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i _

,, _ .p_=h,.,.,.,_under Contract No. NAS2-8703 forthe NATIONAL AERONAUTICSND SPACE A ADMINISTRATION AMESRESEARCHENTER C
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MOFFETTIELD, F CALIFORNIA

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'.! _ s_ _ _ '"," RECEIVE_ SCIENCE APPLICATIONS,INC; _'_ :.,__} 1801AvenueoftheStars, 1221 Suite LosAngeles, Callforhla 90067 [2131 522-2681 '. ,i :'.i-_,_

;_.

II

NASA CR 151970

PARAMETRIC STUDYOF COST AND WEIGHT


MICHAEL N. I_EETRAMO DONALD L, TRAPP' BRUCEW. KIMOTO

iI
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I
Prepared under Contract No. NA$2-8703 !

I
I

AMES RESEARCH CENTER MOFFETT FIELD, ALIFORNIA C

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I III

pj, A_r_',_' SCIENCE APPLICATIONS,INC. EconomicAnalysls Division

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LosAngeles,allfomla C 90067 (213) 522-2681

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I Preface Page ix

Acknowledgements Executive Summary 1 2. Introduction Summary of Cost Analysis A. B. Sununary of Cost Application Estimating Cost Relationships Estimating Relationships

x xi 1-1 2-1 2-1 2-4 2-10 2-16 2-22 3-1 3-1 3-10 Estimating Relationships 3-10 4-1 4-3 4-8 4-13 4-16 4-22 4-29 4-35 4-48 4-48 4-49 4-49 4-50

of the

!_

C. D. E. 3.

Summary of Cost Methodology Sources of Cost Data Factors Which Influence Cost

Sunanaryof Weight Analysis A. B. Summary of Weight Estimating Relationships Summary of Weight Data Applications of the Weight

_ am 4. I

C.

Detailed System Cost Analysis A. B. Wins, Tail and Body Systems Gear System System

Alighting Nacelle

C. D. E. F.

Propulsion System (Less Engine) Elight Control System Hydraulic System Electrical Integrated System heu_atic

G. H.

System

Pneumatic Air Con@itioning 'T A Anti-Icing Auxiliary Power

TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I. J. K. L. 5. Furnishl;_gs and Equipment Instruments and Avionics System

(CONTINUED) Page -

System Syst_s

4-58 4-74 4-80 4-81 ."_ i

Load and Handling Final Assembly System Weight

Detailed A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

Analysis

5-1
,

Wing, Tall and Body Systems Allghtlng Nacelle Gear System

5-2 5-16 5-30 -o

System System (Less Engine) Systems

Propulslon F11ght

5-47 5-59 5-70

Controls

and Hydraulic

Electrlcal

System _nd Attx_llary

Pneumatic, Air Conditioning Power Systems Anti-lclng Furnishings _ustrumeots Avionics System and Equipment System

5-77. 5-91 System 5-97 5-103 5-1].1

H. I. ; J. K. L.

System System

!! i 1

Load and Handli,g

5-118

!
Appendlcles A. B. Determining CAClo 0 foz Existing Aircraft Used By A-I B-I _ I I ! Descriptions of RecurrLng Aircraft Manufacturers Summary of Systems Cost Elements

C.

DescrlplJons

C-I R-I

References

!
i _ LIST OF TABLES

i _
, , : _

N_er
2.1 2.2

Title
S,mma_y of Cost Estimating Rel_tlonshlps Aircraft System Rank,by Approximate Percent. of Total Cost DC-IO-10 Cost Estimate . ;a2_ 2-5 I 4, ?' :i

i _ : i_, i "';: !' !."


_W " " r (

',_' _ i:

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

2-7 2-8 2-9 2-12 2-15 2-17

C-141A Cost Estimate F-28 Cost Estimate

Recurring Production Cost Elements for Transport Aircraft Basis for Attributing Confidence Values to Cost Estimating Relationships
S_

i'" _

2.7 2" 8

_ i-.._i __ _

o Confidence Values Estimating Relationships

for

Cost

i _

_.

3.1

Summary of Weight Est_matlng Relationships

3-2

i _' "

i,:_,_, _ _

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

SymbolS.ships Used in Weight Estimating Relation3-9 Summary Weight Statement - COmme_clal Aircraft 3-11 Summary Weight S_atement - Military Aircraft Weight Data Sources and Adjustments DC-IO-10 Weight Estimate C--141AWeight Estimate F-28 _:.ight Estimate Cost 3-.13 3-14 3-16 3-19 3-21 4-2 4-10

. ii
4_

i-!i:, _' i i' :

i !

i=i;: U i! !_'<i +i_:i' ! !: _"! ..

3.8 4.1 4.2

i . !.. : :"

Economic Escalation Factors Allghtlng Gear Control System

_& !,
!:- i i:. _ =" " ' _i" =I_. ii" " _I_.! l:.li i_ ""

4.3
4.4 4.5

Rns_e system Cost


Fuel SyStem Cost Costs.and Weights of Recent Flight Control Actuators

4-17
4-19

4-24 4-26 4-31 4-33

4.6 4.7 _ _. I' 4.8 4.9

Flight Controls System Cost Representative Costs of Hydraullc System Components Hydraulic System Cost. Representative Costs of Transport Components Aircraft

_:/" !_'L

Electrical System

4-38

:_i";

4.10

RepreSenotative

Quantities and Costs for

i _,

ii_i--_:_:i :i...... _:__:_____:i :..i...: _ .; .... --::-.:i.i _:__'_'_:_""_"_-'_:---=:_.:i"...:!:: " _i"__:_=::_=-_ ':__ ::_,

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)........ . Number 4.11 4.12 4.13 ! 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 i 4.20 5.1 _i _ 5.2 5.3 i 5.4 5.5 5.6 Allghtlng Gear System Weight and DesigD Data Milltary Aircraft Alighting Gear Weight Adjustments . 5-19 5-20 "" Electrical Electrical Integrated Integrated Title System System Cost Cost by A/rcraft (IPS) Type Cost Page 4-43 4-44 4-54 1

Pneumatic Pneumatic Costs

System System

Cost by _/rcrafu

Type
Representative Costs Costs of Recent of Aircraft of Aircraft Interiors Seats Aircraft Toilets

4-55
4-61 4-62 4-66 4-67 4-68 .. 4-72 5-3 5-6 5-17 -_ _ -..

