
develop
separate
approximate combined
WERs
on its percentage
of tb
fllght
and hydraulic
weight.
Weight .
and design
systems
in Tables
aircraft, _ autopilot
The flight
excludes
is included with
the avionics
as discussed
""
Weight
Estlmatln s Relati0nshIps A major influence on the weight system of these systems is whether a slngle
""
hydraulic aircraft
or multl-hydraullc
is used. which
The 707, DC-8 and KC-135 means Control a llghter hydraullc surface area and the
systems
-*
system
controls.
combined .. Weight
wlth combined
area in Figure
equations,
+" 't
W7 + W8 W 7 + W8
87.0 360
+ 2.17
Scs
Single Hydraullc
System
+ 2.525 S cs
Nulti-Hydraullc
System
were
also
based of Weight
wing on tha as a
and
weighted control
relative wing
and
tail, fllght
_'_
_.I
le
of
the that
wing the
and
tall
in has not
The the
correlation control
is surface
still ..
except of
conventional
The alternate
W + W 7 8 W7 + W8
= =
45.0 45.0
+ 0.269 + 1.318
(S w + 1.44 (S w + 1.44
st)l'106 St )
Single
Hydraulic
System
.,
Multi-Hydraulic System (S w + 1.44 S t ) $ 3,000 Multi-Hydraulic System (Sw + 1.44 St) > 3,000 the wing and -_ -.
.m
W7 +W 8
18.7
(S w + 1.44
St)0"712-
1,620
area
than
the
control are
surface
may be as a STOL
These
satisfactory
unusual
such
WERs were
the of
flight the
and weight is in
the to plotted
combined
systems of
control
tail
area
no clear areas,
with
control
single
this were
purpose, excluded.
production
SCAT-15
and AST(M))
The equations W 7 W 7 W 8
are: = 0.769 0.728 0.231 0.272 (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W8) Single Hydraulic System System System System -
W8
Multi-Hydraullc
area
includes
only
the
portion
of
the
vertical
tall
above
the
5-64
= A
.....
1 .......
4,
Emerglng
Techpologles controls new, and hydraullc systems would be greatly affected effect on
power-by-wlre
weight
or active
on the DC-9 and DC-10 is resultingfrom and _aneuver _ncrementa moments for reduced load with
static
alleviation
m,
a balanced
t.
length
to maintain strut
aircraft because of
length. for
purposes
as a result
center
Additional
structural
saved
because of
can be reduced
the maneuver
wing
load
Care must be taken that the weight savings FRA are coordinated with other design condlwhich may become critical
_ions which are no_ affected by GLA and MIAbut before the full advantage of GLAand
The DC-10 flight controls are readily adaptable to active control technology since the DC-10 is configured with a four-channel autopilot and full electrlcal capabilities i power flight power system contr,,is. However, the DC-9 flight to provide controls the and increased systems
to be changed control
demanded by all
functions.
Therefore,
5-68
P.
ELECTRICALSYST_
We__Kht haracteristicB C System and component weight_ of the electrJ,:al system are prc_ented
in Tables 5.14 and 5.15 for conm_erci_:l attdmilitary alr_raft, respectively. The miscellaneous connection aircraft, system. Weisht ,_ Est_matin8 The electrical number of passengers with These data weight system _: contrast intensity :.i lighting enee " the data were body wetted are plotted correlated Relationships system (data area weight was found 5,1) to correlate commercial for military well with the and wiring equipment for and wiring weight includes Fur the in racks, Douglas the shelves commercial and
operatJontil
equipment. is
the miscellaneous
equipment
included
AC distribution
for 5.2)
transports transports.
and 5.30.
can be attributed
of four
conditioning
plenium/
The differdue to
between
different
design
support/pleniums. because of
generator out
capacities
engine
Sufficient
were not
available
why the 707 and SCAT-15 were high. 5.15 were supplemented C-123B, with
transport
military This
C-119F,
in Figure
different
elpctrlcal system
I.
5-70
+I
_.ml'' .-+ ili ';
!
O'l i,-I i-(
i
ii i+
Ii,
0' ,,,,,,,
,.,
5-74
..L
The eq_tio_
are:
'"
W 9 W 9
= -
0.508 0.0919
Sb Sb + 1,870
}_111tary _lttary
)/ 5-76 i
'
G. PNEUMATIC, AIR CONDITIONINGAND AUXILIARY POWERSYSTEMS The pneumatic, bined weight _ for weight allocations portions air conditioning purposes and auxiliary because power systems are tomcorrelation and system of of different among aircraft and auxiliary a full functonal manufacturers. power 8ystemB load for interpretation pneumatic Significant are designed the aircraft by ground cooling requirements with passenger commercial aircraft The ice protection differences aircraft and by englue start requirements systems are considered separately requirements anti-icing among the provisions). for military aircraft. because of significant (e.g., not all in anti-icing have trine or tail aircraft !,
!