CoSts of Emergency Bottled Gas Oxygen System Components Furnishings and Equipment System Cost Furnishings and Equipment System Cost by Aircraft "l_pe Wing, Tall and Body Systems Weight and Design Data - Co,,,erclalAircraft Wing, Tall and Body Systems Weight and Design Data - Military Aircraft Alighting Gear System Weight and Deslgn Data Commercial Aircraft

Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - Commerclal Aircragt 5-31 Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - Milltarys_33 Aircraft Nacelle System Weight and Design Data - NASA Short Haul Study Aircraft Propulsion System Weight and Design Data Commercial Aircraft Propulsion Military System Weight Aircraft and Design Data 5-50 5-60 5-62 5-69 5-34 5-48

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11

Flight Controls and Hydraulic Systems Weight and Design Data - Commercial Aircraft Flight Controls and Hydraulic and Design Data - Military Example Applications of Active Systems Aircraft Controls Weight

_"

"

5.12 5.13

iv

+[
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED_
| ; 7*

i.

Number 5.14 5.15 Electrical Aircraft

Titl_____e System Weight Data - Co...__ercLal

Page 5-71 5-73 5-78 5-80 +

_+ ::

_. ,,..!
!

Electrical System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Pneumatic SyBtem Weight Aircraft Data - Connercial

_ Iii

5.16 5.17 5.18

.: _.

! .,.,. _!+:

Pneumatic System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Air Conditioning System Weight Data- Commerclal Aircraft Air Conditioning System Weight Data - Military Aircraft

5-81 5-83

5.19 + ._ +. . _. 5.22 5.23 +. .._ 5.25 .. , +_ 5.28 _" +" I .. :.":: " _+'

ii

_.

5.20 5_21

Auxiliary Power System Weight Data - Commercial Aircraft 5-84 Auxiliary Power System Weight Data - Military Aircraft _ntl Iclng System Weight Data - +ommerclal Aircraft Anti Icing System Weight Data - Military Aircraft Furnishing and Equipment System Weight and DeslgflData - Commercial Aircraft FUrnishing and Equipment System Weight and Design Data - Milltary Aircraft Instrument System Weight Data - Commercial Aircraf_. Instrument Syste_ Weight Data - P_tlitary Aircraf_ Avionics System Weight and DasigflData Commercial Air,raft Avionics System Weight and Design Data Military Aircraft Load and Handling cial Aircraft System Weight Data - Co...er5-119 Welght Data - Military S-121 5-85 5-92 5-94 5-98

++ :::_

5.24

' 5-100 5-104 5-106 5-112 5-I14

5.26 5.27

5.29 5.30 5.31

Load and Handling System Aircraft

e*

LIST OF FIGURES Number


, ma_mmmwm

"" Pa_e 1-2


............... I

. _Title Transport Wins, Tail Aircraft Systems CERs

1. l
:

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

and Body System Gear System CERs

4-6 4-11 4-15

ol

._

Alighting Nacelle Propulsion Flight

System

_Rs CERs

System

4-20 4-28 4-34 4-45 4-57 4-73 4-79 5-7 5-9 5-10 5-11

"" ' -,

,_

4.5 4.6

Control

SyStem CER CgR

Hydraulic

System

ii i

4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 5.1

Electrical System CERs Integrated Pneu_natlcSystem CEEs Furnishings and Equipment System CERs Instruments and Avionics Systems CERs Wing Actual vs. Estimated Weights - Medium and Large Aircraft Wing Actual vs. Estlmated Weights - S_ll Aircrat Wing WER - Alt_rnate Equation Tall WERe Body WEE - Commercial Body WER - Military Etrcraft Aircraft

., , _ !

i_ it

5.2 5.3 i 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 : 5.8 i 5.9 5.I0 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 ,, ' _i i_ 5.15 5.16 5.17

"" iI

5-13 5-15 5-21 5-23 5-24 5-25 5-26 5-27 " i "_

Alighting Gear System WER - Medium and Large Aircraft Alighting Alighting Gear System WER - Small Aircraft Gear Structure WER

Alighting Gear Controls WER Wheels Tires and Brakes WEE Alight_ns tear WER

Adjustments for Special DesiEn Features

5-28 5-35 and 5-36 5-39 vs. Maximum Treated 5-40 l

Cowl Weight vs. Engine Thrust Nacelle Diagrams - Short T, ns Duct Nacelle o Nacelle Cowl WER Weight Effect Nacelle - Unt_eated Duct Nacelle

._. .

vt

!ii !
J .

,P*i

Number

Title

.21. , " i! I _ d !, "++ , L., * I! L _ t_ t_ i


L

5.19 [+ +" 5.18 5.20 5.21" 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26+ '+ t 5.29 5.30 ii ! 4P _ 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 :+ _ ij ._ _. _ !!, I_ + _ : _

Pylon NER Pylon Diagram - Wing Mounted vs Weight Trend Nacelle (Including Pylon) Thrust Reverser tlons and Exhaust Tail Mounted Configura-

5-44 5-42 5-45 5-51 Actual vS. 5-54 5-56 5-57 and HydraulicWERs and HydraulicWEb vs. Control (Less 5-63 (Less 5-65 Surface Area 5-66 5-67 5-74 5-75 5-86 5-87 5-89 5-90 5-96 System WER5-101 5-102 5-107 5-108 5-109 _-I16 ....

Nozzle

i: _+

By-Pass Fan Thrust Reverser Estimated Weights

Engine Exhaust Thrust Reverser and Nozzle Actual vs. Estimated Weights Fuel System NERs Flight Controls Autopilot) Flight Controls Autopilot) Hydraulics

:j

5.27 5.28

Percent

_ ,,:.

Hydraulics Percent vs. Weighted Wing and Tall Area Electrical System WER - Commercial Aircraft

Electrical System WER - MilltaryAircraft Pneumatic, Air Conditioning and Auxiliary Power Systems WERs - Comnercial Aircraft Pneumatic, Air Conditioning and Auxilia_ Power SyStems WE_ - Military Aircraft Pneumatic Percent vs. Body Wetted Area Pneumatic Percent vs. Number of PaSsengers Anti-_cing Furnishings Comn_rcial System k_R

: ;, _: * _ ,

I_

5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 5._i

and Equipmeflt Aircraft

Furnishings and Equipment Syetem WE_ Military Aircraft Fuel Quantity Instruments WER Propulsion Instraments WER Other Instruments WER Avionic System WERs

""

vii

'

I
I

"

_ _ _ AGD APU AST(H) ._ ATN BPR CACIo0 CER CSD DC ECS EPU FAA GLA BP HZ IDG NA_ . i_ ! Ii _: ,. NDAT _ NLA HUX NASA RSS SCAT ,. ii
;,

LIST OF ABBI_VIATION19 AltematinS Axial Current

.......

e*

Gear Differential Power Unit STOL Transport Motor 100 Units ,. (medium) "" 11

Auxiliary Advanced ,

Air Turbine Sy Pass

Ratio

'_ _. I_ ', i' "" i . _" :; ..i i: _ i.; ;' _ '_,

Cumulative Average CoSt for Cost EstinmtinK Relationship Constant Speed Direct Current Environmental hergency Federal Horse Hertz Integrated Drive Generator Chord Air Transport Drive

Control

System

Power Unit Aviation Agency _, ,. .