!._
i _
among these systems, tc is difficult separate systems. However, separate power system. (the difference and pneumatic This between systems. -
correlations were done with and without the auxiliary save equations for the auxiliary power system alone the two correlations) equatton and the combined was then weight divided air conditioning air
_.
between
conditioning
and pneumatic
percentages.
t_ _
Weight
]! _ i_:
;" "" ;:
breakdowns
for
the
pneumatic
system
are
presented
5.16 and 5.17 for commercial and military aircraft, respectively. breakdowns for the ar conditioning system are presented in Tables end $.19 for commercial weight and military are aircraft, presented respectively. respectively. in Tables Aircraft 5.20
without
auxiliary
707, 727-100
and ,KC-135.
Estin_atins
Relationships systems power weights with well withoutthe the auxiliary passengers system and with reasonably number of (data
transports and with body ,erred ,re, _dat_
] 4b
1
were
from
co_r_nercial
5.2)
for
_1tary
transports.
Data
are
plotted
5.31
are exceptionally
5-77
I !
o
_L
g
*a
,; I.* _4)
_l :_.,
N I,, _
_ _
O :_ _ _1 _1 _ 0_01 _ k _ r_' _ :
.,_
(11 _t,._
"_
:_ ,--_ _
_:
._
I
"PNEUMATIC, Figure 5.31 POWER AIRCONDITIONING AND AUXILIARY WERs - COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
'
I
j
100 NUMBER
200 OF
300 PASSENGERS
400 - ALL
i;
s-86
<
mL
system system
uses
steel syscem
ducting whtch
condi..
cooling
and an extra of
compressor. turbine
to provide primary
m.
power
to providing systems.
Therefore,
The equations
are:
..
WlO + Wll + NI3 N10 + WII Wl0 +Nll W10 + Wll + W13
= =
Commercial
.J
Millcary
The auxiliary power system WERs were obtained by subtraction of the above equations. They are: 0.944 Np Sb0"545
= -
26.2 23.4
WEgswere
developed
pneumatic system by exanLinlngthe ratio of the pneumatic system welght to the combined systems weight. This ratio, expressed 5.33 as a percent, and 5.34, is
plotted
as a function
respectively.
Since there is no clear correlation average is used. The average for military aircraft Is 31 percent. Therefore, the equations WI0 Wll = are:
5-88
I !
i|
H. Weight
ANTI-ICINC SYSTEM and Design Anti-icing Characteristics system weight breakdowns are presented in Tables 5.22 and '
and military transports, respectively. Weights are tail, air induction (nacelle) and miscellaneous ice
There
L
five
major with
differences (nacelle)
among anti-icing
, ,
systems:
aircraft
anti-icing
only,
anti-icing, and/or and fuselage tail mounted turbofan engines with wins mounted turboprop engines with tail anti-icing There are ucLnor configuration both the tail differences within electrically are also these categories.
tail
For
example, L ally
anti-iced
included
in the anti-icing
system. and
includes 166 pounds of wiring the KC-13 Includes only 20 pounds, Wei2ht Estlmat!n _ Relationships
in the
tions
configurations the mentioned is based on fact that above most However, wins area of is also
using winshave wins The choice area. aircraft anti-icing of aircraft runs. 5.3. size
an indicator as a function i
Anti-icing =here
of wins
(S W) in Figure
much scatter
example, weight difference the data even for the same configuration. For the between the DC-IO-IO and DC-IO-40 is mainly in the air induction system because of design tions, respectively. requirements peculiar to the CF-6 and JTgD engine installa-
' I
5-91
....................................... 11
WER
i
L
Itl
i
ee
&O
. ,400
1200
i
1000
..
[_ II O_
eGO
i:i.; AIRCRAFT WITHOUT.. "!TAIL ANTI-ICING ::"!.... l (Symbol V ) -._-.:
600
.i
"
i & 200
1
(Symbol _ ) AIR INDUCTION !
O0
WING
AREA
(Thousands
of
square
feet)
(Sw)
5-95
Re
wlth
tall
mounted
englnes be
heavier
f
the slr-
components
p_opcller
anti-icing
on averages
for
the
different
configurations,
anti-Icing
system
"
W12
0.038
Sw
Nacelle
Air
Induction
and Misc.
Only
W12
= =
0.120
Sw
Turbofan Antt-iclng
or Jet or Jet
W12 W12 =
0.238 0.436
Sw Sw
W[ 2
0.520
Sw
Mounted Antl-lcing
with
5- 96
J.
_......................
,,,_
I. Weight
AND EQUIPMENT SYSTEM Characteristics design in _haracteristics Tables 5.24 and for 5.25 the for furnishings commercial and equipment
are
presented respectively.
and military
aircra_t, Weight
_
O_
Relationships and equipment of passengers system for _eigh_ was found to correlate the Figures
number for
area
military
transports, developed
" :.
5,37.