Gust Load Alleviation Power

Mean Aerodynamic Nedimn Density

Manufacturer t 8 Empty Weight Maneuver Load Alleviation Multiplex National Aeronautics Stability Air Transport and Space _minis_ratton "" .

i
_ ' I '. r

Reduced. Static Supersonic Short Takeoff Trans

Cruise

STOL TOGW TWA VSCF _R

Takeoff Gross

and Landiflg Weight

World Airlines Speed Estimating Constant Frequency

Variable Weight

Relationship

_siii

'

L
o This {. co_t port report presents the PREFACE results of a study to determine paramel:,ie and weight estimating relationships for commerelaZ and military rrat, saircraft at the standard weisht stoup o_ system level. The study was by the National Aeronautics Mr. Joseph Branch of and Space Administration monitored under the study for

t
i_

sponsored contract

nvmber NAS_-8703. Technology

L. Anderson

the V/STOL Systems Division, and April I" Inc.

the V/STOL Aircraft between Science

Technology January 1975

Ames Research

Center.

Work was performed Analysis Division Aircraft of

1977 by the Economic subcontractor,

Applications,

and its

The Douglas

Company.

t_ _-_ _i_

sored

The study effort reported herein is a continuation of work also _ponby NASA under contract number NAS2-7836 which resulted in a report, Study 1974) of Transport Aircraft Sclence System WeiBht and Cost (R-1816, Aircraft The principal to frequently ,
t

Pars_etric October

by PRC Systems California

Company wlth

The Douglas

Company and Lockheed i _ i Li ,_:, _.


i

Company as subcontractors.

investigators in the present

for this report,

previous report, which is referred were Mr. Trapp and Mr. Marsh. objectives estimating on the to small of the predent relationships cost estXmatins aircraft. transport study

The two principal refine previous to extend the cost

effort

were in the

to

and weight (with

developed

report

emphasis

relationships)

and

the relationships

_D

ix

4 |

AC_OWL_qTS
Q i

Durln 8 the aircraft blies. this their for ' data were rc_in

course

of and

this

study, of

i_tervlews aircraft and to

were

conducted and

wlth

mnn_

manvacturers These study. employees interview A larse

suppliers

components very these and also areas

subassempart and of to
|

constituted debt og sratttude considerable

a unique Is owed

t_portant companies cost

Vho provided system and presented Since several

technical Some og them those

information the which to and they

aircragt and

components. in this

reviewed with prefexred companies

analysis

report and

in

a_liar. anonymous,

companies will

individuals speclic

no mention

be made

of

individuals.

"L

t
i,

EXECUTIVE9UHMARY This production relationshlps report cost pre_eu_ the results o _ NASA spo'_sorcd aud weight transport _tudy to develop

estim,tlng (WERB) for

relationships (C_Rs) commerclal and military

c_ima_ins alr._raft

at

the

: ,

_, _,,

system level. The systems considered in this report cor_espo_d _o the standard weight groups defined in Military _tandard 1374. They are:

"' I ,! "" _..: "" !;" ' "_:_: _ . _i:u:" " _' ; These Q

Wing Tall Body A,llghtlng Nacelle Propulsion (less engine) systems Gear

F1_ght Conteols Hydraulic Electrical Pneumatic Air Conditioning Anti-Icing

Auxiliary Power Furnish',Igs and EquLpment Instruments AVionics Load and Handling

make up a complete

aircraft

exclu_':v_

._z eng_.nes.

The CER

for each system (or CEltsin several cases) utillz,:weight as the key parameter. if available, Weights may be determined from detailed weight statements. or by using the WERs developed charact.erlstla:s in th_s study which are baued

on technlcal

and performance

generally

available

during i

preliminary design, .-; .... ; ii ._ The CERs that have been developed provide a very useful tool for _king preliminary estimates of the production cos*.of an aircraft. Likewise, the

WERs provide a very useful tool for making preliminary estimates of the weight of aircraft based on conceptual deslgn information. Although the CERs and WERs are based on.current technoZogy, any _vstems which involve new technologles curren_ technology may be analy_'edfurther using the CER or W_R based on as a polnt_of estimates of the departure. production The CERs may also cost of modifying be used to

* '., :_. ,,. _, _

make preliminary

an existing

* It is unlikely that a transport aSrcraft that utilizes new _echnologies for every system will be designed, or produced in the forseeab.le future. Rather, future transport aircraft wili probably be derlvat-i_es of current aircraft. Therefore, many of the CERs provided will be appropriate for estimating the costs of future transport designs

xi

aircraft. be used, as

For well

example, as and

if

an

aircraft other

requires systems which est_nate of for

new wings, might for for be the

the

wing

CERmay such as .

CERs for anti-icing. only cost be because the

affected new wings futher

flisht on It the

controls CERs would be

The cost as a point

based ,,,,

serve that cannot

departure aircraft

analysis. new technology existing,

should

noted

estimates made with these total

involving confidence no means

or modifications aggregate estimates cost at

acceptable models provide level.

by using fo_making

models less than

airframe

Adequate Therefore, CERs. ing this Aircraft

aircraft study industry and

co6t used

data novel

are data

not

documented for

at

the

system system

level. level in supplyThe subcf "


a_

sources witb were

developing

subcontractors subassemblies that they

extensive identified on major

experience and

major

components cost information was then

interviewed. and

general assemblies

provided

components to the

aggregated Since

by system

according

proportion

total system weight. quality, confidence

the cost data varied developed

substantially

in terms of on an evaluation for dete_n want to ....

values were Thus,

for each CER based the CERs has a basis of and which

of its data sources.

anyone using

in8 which CERs he should be most confident conflrmby usir_ other data.

he might

Three diverse body selected was varied cost commercial to test to

aircraft,

a small and the cost This nature.

commercial a military CERs. of

a/rcraft transport

(F-28), a wide (_-141) were total estimated very in this good cost costs fo_ . ..

aircraft the the than of

(DC-IO) of total

validity actual

When the aircraft, is

estimated the

compared by less

these

10 percent.

accuracy

considered

estimates

a preliminary

The WERe developed and design were When they using

study

are based on actual, To test the validity

detailed weight of the WERe, they

data for more to the

than 26 aircraft. aircraft as were

applied

same

the CERs compared The from the

(F-28, DC-10-10 to the actual also total

and C-141). weights applied estimated

the estimated varied the based by less estimated on estimated

total weights than 6 percent.

total been

CERs have WERe. The

weights weights

obtained have

costs

f A.

xlt

!
, i!
: remained within i0 percent of tie actual total coats. WERs presented .... "" quick estimates in this report pro',,ide unique tools Thus, the CERs and relatively and

for making

of the production arcraft.

coat__t_d

the weight

of commercial

military transport

Q-o

i,'

..

!!

..

I _,

xiii

,"_----_' _

,."_

_"----_-_-_._::,_:::::.=.

o_

., ,

_".,'

; .......................... ,,i;: .................... : ............................. 4

I i
i ;2 ,_ u _" _ _. i _' ,i _. The purpose the approximate craft at the o_ this report is to provid_ a rapid means for estimating airsystem 1.1.* 'I SECTION 1 -Im ODUCTION

cost and weight level,

of commetcial of engines.

and military In tMs shown

transport report In the Figure

system

exclusive major

level refers These systems

to the seventeen correspond Several

aircraft

systems

to the standard of these systems

weight

groups

defined

in Milltary doWn into subrelationships Department transport

Standard systems presented and

1374.

have been

further

broken

for estlmating in this report

purposes. should be

The cost and weight useful to NASA, the

estimating Defense

_-: :,. _ _ i ' _ i '+ i i+ _ _. _, _ _! ,_ _e !i


V

aircraft

manufacturers

for estimating

the cost of con eptual

aircraft

designs. cost est_nattng actual cost relattouship_ data for developed transport in this report are and based

.o

The

on considerable major sNps modify feature

aircrat

components

subassemblies.** are discussed

Further,

the bases which should

for the cost estimating, relation_nable the user with. to This latter estimate

in detail,

them for Innovative is of particular

designs

he may be concerned

Interest. to NASA so that they can readily transport aircraft designs which

the costs of conceptual technology improvemeuts

incorporate Such cost estimates r_search and "

i _" [ _

in individual

aircraft

systems.

can be used by NASA in screening development programs which of

potential

aeronautical

}' _,. i _ .: f, i_.i. i _ :, _

it might the cost

sponsor. estimating by reviewing relationships the several presented existing typically used in

The significance this report may be better

understood

methods

for making

cost estimates

of new aircraft.

The method

by an aircraft

manufacturer

is to make detailed is reasonably

industrial accurate,

engineering

estimates an

of all the components.

This method

but requires

:. ,i o

_ I

* The term in Section used for a specific system is 4 and Appendix C. defined **I_ order not to restrict been excluded. distribution

functlonal of

grouping

of components

as

this report,

proprie_ary

data have

1-1

,l

Figure

1.1

..

TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

1. 2. 3. 4.

Wing Tail Body A11ghting Structure Controls Wheels _ires and Brakes Gear

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Pneumatic Air Conditioning

Anti-Xcing Auxiliary Furnishlngs Instruments Equipment Other Power and Equipment ,

5. 6.

Nacelle Propulsion Thrust Engine (Less Engine) Reverser System

16.

Avionics

(Including

Autopilot)**

Equipment Other 17. Total Load aud Handl_ng Airframe Engines Manufacturer's (Bare) Empty Weight (MEW) "'

Fuel System 7. 8. 9. Flight Controls (Less Autopilot)

Hydraulic Electrical

_ _._ *-' !

These systems

correspond

exactly

to

the standard

weight

groups

defined

in Military Standerd 1374, except that the Mllltaty Standard hydraulics and pneunmtics Into one standard weight group.

combines

Avionics are usually not included in "airframe" particularly for mll.ltary fighters and bombers. However, Ih this study avionics are considered a part of airframe.

1-2

p,

_* ,!_ ' ""

inordinate would have.

amount For

of

time

and manpower such as

and

a data

base

only

a manufaCturer or tradeo_

purposes

conceptual required

development and such

programs

_.

off studies, such ttme and manpower Two cost for the total

accuracy is not is not warranted. have to has

a large

expenditure

models airframe which

previously provide gone

been approximate several

developed coats

at in

an

aggregate timely

level manner. used. (1'2) ,_, ..... if ! -_ i i i

a more is labor

__ .. :_=

The This

RAND model, model

through tooling,

revisions,

widely

estimates

engineering,

manuacturing

and material

costs got the total airframe as a function of a few aircraft characteristics most Importantly weight, speed and quantity. A second model which is similar was developed by Plannlng Research Corporation. While

these models more system

_I
/

are very useful, accurate

there are times when a slightly is more responsive

less aggregate,

model which

to differences

in aircraft

iii

design

is desirable. Two such models by have General been developed the one (4) contained in this report

.,. " ! ! _

and

one

developed

Dynamics

Corporatlon.

The General on estimated

Dynamics costs

model for

est-lmat_s costs at the major

system

level based

some study aircraft are represented

and some actual In'the _eneral

aircraft Dynamics

costs. data base.

All types of "The applicability fighters and bomb-

aircraft

of much of that data to transport era are characterized _ " : Furthermore, Dynamics were not in the bymore

aircraft

is not clear

because

costly hlg]" perfo_:r._nce and low weight and consistency could _ot be of the data used because by

components.

reliability the

General the data

developing

model

determined

documented.

_, _: -,. _"

* Aircraft

less

engine also --

and avionics. has a detailed which is useful model for airframe struc.ture,--wlnR, for detailed structural design assessment. Development of this

** General Dynamics tail and fuselage trade-offs

and str.c_ural" technology

I
_

model was soonsored

by NASA and t_e Air Force.

1-3
2.,'

,e

The model developed ': _ system cost level, data. is specifically cost

in this for data_ere

study,

which

also

estimates and is at the

costs based

at the on actual .,

transport not

aircraft

Although

available

system costs

level for systems, and .... _ ,'I

because i _,i ,:!' / :_ _/ , _: i) ti !-

atrcraft

menufacturer8 cost data

do not data were

collect

or report, for major

subcontract subassemblies estimates

and vendor and these of system 2,

were obtained the principal

components developing

basis

for

costs. the aircraft system cost estimating relationships developed ,_ .'