Separate
and
between
sizes
shown
in
Figure the
troop survival
ditching
equipment, data in
transport transports
5.25 wer_
"upplemented
5,37.
An extrapolation
of the weJ.ght
medium and transports,transport large for small but WER for small are: " 62.3 N military
for
a separate
+ 290
Commercial
]_
W14
"
0.271
S b + 1,710
i I
! i
i"
l,I
Ilia
(_I_)
(spunod
_o
spu_snoq_)
_HgI_
&_dI_b_
_NY SD_IHSINHD_
.5-102
NeiRht _ S.26
Characteristics Weight and 5.27 breakdowns for for the and instrmnents military system aircraft, are presented in Tables
commercial
respectively.
_. _, ,: ., i" _.
Weight
Estlmatln 8 Relationships The inst_Jments of system weight depend signal and is very hard things to correlate _ince of the num-
her length
and
types of wire
such to the
engines, of
run and
point type of
degree
visual
related,
related, of the
were
correlated correlated
were
variables. fuel times volume the was for with engine best
example,
Q_
instruments number of
5.9), The is
span
of
weight
fuel
instruments) instrument
weight weights
engine are
Figure
The weight
correlated
with ports
5.1) for commercial transTable 5.2) for military Figure in the 5.40. same correon
i _
transports
latlons. Therefore, for "other" instruments a dual scale was used based an approximate relationship between number of passengL rs and body wetted
area, Weights I correlations and, because for the C-5A, MDAT-30 and MDAT-?0 were not included in the
because the C-SA used extraordinary weight of study ground ruins, MDAT-30 and MDAT-70
in accordane_
with
geometry scatter
there is considerable
Figures
as follows:
5-103
@4 ra_
w-4
- Illi
e-i
f-4
_"
It
'
5-106
m ! I
o o
-I07
.....
,,,.....
lrl:
t I Hili!!: _hhi! i"l:!_:i_:I ,!!I iihli!ii !II_!iil/__ili_it!,.i]ii!:l;..il...Ji!!: __ .-- lJ._. " !ill _ !1!t ........... ......... _,t,:_ ,_,.,..._........ _!I i!!: :ii iili !I:I iii. liii:L:_I,,_-_l.... ... . :!!! t'.:,'_!i!'.!i!! !:i!;!:i :I:',f!i!:,' _'.:.i:i'ii.':'i:'.,":",;_.,:i:'i!!i'i!:: i "_-" _:I_ ':_. i !_.i .::!':!:'I.',,"_I:: I..' ,:ihji ii!!ti_ii ii!t_:':ii!i i_ !iii I!: :iiitiij!tiiiitli;it!:::!tli!tlilj!lii_il!ilil:_:!l:_:;l:!i_ll:i:ti::_l / :1. -: .::1
14
_i_!{_!_:_i!!!_!{_i_!_!_ii_!_!_!i_i_!_i_!_!_i!:_:_!_!:_ I II._!:
I i
:':, :h: :::: _ _: :::: :._ :::: ..'.': :, :F ::" :::: :: .2I.':.'_ _!'."_{ :i!i i"'_"!,:: :_i : - .:_:]!::: :..j. :. :.. !.:.' :
III!1!!II!iii :!!i i{_! _ii_ i!il ii_i i{!:tll iiH !ii: :HI !!i_ I:_: ti_! :I:: :::: !!!': :::: ::_: :':: " :'-'i !........ I _ _ _i_:_:!!i_:/:1:!_:_!_i::i_.._i_::_1_:_1_ii_i_i_:1!_i_it_:J:!:_LL_ ] :--_i; H_._)!_]] _"
k.:_i _Hil!tit::ill ii!iilil_!i!li!iiii ili!_::II i 'i!i!ii!.:::l._.:,_!ii! I!II::I::: _-_t::_: - _ di I!!:ili::tiill i_:::i!::::i_: ! "_
I
"
_!_!!!! !!!It!.:!:I: j.:ii .ii.!:_ii_i!ttiii_::!_iti__ _i!:_:: !::!!iili _i_f.: i!::l:: ::_ ' : _tii_i!.t_! ::i: i',_:.t:i!i:. _:::i_i..:!::i:: i._ ..I_ :.:::: _::,:.. : ::. ' !
_!_!:_!:_i!d_:d!!!!_i!!_i:d!!_:_!!!_d!!!!_!!_!!!_i_:._d!:d_::_!!!_:_W_!!:::_:!:_:_ : i /I.
t: I : !