In Section

in this. study are 8un_arized. Then, these estinmting relationships are applied to three existing transport aircraft (DC-10-10, C-141A and F-28). The results compare favorably with actual airframe prices. In the remainder

.... _: I. : i

of Section 2, the cost methodology, cost data sonrces and several factors which Influence The aircraft costs are discussed. data base and the system weight estimating relation. . .. , !
a

_,:,i i) ._ i ";_/' ,_ !i

weight

ships developed in this study are sum_ari_ed in Section 3. Weight data Were readily available at the group weight or system level. However_ substantial effort was required to Insure the comparablllty of the group Weight data for aircraft from different manufacturers because the Military

i: _m ,! ., [_

Standard 1374 definitions are not vary precise as to what items constitute . i._ :_ i: , i.,
f, I,

each weight group or system. that the ststent, was the esti_atlng

Further it was necessary to make certaJn est_mating relationships were in the weight of an aircraft cost of an aircraft consystem The

weight estJJnating and cost i.e. that what was included same as what was included relationships utilize

in the technical

system. characteristics

and performance

that are generally Variables. These

available during weight estimating

preliminary relationships

deslgn as independent show good correlation.

i_ i, _ i_ _:
'i

Detailed for

The first three sections of thls document su_nnarlze the study effort. derivations and discussions of the cost estimating relationships system are contained in Section 4. Detailed derivations and dis-

"* . .,

each

cus_tons in Section

o- the weight 5.

estimating

t.elationships provide

for" each

sysf, em are. contained Including discus-

,_
-_

The appendtctes

supplemental

information

1-4

[
_ sions price of the assumptions made in calculstin_ of recurring description cun_lative cost average used costs from tnformationp de_arlptions elements system. by aircraft !I

manufacturers

and a detailed

of each

:_

Qm

i _ . iI ductlon }_ Transport cost

SECTION 2 SUMMARY OF COST ANALYSIS aircraft cost data were collected and analyzed, for and pro-. the sevenI! '

estlmatlng

relationships

(CERs) Were developed

teen alrcrsft systems dlscussed In Sectlon I. These CERs are summarlzed below. A demonstration is then given of the application of these CERs to three ex_stlng transport aircraft. the CEltsle discussed next. The cost methodolosy used in developlng

L
1'

;:, _

Sources from which cost data were obtained In S_ctlon information in

and general factors which influence costs are also discussed. 4, the components data which make up each used system, relevant each technical

and the _" , _ _:


! i, I

and analysis

in developing

CER are discussed

detail. A. SUMMARY OF COST ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS _

._i _._.

ii ; _

Parametric CERs have been developed under this study _or con_nerclal. and military transport aircraft at the system level. These cost estlmatln_ relationships are for recurring product.loncosts only and do not include the bare engine cost. equat:ons are for cost They are shown in equation form in Table 2.1. per aircraft (not cost per pound) and include a The :

"' ii ' "!: _.. "I _ ' ' i: _, :"


|,,

quantity scaling factor an asstun_d aircraft

These CERs include both the produetlon cost and profit of 10 percent. F._ch CER is

manufacturer*s

i! i ) ; ""
?

based on a detailed understanding of the major components that make up each a_rcraft system, the technical and performance char_cc_rlstlcs of these components and the costs of these components.

' ' i: ',, _ system

Aircraft system costs were found to correlate reasonably well with weights as the independent variable. Correlations with other !

technlcal and performance cb,qrscterlstlcswere examined but appeared

,,. _' .., i

iI _ .... I:' _:: _, I'!

if" i!'' i" i:

* The CERs estimate pr:\ce for. military the assumtmg manufacturer makes the i0 percent manufacturer*s a aircraft profit. Th_s saltstypical is aircraft. However, for commercial aircraft, the manufacturer's sales price is typically constant such that the manufacturer loses money until a certain number of units are sold. This is discussed further Appendix A. in

i i

:_: ;.
'

'
_, 2-1 i

i)

: !_

Table

2:1
t

SUMMARY COST ESTIMATINGRELATZONSH_P8 OF (CUMULATIVE AVERAGE COST IN 1975 DOLLARS) System 1. 2. 3. 4. Wing Tat1 Body Alighting Gear C1 -1730 C2 - 1820 C3 -2060 Equation W/"766 W/'766 W O'766 Q-0.218 q-0.218 Q-0.218

,
B. Controls C. Wheels & Brakes D. Tires

(C4A C4B C4c .

136 W4A Q-0.218 157 W4B Q-0.0896 23.8 W4C q-0.0896

(W >10,000)

ooo

C4D - 2.0 W4D Q-0.218

(W/Acoustic)
(wo/Acoustic)

5. 6.

Nacelle Propulsion (less engine)

IC5 _ 3470 WO'766 C5 2660 W50"766 Q-0.218

A. Thrust'Reverser

C6A C6A

2800 N6A0.766 2330 W6:'766

Q-0.218

(Fan wo/Acousttc)

Q-0.218 (Target wo/Acoustic)

B. _ISystem _/m_ C. _l_SysCem 7. 8. Flight Controls

C6B = 61.9 W6B Q-0.0896 C6C = 159 C7 W6c Q-0.0896

205 W7 Q-0.0896 W Q-0.0896 8

Hydraulic

C8 " 54.4

9.

Electrical...

It9 : C9

209 178

W9 Q-0.0896 W9 Q-0"0896

(W<5,O00) (W>5,000)

i0. it.

Pneumatic Air Conditioning

I Cl0 : IC10 CII =

(W_ 151 WIO Q-0.0896 201 W10 q-0.0896 (W > 234_ 1 Q-0.0896

400) _,00) i

2-2

,, '" l

i*: _i .t ':/I System

Table

2.1

(Contnued)

SU_qARY OF COST ESTIMAT][NG RELATIONSHIPS (CUMIJLATIVE AVERAGE COST IN 1975 DOLLARS)

Equation

12.

Antl-Iclng

C12

230 WI2

qlOe

0896

":

'_"I _" '"i ::._, __ _i I:,, :" .....

13. 14.

AuXiliary..ower _ Furnlshlngs Equipment Instruments A. Equipment B. Other Avionics A. EqulpmenC and ....

CI3 1.10143 Wl3q-O. 0896 q-0.0896 IC14 lC14 = 115 WI4 Q-O. 0896 WI4 (W_25,000) (W>25,000)

15.

015A = 1930 WI5A q-O. 184 C15B = 154 W15B Q-O. 184 _

_ : 16.

C16A = 1930 WI6A l 154

"" , _,:_ _' ": , i 18. 17.