:"'
::.::: i
":'" ":: :::: :: ,-*:: " '" :": "':' ",,1 " ' I
;:: .... ..,: :::!' ;::.,.: I _ I,.'_ : : I ' ":
'1 " _
_i_ ,,., _ _, .. "_, .... : _1
i::::_ti!i!:itli!::il:ii_t_!i i:!!':::it::;:_ :?:tW_TI:_ _:gg_"__:..":iii_ii_i:_:lll ::i':i_t_i:_ i::z:'_:':.: :_ ._i:iit _::_ :'_: " :_'"-'"" :
, ,; .:.- :,.: .:_ :::'.1:::: :.i :'7. !" . !:::, _.:.i:. ::.'.:.:i:" ::.:.:,.!:.:._ii .... _i!! :::: _ _: :_ :!!i ::}: ":_ : .... : ..... : ':" :I..!.-_ ':: :::: ":":' _"
....tt H ....t
o
o
If t t,
,........1"7....... iii:!i:
:.' t ".' t :I:! t t ::/
:i _t__ _ I _" .
't ,
.
, .
_
f ! '
....
' -'_g :. t_
_iii'-i :!:''
i:
ID
i
I
(_N/H_I_)
&N_H&SNI
NOI_'ll]dOHd
5-108
J
W15A W15B WI5C 0.00714 (0.00145 C + 34 T + 30) Ne Fuel Quantity Instruments Propulsion Instruments
1,872 Np + 128
WI5C
0.0540 Sb + 126
W15 WI5 !
Commercial
As mentioned in Section 4, instruments are composed of two general categories of items - equipment (e.g., "blackboxes") and other items such as installation hardware and wi_'ing. Each category accounts for about
..
7
#
!
I K. AVIONICS SYSTEM Wgght and Design The avionics I = _ Characteristics weight and design characteristics are presented in Tables The data.
5.28 and to aid design and 5.29 for commercial given military in aircraft, characteristics are interpreting respectively. the weight
A
. ]
Major weight differences are associated with customer requirements, certlflcatlon goals, and type of equipment (e.g., vacuum tube vs. solid state). Minor weight differences are associated with equipment locations and fuselage size. weight Conventional versus automatic landing introduces a negllglble to the with avionics the system, but the latter must have anti-throttle,
penalty is
_ : ?. _" .... i _
which Weight
included
propulsion
controls.
Estlmatln& Relationships Avionics systems as follow_: I. 2. General Aviation Category I or II Domestic Category I or II Overwater Category III Domestic Category III Overwater Military were classified into six categories for weight correla-
tlon
purposes
3. 4.
._
J
5. 6.
These avionics categories account for the major differences in avionics weight among transport aircraft. For a given category, aircraft size will also
I,
NERs were developed for the first five avionics categories, all of which are related to commercial transports, using the following method.
First, each category. weigl,t and average the average were determined for Then, the effect number of passengers of aircraft size on avionics weight was
* The MDAT-30, 747 and SCAT-15 avionics weights were not used in computing the averages. The MDAT-30 was sized fro_ the MDAT-50 and assumed to have compliment of movie pzoJection equipment. The weight is a special case. an identical avionics weight. The 747 avionicsSCAT-15 includes a large
,- I
I
=--=.__ __ _ ., ,, _ , --i. _. ._
5-III
_ r .... ..............
!
I determined. by aircraft l the public passenger order to avionics equipped internal the For size passenger is the aircraft, internal the avionics sub,ystem subsystem affected which most communications systems. is 1.5 includes per In , address and for internal determine veight_ entertainmont communications The average pounds pounds per passenger. on the remainder the DC-9-10 and avionics is 39 avionics
I ]
as
customer. between
The difference in these two aircraft the per avionics Finally, form: = +C Np the for added passenger. weight each
l
i_. r ._
DC-9-30
a total
appro_iequatiou
derived
N16 "C" is a constant of in passengers Figure 5.40. which for is determined category.
2.8 from
average data
weight
and
averag_
_ I. _ J .b
number plotted
each The
The
weight
commercial
aircraft
avionics
2.8
Np +
370
III Domestic
"
i _,
I The weight
WI6
Category
difference
for category
l :" I D
III for
950 pounds. Studies indicate the actual category II to category IIl_is approximately pounds is characteristic increased monitoring. the military to the category avionics III weight overeater of wlde-body guidance |
aircraft reliability
which
include
passenger
flight
'
I m I
with
body
The result
l J
_ 4000 OR MILITARY _
2000
_C-130E '_
DC-10-10 727-100
_I
100
200
300
400
500
600
10
12 of
14 square
16 feet)
18 (S b) _ ....
O : O _ ,
b
GENERAL
..._ ,. I .,,
CAT I OR II CAT I OR II
..
A @ m
i !
i !
III avionics, these aircraft include approximately entertainment, increased flight guidance reliabiland performance monitoring.
!_.
5-116
!
i MR for passengerof aircraft, area to number passengers, given the t_ical me milita_ relationship weight data and of body wetted MR are plotted i in Figure 5.40. SEWER is: W16 - 0.10 _n Section
I gories I
As mentioned of ite_
- equipment
(e.g.,
"blackboxea"
items
such as installation hat,are, _ring for about half of the total avionics
of Units
to Total"
in Tables
S.28
and 5.29.
1 !
| ............ i
11' ,
I i.. I
L.