B. Other Load _nd _andltag

q-o.18. Q-O. 184

C16B= __W17 3WI6B C17 C W 3

Final Assembly and Delivery

C18 = i

C1 10.25

.._

Where:

Ineludln_ an assumed I0 percent ib.roflt. C = Cumulative average cost for Q units In constant N = Weight of system or subsystem Q = Production quantity in the left hand column.

1975 dollars

Subscripts

refer

to the numbers

For example,

! !
2-3
,_q_V_.' ......................................... ................ :........................ ................

.......... ] ......................................................................................... i
_i,

i!

S,

_
L

to offer

no advantages variables to improve

over

weight

At later count

stages

of design ml_ht

other be not avail-

I*

}:

Independent included able

such as parts estimates design

and comm0nality such of this data are

_.,

'-'i

However, when use 2.1 were which are

generally Is intended.

during

preliminary

model for

-_-:: i_ _. _ i ; (!: i ' .!


1:

The equations and manufacturing example, reduced accurately while unit

in Table processes represent cost'changes

developed currently

design

technologies They may not_ is for o, significantly i_ interested to ._

in use.

new technologies little.

where weight if

Therefore,

the user he is

in assessing carefully in Section It reasonably is 4.

new technologies conSider the data

or manufacturing upon which

processes

advised

the equations

are based

as discussed

1 _ "

demonstrated accurate

in Section of the

2B that total

the cost

CERs in Table of existing

2.1

provide air-

.,

estimates

transport

craft.of equations HoWever, set upon which fe_ aircraft they

it errors and isthepossible Is, that compensat,lng user therefore, advised to are based rather if his than purpose the cost are ranked is to estimate

exlst this conslder _rlthln data the the cost aircraft. of total cost In of only a

..

systems

of a complete by percent

Transport : Table for 2.2. These

aircraft

systems are

_-

percentages

very

approximate provide

and may vary an indication

significantly as to the , I

specific

designs.

They do_ however, of the cost of

relative B.

magnitude

the various

systems.

APPLICATION OF THE COST ESTIMATINC RELATIOI_HIPS Cost estimates have been made for the DC-IO-IO, C-141A and F-28 using

* The aggregate c_ostmodels developed,by RAND and Plannin_ Research Corporation indicate that speed is a significaflt independent variable for estimating aircraft costs. However, these cost models included all types of aircraft. For curre, t transport aircraft speed differs only slightly (about + I0 percent) and, therefore, speed was not a significant characterlstic in this study If a future generation of transport aircraft is pushed to the limit of subsonic performance then speed should be reconsidered

t
!_; 2-4

li
Tabl_ 2.2 , I. I _
'> i'

AIRCRAFT SYSTm4 RANKBY , APPROXIMATE PERCENT OF TOTAL COST Percent Rank 1 _ BOdy Wing Furnishings Avionics Nacelle Propulsion Tall Alighcing Flight Electrical Instruments Air Conditioning Auxiliary PoWer Pneumatic Anti Icing Gear Controls and Equipment (colercial) .... Aircraft 20 18 10 10 7 6 5 5 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 < 1 of Total ,Cos,t

_ .
4

2 3 3 5 6 7

_:

:'

7 7 ' 10 i0 12 13 13 13 13 17

_ !, _';_ (; '" !i i! i ....

Hydraulic Load and Handling

_4

" _ _. i: f

* Percentages are approximately the same for both aircraft except furnishings and equipment which 3 percent of the cost of miltary aircraft.

coueaetcial and military accounts for only about

it

!
I 2-5

the

equations

in Table

2.1.

The results

are

presented their

in Tables weights

2.3,

2.4

and 2,5, respectively. vided in Sections total their

The weights 3 and 5.

used are

actual

as proThe and profit

A production aircraft The actual data. 10 percent non-recurring is

quantity compared cost of

of 100 was assumed. in Tables the C-141A cost of the was estimated and breakeven actual costs 2.3, 2.4,

estimated 2.5 to

cost "actual from

for cost."

the

including

was available
t

government an assumed

The actual profit costs with the

two commercial from sales quantities. it was found while the *

aircraft price data

including based estimated cost

on assumed costs

When the that costs the

were compared

of the DC-10-10

was underestimated

by 4 percent

of the

C-141A and F-28 Were overestimated A range which these estimates of these for of -_ to +10 percent cost estimating is

by 10 and 4 percent, quite acceptable are of is for the i.e. designs. by the fact

respectively. purpose for

relationships cost errors

intended,

to provide

rapid

of ithe approximate relatively which small the cost

conceptual indicated

The significance that the three

aircraft" represent

estimating

relationships transport aircraft (DC-10-10

were as: by

demonstrated :

a broad

spectrum

of current U.S.

Two Were produced the Douglas Aircraft

by different

manufacturers

Company and C-141A by the Lockheed-Georgia company (F-28 by Royal Netherlands

Company) and one by a foreign

Aircraft Factories Fokker in the Netherlands). : TWo are commercial (DC-10-10 and F-28) and one is milltary (C-141A). s The two co_ercial manufacturer*s 29,178 pounds aircraft empty weight for _he F-28). is are of very different size (DC-IO-IO to

(MEN) is

203,760

pounds airoraft

compared is medium

The military

sized (C-14ZAMEN _!7

110,233 pounds).

The aircraft represent different states-of-the-art,

i i

These assumptions are discussed in detail in Appendix A. I_ _7 **Athough the C-141A and the F-28 were designed at about the same time, it seems reasonable to assume that a military aircraft would use more advanced technologies than a commercial aircraft.

2-6

Table 2.3 ._ DO-10-10 COST F:STIMATE

i '"

(CACloIN 1975 $) 0
Cost per Cost Percent of Total Cmt (Less F1mll Assembly 1

!..
, i). ;"

_
Wing Tall Body Alighting Gear" Controls _ructure Wheels and Brakes Tires Nacelle _* Propulsion (less Thrust Reverser engine_, (fan)--

_,o i___,_
48,990 13,657 44,790 (18,820) 1,424 10,672 4,456 2,267 8,493 (7,673) 5,382 441 1,850 5,120 2,363 5,366 1,787 2,386 416 1,589 38,072 1,349 2,827 62 203,760 -203,760 = 0.96

pouoa
$ 51 72 62 (40) 104 50 16 2 153 (148) 188 104 41 136 36 I18 133 155 151 161 68 447 447 60 78 _ $ 98

.._._o_l
$ 2,481 981. 2,759 (755) 148 5_2 70 5 1,300 (1,134) 1,012 46 76 695 85 632 238 370 63 256 2,570 602 1,262 4 16,187 4,047 $ 20,234

:,ridDenver.)..........
L5.3 6,1 17.0 (4.7) 0.4 1.3 0.4 <_1 _ O (7.0) b,_ 0.3 0.5 4.3 0.5 3.9 1.5 2.3 0.4 1.6 IS,Q 3.7 7.8 <0.1 I00.0 ---

_"

ii ' _. ;I -_ _, " _ _ _" ': I: ** :i _:

Engine System Fuel System Fllght Controls Hydraullc E1ectrlcal Pneumatic Air Conditioning Anti-lclng Auxlllary Power FurniShings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handltn% Sub-Total Final Assembly Total (less bare engines)

"

Q +* ,,,

Estimated CACIo_ Actual+CAt100

= " $20,234 $21,100

..

* CACIo0 - cumulative average cost for 100 alrcra_t including assumed I0 percent profit. * With acoustic treatment. _**Hanufacturerts Empty Weight (less bare engines).

+ Estimate based on assumptions discussed In Appendix A.

:i/|

I ....

2_,

!-4

_' i

Table

2.4

C,-141A COST ESTIMATE (CACl00 IN 1975 $) " Cost System Wing Tail Body Alighting Gear Structore Controls Wheels & Brakes Tires Nacelle Propulsion (lessoengine) ** _l_t Reverser (target) Engine System Fuel System Flight Controls Hydraulic Ele_trical Pneumatic Air Conditioning Anti-Icing AuxillaryPower Furnishings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handling Sub-Total NinalAssembly Total (less bare engines) _ 34,262 5,745 28,578 (10,529) _,287 1,161 2,575 1,506 5,630, (5,780) 3,200 1,014 1,566 3,448 1,504 3,015. 659 1,547 598 635 4,362 899 2,938 104 110,233 -110,233"** -$ I01 per Cost ($0_) 1,887 505 1,955 (473) 308 121 41 3 727 (583) 413 106 4_ 54 417 88 240 91 102 295 348 1,207 7 9,447 2,362 $11,809 Pound $ 55 87 68 (45) 58 104 16 2 129 (101) 129 105 4_ 36 138 133 155 152 161 68 388 411 70 86 Percent (Less of Final Total Cost

Assembly

and Delivery) 20.0 5.3 20.2 (5.0) 3.3 1.3 0.4 <0.1 7.7 (6.2) 4.4 1.1 _:_ 0.6 4.4 0.9 2.5 1.0 1.1 3.1 3.7 12.8 < 0.1 100.0 ----

,.

i .. _.

Estimated CAC100 Actual CACl00

$11,809 $10,72r

1.10

* CACI^oV " cumulative average ** Without acoustic treatment. ***_nufacturer's Empty Weight

cost (l_ss

for bare

100 aircraft. eng_,nes).

I!

2-s

i _ _"
i

Table 2.5 F-28 COST ESTIMATE (CACI00IN 1975 $) Cost per System Weight 7,526 1,477 6,909 (2,564) 1,461 205 590 308 866 (988) 693 238 1,404 316 953 60 520 520 320 3,535 267 923 0 29,178 .... *** 29,178 $ Pound 79 121 95 (59) 79 104 16 2 200 (163) 185 42 136 35 139 _ $ 591 179 659 (146) 115 21 9 I 173 (144) 128 I0 191 12 132 8 81 79 51 239 119 412 0 3,216 804 Percent of Total Cost CoSt (Less Final Assembly and Delivery) 18.4 5.6 20.5 (*'.5) 3.6 0.7 0.3 ._0.i 5.4 (_)

ii ,, : L _ _. _ _: L : _" _ "_ !, ,i :: _ :" !i"

Wing Tail Body Alighting Gear Structure Control8 Wheels and Brakes Tires Nacelle** Propulsion (less engine) ** Thrust Reverser (target) Fuel System Flight Controls Hydraulic Electrical

Engi.e System

57
-

105

0.2
0.3 5.9 0.4 4.1 0.2 2.5 2.5 1.6 7.4 3.7 12.8 0.0 i00.0 --

_, " .,_ _' o

Pneumatic Air Conditioning Antt-Iclng Auxillary Power Furnishings and Equip. Instruments Avionics Load and Handling Sub-Total Final Assembly

133.155 152 159 68 446 446 0 121

"I

' "_

,i

- Total (less bate engines)


r"

$149

$.4,020

--

* ,.

Estimated Actual+

CACIn n __ CAClo 0

$ _020 $ 3,870

1.04

.,_,, /_

* CACIo - cumulative O. average ** Without acoustic treatment. **Manufscturer*s Empty Weight on assumptions

cost (less

for bare

I00 aircraft engines). 'in Appendix

including,

assumed

I0 percent

profit.

+ Estimate

based

discussed

_.

d:

'

.i

C.

St_._RY

OF COST METHODOLOGY step in developln8 aircraft system CERs

The first and most difficult was the collectlon at the system of meanlngful

cost data.

Cost data were not available do not collect or

level because

plrcraft

manufacturers

report costs by system. available for manymaJor

However,

subcontract

and vendor

cost data were Hore _peclflcally, and

components

and subassemblies. gear,

the _ost data for the wlng, propulsion

tail, body, _lIghtlng largely,

nacelle

systems were based contract

but not entirely, for military

on subcontractor Cost on cos_ from

data from government _

information

transports.

Jata for the other systems tnforma_ion

were based generic

largely, nature

but not entlruly, obtained directly

of an appLoxlmate,

subcontractors. quantity, analyzed

The cost data were normalized The available

for inflatlon

and build

as required. together

cost data were

then carefully

wllb technical

and performance

data and cost estimates System level

were derived

for the various were developed

components

and subassemblies. ccst estimates weights

cost estimates components ponents

by aggregating based

for the major of the comequation:

and subassemblies

on the relative

and subassemblies

In accordance_th

the following

wi

ce/w - _ _s s t
: z Where: C W s _: For rJxample" Major Componeu_ or" Subass.e.mbly = = = cost weight system each major

(ci/wi)

t_ =

component

or subassembly

_l.

Component Percent of Total. S_stem Weight_

! Cost Per Pound

!_"

A c
Total System

25Z I0
IO0Z

50 25

!li, i

$ 113

s
* No differentiation1 is dors. For convenience,

65

150
and venrefer to

made in this report between subcontractors the term subcontractor will be used to

_! _ i i!;

both. 2-10

Ht

.......... ,,.=, .......................................... ......... ...................... ,.... ...... ....... ....... ..... ......... . .................. .........

_m

_: _o

In a few tlons had

cases, to

relevant be made and

cos_

data some

were major of

not

obtalnable, components and estimates

therefore, subassemblies. to them

assump-

regarding the 4.