LOADAND 9_DLING
SST_
WetRht Characteristics The weights for and 5.31 for Weight : ':_: effect weights T _'. preli_a:y co,,,erelal
system
are
shown in Tables
5.30 _ /
j.
transports,
respectively.
Estimating Since
Relationships of the load and handling average transports system load are has a negligible system for use in J
on the for
aircraft
weight,
eo-,,eretal design
and military
studies. are:
The weights
1 !
1
N17 WI7
= =
50 130
Commercial Military
:'[
b
,[
f_
,m
i!
j.
!
I,
5-118
Vl
tll
"*
........... i,..
= Ill ._ I I
I
.[
..............
t,
I
/
APPENDIX A : 11 ESTIMATING ACTUAL COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL transport AIRCRAFT aircraft is known only to
&
The actual cost of a commercial the aircraft reliability aircraft, it approximately. lished price
manufacturer that builds it. of the CERs developed i l this is necessary to A methodology is described
However, paper as
in order to check the applied to commercial even cost if only based on pub-
t t l,
cost, actual
data
The price _ _ _
of a commercial
aircraft
tends
to
be
constant
(excluding
inflation) for all units produced_ 13)* Therefore, a buyer can typically purchase either the lOth unit or the 150th unit for the same price although of learning and the lOthwould curve tooling) effects costs cost and are the the manufacturer fact that over considerably non-recurring a much smaller "n" units more (e.g. quantity. because design, Thus,
....
test
amortized
incurs u defeclt
a profit.
"
non-recurring cumulative
point
("n")
average
could be
-_.
determined.
by using
* The actual selling price may vary depending upon negotiations at the time of the sale that take Into consideration items such as the schedule which, in essence, provides the aircraft manufacturer with quantity of aircraft and s_are parts ordered and the prep.yment an interest free loan by requiring the purchaser to pay as much as one third of the purchase price as early as nine months before delivery. The the purchaser foregone interest to on percent amount the sales represents to (2 3 this of reflected in the sales price of an aircraft. a price) substantial is that cost not
I I
I A-1
for
the aircraft
industry,
the
cost
for
a quantity
different
CACIO O) can be determined. This reported This such items tracted million. methodology price has been applied (less items check engines) unrelated ouC flight of is to the $18.2 DC-IO-IO as million follows. The (13)
s_11ing
amount
includes
4 percent
price
is
l
i
Non-recurring
ii , mS
i :
..
The average CACI00 is $19.2 million which is about 5.5 percenC higher than the sales price. The estJ_ated actual cost must be multlpl_ed by a factor of i,i (which represents a nominal i0 percent profit as discussed in Section 2) to achieve comparability wlth the CERs summarized on Table 2.1. The
_+
t i
?
I
indicated on Table 2.3. Similarly, the estimated actual cost of $3.9 million resulting estimated actual Price is $21.1 million for the DC-10-10 as for the -28 in Table 2.5 is 16 percent (1.055 X 1.1) greater than the reported selling price of $3.4 million. ""
_or example, $x7.5 million X 300 - $800 million + CAt300 X 300. CAC300 m $14.8 million and CAC100 - $18.8 million.
Therefore,
A-2
!
APPENDIX i DESCRIPTIONS B
all labor and raw materlal and subassemblies cost elements and Sustaining by the which
the
production
of It
major includes
following Engineering
Fabrication,
Sustaining
Raw Materlal.
J*
Fabrication detailed
labor performs
operations which
of moldlng, anodizing,
parts
= :_
._
stamping, etching,
machining, It also
coordlna-
expediting. labor and labor includes technlcal staff engineering support, labor. and
: _,
Sustaining customer
product
development
Sustaining :
is expended
fixtures,
molds,
Raw Materlal
such as sheets,
bars,
and
and extrusions.
i _.
SUBCONTRACTOR includes all major components and subassemblles that are not produced by the aircraft manufacturer. Two cost elements are included.Outside Productlonand Purchased Equipment.
]
_ I 0
_ \,
Outside as
Production
typlcally (nacelle
includes
_Jor
subcontracted landing
* The
wheels, grouping
brakes and tires) and body and_ wlng sections. of elements w_rv for dttftrt.nt mamtfact.r_.rs,
i'
Purchaeed_Equlpmenttyplcally columns, mechanlcal voirs, tors, rudder and filters, battery, pedals, actuators); plumbing, Wlrc, and ducts, systems, lights, electrlcal
Includes
fllght
eantrols and
(control
hydrauli_and reser(generapower [
control manifolds);
lighting);
pneumatics "_ ! .,
instrumentation, auxiliary
furnishings
and lavatories);
instruments
(communication,
ASSEMBLY
in order
major
and su_are
assemblies Included:
aircraft. Minor
Control,
Assembly
Quality
Control
labor
is concerned hardware,
primarily
with
inspection
of
production
and tooling
paperwork.
to be overhead
Minor Assembly
labor
includes
those operations
to
a major
riveting, Major
subcategories:
1.
labor
includes
the
effort
that
a specific "fixed
and
The "non-position"
B-2
location
where thnt
sp_ce will be
in
posttton_" structural
in
factory
In a completed
subsection
or a whole
j
,_
2.
in
and systems
or a section
Operational
and air-
worthlness
and airframe
structure of all
i
3. -.
such as metal
bond
cleaning,
',*
Q_
2 i
'1 l I I
i B-3
! F
! I
. APPENDIX C
SUMMARYOF SYSTEMS DESCRIPTIONS A. WING, TAIL AND BODY SYSTEMS The wing, tall and body structural designs
systems
are considered
together of
| -
materials
and methods
,4
The wing
system
consists
of the wing box structure, and trailing is accounted structure edge control
leading surfaces.
and trailActua-
tion for the control system. ' "" Systems The wing
for in the flight controls is included with the wing system. system are landing spar
-. ._
carry through
h_.draulic system
and antl-ice
wing mounted
. :_" o
i.
-,,
structure transfer
required
gear loads
i_ the wing
th_ce loads to the fuselage All w/ng a_tach bulkheads system. or empennage
are included
with
the alighting
gear
._ " _
._
system.
located
in the fuselage
are included
is defined through
similar
tall includes
all carry
strucuure,
,_
terminates
at the fuselage
fillets
The |
body
system
consists
of
fuselage
sheli
structure, cockpit
door
and win--
doors, windows,
floors,
bulkheads, mechanisms
and tailcone.
Door actuation
and alrstairs
included with cargo body system. the For the it is built in the body system includes the loading system since C-bA and AST(M),integral with the floor structure.
h _
i i
Sidewall
insulation
and paneling
as well
as cockpit and
I
instrument equlpment
p mels system,
and consoles
are considered
I
I C-1
ALIGHTING GEAR SYSTEM The .lighting nose gears, side fittings wing and and for This _rag wing gear system consists landing bogie of gear all items associated which is with made main up of attachmaterial
!
includes braces,
attachment gears.
wing for
mounted
alighting
comprise
,|
componerts
such include
functions cables,
retraction, or lines
braking from
The controls
?
also
wires,
cockpit
gear.
In addition, brakes
the alighting
gear system
includes
I
I
and tires.
.',
I
C. NACELLE The nacelle Incl,ldes the cowl structure, rings and supports. the pylon structure, i
and the sound suppression represents " the thrust reverser pulslon the structure reverser
In general,
the cowl i
to the engine
structure.
The exhaust
structure system.
with
included
_: _ attach
the apron,
engln_ mounts
Wing or fuselage
attach bulkheads
il
their respective fuvatlonal The sound suppression Any sound suppression the cowl. suppression system. D. PROPULSION The propulsion in this study), the
systems. components
include
the rings
struts. with
treatment
the anti-iclng
ENGINE) the engines (which system, and are the fuel not engine system. considered exhaust The
exhaust system,
reverser system
thrust
reverser/spoiler
engine
C-2
system exhaust
includes ductlng
structure, translating
casstruc-
ture and the actuation system and controls. The engine exhaust thrust reverser/spoiler system includes all of the strL=ture and systems located
aft of the engine turbine exhaust systems which include the thrust reverser, flange include components for cooling, tailplpe and bullet. The engine lubrication, ignition, throttle and starting as well as the water injection
"_
!
controls.
fuel distribution
system, E.
integral
and supplemental
fuel tanks.
"_
controls
includes
components: control
cockpit valves,
controls, _ plumbing
controls, control
hydraullc
(actuators,
surface
dampers,
electrical
controls
(except
flight guidance
and controls),
supports,
rub strlp_
and attachments.
Milltary
1374 also
the autopilot
system.
transport
aircraft,
to separate
guidance
system because
dependency among components. Therefore, in this study the autopilot system is Included with the integrated flight guidance and control system which is part of the a_ionlcs Flight control functions system. may be broken into two groups: those per-
performed formed by the primary flight controls and those flight controls. Primary flight controls consist essentially for the provide horizontal pitch, roll stabilizer, rudder, ailerons and yaw control on all three
t_[i_,ht
for symmetrical operation of wing augmentation flaps. Thi_ action provides llft leading edge
for
and Inndlng.
I
I c-3
F.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM The hydraulic system flight demands of the provides control during criticality the L-lOll power components. the most of its critical function, four separate, to operate This the system flight it is alighting is and required landing gears to condi-
I t |
!r
and meet !i
t:
the
hydraulic system
peak
J
|
tions. redundant.
Because For
generally continu-
example, hydraulic
has
parallel,
4
,I |
systems systems
two inoperative
systems. pumps are the primary power source connected Electric power for hydraulic ' _ | l .i I
systems. These are occasionally supplemented by a pump turbine motor for emergency or peak power requirements. ._" driven pumps powered checkout by the auxiliary and preflight power unit provide
to an air motor-
I
_
r
i
! i I i
Power
transfer
motor-drlven
the capability
by another
In addition
to pvmps,
reservoirs,
accumulators,
filters, valves,
and plumbing.
[
#
i
!
G.
"
SYSTEM system supplies power among galleys, controls to a variety lights, of operation tomInstrusystem, unit (APU) ] system consists of the AC power systems system, 5C power system, [.
!
i :i
others:
extinguishers,
!
| [
include
power
generating
equipment (i.e., constant speed drives, generators, and batteries) and the necessary controls, wiring, fittings and supports to distribute the electrical power from the power also source to the electrical power center. of
Include
Circuitry
C-4
?
various I functions.
ccmponenCs
using
electricity
are
included
with
their
respecCive
their
interior For
with the
the
individual
passenger
reading
lights.
_m
(_PS) is a term often applied antl-lclng separately and auxiliary in Military with
power
these systems
Standard
.b
system whlch
is combined
subcontractors
cases
will have
_: .,
and production
of all of these
which
comprise
below in turn.
._i _. _ _.
Pneumatic
System system includes all heat exchangers and ductlng which air from each of the main engines and from the auxiliary The pneumatic system provides compressed engine air for cabin ice
starting, driven
on critical
suppleeach
; -,
or emergency engine
hydraulic
power.
To perform
functions, system.
is equipped
with a bleed
air extraction
The bleed
system
regulates
the pressure
and temperature
1 :'_ ':: 1
ground valves.
connections,
can
be
performed
by either
hot
bleed
air
or
electrical
heat.
which
include
J
all hot ducting air from the along main pneumatic the leading source edges and inner of the to skins which form the systems ,1 cavities surfaces. Electrical include surfaces the electrical plus all wiring blankets fastened the outer surfaces of critical i and controls,
Auxiliary Power Plant System The auxiliary power plant tions in lieu of ground support engine
system
supplies
all
ground include:
operacabin |
conditioning,
turbine
motor driven
hydraulic
!
! |
power.
to allowing in
auxiliary
power plant
or supplemental
power for
and other critical, electrically powered components. power plant is expected to be operated in fl_.ght, FAA
regulations require that it be enclosed in a stainless steel housing for fire protection and this enclosure is considered as part of the auxillary power plant system. The auxillary power system includes the auxillary power unit (APU), fireproof enclosure, air induction and exhaust, piping and auxiliary backup components such as starter, battery and generator. I. FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENTSYSTEM Furnishings main cabin all system, and equipment compartment. panels, include a variety cockpit, insulation, .... aircraft, panels, this category structure, complete refrigerators, for bottles. includes hatrack galley food luggage and of items in the cockpit includes oxygen
I ! I
and cargo
In the seats,
this
category lining,
instrument
and console
crew
seats,
floor
ceiling
containers, including
stowage buttons,
and magazines,
D:
seats,
passenger
including
emergency
')
*' C-6
I
Passenger l cussed system, I category l galley (winches, system. In the cabin of military aircraft, and covering, fittings), lining, cargo the troop and furnishings seats, aerial stowage and litters, delivery and equipment crew system troop oxygen bunks, with reading it. lights are included with system the is electrlcal included in system the and disThe entertainment avionics
equipment
i_ _i
tion and the belly of the commercial aircraft, this category includes In lining and belly cargo loadlng system. The cargo containers not included as they are operator's items.
are insula-
._ i
Miscellaneous items include the engine and cabin fire extinguisher systems, fire warning system, exterior finish, and miscellaneous emergency equipment (i.e., first aid kit and fire ax). Emergency exit slides and
llfe rafts are not included J. INSTRUMENT Instruments elated with SYSTEM perform
items.
' i
functions
asso-
positioning,
electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems operation, engine operation, and fuel quantity. The instrument system Includes cockpit i_dlcators and I warning circuitry lights, electronic black boxes between the black boxes and at the the point monitoring of signal devices. input, and
K.
AVIONICS The
avionics
I.
The integrated
flight
guidance
and controls
subsystem
the autopilot flight director system; the gyrocompass yaw comsystem, and associated pitch, roll, puters; the system; the attitude and headin_ These into reference units one system; and the Inertial and are, a
I :
navigation therefore,
system. integrated
Although
ib
of
this is
subsystem, with
management because it
"
included as
J
! J
associated integrated
controls
subsystem
included. 2. The communication external functions. a. The internal system, the system. for the subsystem is separated by its internal and
_ |
J
[ ,_
the interphone multiplex (MUX) source passenger system, latch air the release The
TheHUX
transmission system,
passenger-to-attendant system, system, the the passenger L-lOll utilize units, encoders wiring, head and the the
system. system. speaker MUX system, related included. radio aircraft very (HF) provisions call
amplification
for
supports
co_nunication conuuunica_iou
includes aircraft
equip-
used
for
aircraft It
ground
the
frequency the
frequency system,
frequency the
communication, t' _ voice equipped antennas, attachments system are scrambler with and
selective system.
Host
HF or associated
related also
to
external
communication
included.
C-8
" I - I
3. The navigation matic direction equipment (DHE)
t
I ++
+ +
includes
all
radar
equipment,
the
auto-
(ADF) system, the distance the long range navigation computer systems, air navigatiot, the the control slope
t t
I |" _ s
'
the doppler stationkeeping the the variable instrument (CAS), altimeter system.
system, the navigation system, the tactical omnirange landing the airport system, Most systems. (VOR) system system, (ILS),
system,
_'
marker beacon system, collision avoidance (ATC) system arc system and the the radar LORAN
_'
overwater
aircraft
with
"'
[ t r j "_
indicators,
associated
related
to the navigation
subsystem
3"
" : i /: -' 1 L.
4.
equipment systems,
includes
voice
integrated
(AID)/
malfunction detection analysis the weight and balance system, structure and miscellaneous
...........
hardware
circuitry. 1
LOAD AND HANDLING SYSTEM The load and handling system consists of fittings and structural aircraft during have pro-
+
: _.
i,
1'
l
1 !
visions
for Jacking,
hoisting
and mooring.
Some military
stabilizer loading.
Jacks to hold
the aircraft
in a rigid position
cargo
I;;i
,a , +,+.,.........................
c+
r........ >.... s-+ -, '*' -
I
I REFERENCES I i. 2. I 3. " m Levenson, Airframes, O.S., RAND el., Cost _Ircraft The et. Corporation, Estimating R-761-PR, Relationships 197!for(Proprietary). December
Large, J.P., et. el., P__aramet_Icquations for Estimating Aircraft E Airframe Costs, The RAND Corporation, R-1693-PA&E, May 1975. Planning Research Corporation, Methodology for Estimatlng Developed " mentj Productionj and Operating Costs of Transport Aircraft, PRC R-634, December _964 (Proprietary). Kenyon, R. E., Weapov_System Costing, Methpdology for Aircraft Airframes and Basic Structures, General _namics Convair Division, AFFDL-TR-75-44, June 1975. C-5 Cost_Schedule_ and Technlcal Characteristics Study, Lockheed OeorglaDonald, Fernando Heyer, Bruce 1972. Trapp, Company MSC 07018, November Kimoto, Daniel Marsh, Parametric Study of Transport Aircraft Systems Weight and Cost, PRC System Sciences Company, October 1974 (Proprietary Information - Distribution Limited). ! : _I i
|
4. 5.
| J_
6.
I 7. ]_ 8. 9. I i i0.
York, Roy A. Flight Weight Actuators An Evaluation o theWeig, t of Aircraftof the Society o Automotive Engineers. the Seventy-thi1_ Meeting Hydraulic Actuators, Presented Before Boren, H. E., and H. O. Campbell, Learning Curve Tables, RM-6191 PR,
The RAND Corporation, April 1970. Teng, C., An EstiraatingRelationship for Fighter/Interceptor #rionics System Procurement Cost, The RAND Corporation, May 1966. Frank Cherry, (Air Force Materials Laboratory) Composites Tech_Threshold to Low Cost Aircraft Structures, AIAA Paper No. 75-1306, August, Aircreft Company, Study of the Quiet Turbofan STOL Aircraft Dousla_ 1975. for Short Haul Transportation Final Report Volume V Economics, NASA CR-I14610, JuneE., 1973. H. Marsh, Donald F. Sargisson, Nordstrom, Kenneth Alan Co__[rce_l Design Study ofAdyanced Acoustic Composite Nacelles, NASA CR-132763, Douglas Aircraft L., A Parametric Determination of Transport _ircraft Anderson, Joseph Company, July 1975. Pric___.ee, Paper _o. 1071, May 5-7, 1975. SANE Committee on Implementation of Cost Saving Recommendations for Aerospace Construction, ILerospaceCost Savings - Implications for NASA and the Industry, NAMB--326,Natlonal Materials Advisory Board, 197_. Lockheed-Callfornla Company and Lockheed-Georgla Com_ STOL Aircraft for Short H_ul TranspQrtat_on, Fin_!lRepu!_ 1_ct Turbofan N_,SA
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
CR 114612, E.,June 1973. for Est_matln8 Ue_pop System Str,c_ural Costs Kenyon, R. 14 Technlques Technical Report AFFDL-TR-71-74, Concair Aerospace D|vislon of General Dynamics. 3ul),1971.
"'
,._.,
R-1
REFERENCES (CONTINUED) 17. 18. Douglas Arcraft Company, MassPropertes Report Advanced STOL TransfoEr
J
1
i
port (Medium), Report MDC-J5652, 14 August 1972. Douslae krcraft Company, Study of Qulet Turbofan Short_.Haul Transportatlon, Report NASA CR-114607,