,!" ""

These

assumptions in Section

sensitivity

the

cost

are

discussed

i. by "i i slze

When the er type

component of aircraft

percent and were

of

total

system data for each

welght were of

varied

significantly then of i00 (100 aircraft. passento 200

sufficient

available, four (fewer classes than

separate These gers,

cost classes e.g.,

estimates are the

determined small

followlng: F-28, DC-9-10); 990,

commercial sized

BAC-111, e.g.,

medium

connnerctal wide body

passengers, (200 to

727-100,

707-320, 747,

DC-8-62); L-1011);

commercial transport

400 passengers,

e.g.,

DC-10-30,

an_ military

,-

(e.g., KC-135, are examples the

C-141, C-130, Data or the

C-5). to

The aircraft only for one example,

indicated type used

for each class aircraft, because it was toward

only. DC-9-10

related DC-9-30. bias

"generic" were

._

either

felt that us_n_ both might a particular The an aircraft understood craft costs
. o

the _esults or technology.

of the weight

breakdowns

design system cost

philosophy estimates

discussed

above

represent costs. of

only Thls

a portion amy best transport be

of

manufacturer's by referring in to Table

recurring the 2.6. typlcal (14) of

production breakout In-house the total are

recurring and

air-

costs amount

shown to

production recurring called

subcontractor cost Assembly" and cost all subassemblies estimates, of the inof

about

66 percent The

production "In-house

a transport and into are the

aircraft. cost of

remaining the to be data,

costs various

integrating ready

major

components The system to estimate production nearly been every made an

a complete are based

_Ircraft

delivered. are used outside since has

* : _

which house

on subcontractor and subcontractor is

production costs.

(i.e., valid aircraft

and purchased major com-

equipment) ponent or than of

This

considered

subassembly the parte aircraft produced

on a transport maaufacturer. by the alrcreft

by a compa_y is com-

_.

other posed it

ThUs,

although

aircraft

manufacturer produced

and by

subcontractors, and that on i

could conceivably

consist

only of parts

by subcontractors is made

assembled

by the _anufacturer. manufacturer's

In any case,

the assumption is based

the aircraft

"make

or buy decision"

primarily

........ i

......

......... l .....

Table : !:

2.6

RECURRING PRODUCTION COST ELEMENTS FOR TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

Cost ': : , ,_ _ i In-House

Element*

Percentage

of.

Total

Cost**

Production

(32) Z 11

Fabrcation Sustaining Sustaining EnEineerlng Toolln 8

8 5 8 (34) 22 12 (34) 5 7 ( 2_ i

Raw Materlal Subcontractor Outside Production Equipment

Purchased . !.i In-House

Assembly control

Quallty Minor Major

Assembly Assembly Assembly & Checkout

Sectional .-

7 9 6

Installation Miscellaneous

Total

100Z

_'_ _!

* See Appendix B for cost element descriptions. The cost elements include direct and Indlrec costs. Direct costs are those that can be identified wlth a partlcular output objective such as a specific aircraft. Indirect costs are those whlch are incurred for common or joint objectives and must, therefore, be shared in some equitabl_ manner. Indirect costs are often synonymous with overhead and. general ana administrative (G_A) costs. For a thorough discussion of indirect costs see: _artinson, Major Otto B., A Standard Classification System for the Indirect Costs of Defensp Contractors **Adjusted" to in the Aircraft average Indtmtry, cost for U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969. cumulative 101} aircraft.

l:
lowest the aircraft
COSt.

_lerefore, manufacturer

the subcontractor costs should closely costs for producing a similar item. It

approximate should are be :_ i:

noted that in Section 4, in-house production and subcontractor not differentiated and are referred to simply as subcontractor In order assembly costs Based on Table contractor to arrive including _" costs to arrive 2.6, system at the total cost recurrin_ cost for aircraft estimates in-house of 1.52 cost, production (i.e.,

costs costs.

tn-hous_: above. and sub1/0.66) aircraft

:!

must be added to the system esttJnates

discussed

! ;!

must be multiplied of the

by a factor total cost

at an approximation in-house assembly HoWever, was decided

of a transport for the the individual costs

_. ,",_ _ (1) :.:_.

but exclusive

of any profit

aircraft

manufacturer. systems it

in developing to separate the

CERs for in-house

aircraft into

assembly

"

I:_

those related to Integrating the various major components and subassemblies into a complete system and (2) those related to final assembly of the systems into a complete complete, aircraft. individual Although systems an aircraft &nd then i8 not constructed them, section but

++_:

_i L

by producing rather

integrating

by a series

of operations

where systems

in a particular

_.j ! _-:" i ..

of an aircraft are built up simultaneously with othe_ distinction between "system-level assembly'* and "final considered no precise assumed useful in showing a hypothetical, data were available to separate that system-level assembly

systenm, the assembly** was _nile was half

_, :_i, _:_:

complete system cost. these assembly costs, it all minor assembly,

would include of quality

of installation 2.6, these items

and checkout account for

and half about

control. of recurring costs for

From Table production costs.

_i _.

14 percent

i':

Therefore, by a factor

In-house of 1.21

production (i.e.,

and subcontractor to account

must be multiplied system-level assembly.

0.80/0.66)

_t

* It I

than lowest cost are occasionally require SiKaificant. For example, lenders that subcontractors be used in order to spread the risk and foreign subcontractors are occasionally used t,_ stimulate foreign sales. Howeve=t even i'n such c_ses it
may

t8

recognized

that

factors

other

is nottheexpected that subcont_actor's from manufacturer's the c_st.

cost

would

differ

significantly

l I

2-13

If a nominal systems,

10 percent in-house

profit

iS assu_ed

and allocated

to the costs

individual

......

then

production (i.e., which

and subcontractor 1.21 are x 1.10) the

must be multiat system-level of in-house costs. There-

1 _ i:_ :
k

plied CERs.

by a factor Final costs

of 1.33 *_ costs

to arrive portion

assembly are

remaining

assembly

about

20 percent

of recurring 0.20/0.80) assembly

production is

1!

fore, final system level another recurrin_

assembly Is 25 percent (i.e., CERs. Th_ factor for final which indicates a factor

of the sum of all substantiated by of total

study (16) production

of 13 to 25 percent

costs. Of the data available for have is thls study ranged cost Attrifrom

Because excellent est_nating buting

the quality

to poor,

the confidence they have

the authors developed

in the various issue

relationships values

an important is

confidence task. were

co cost

estimating and related

relationships confidence reduce aspect

necessarily presented

a subjective in Table Confidence ag they fidence 2.7

The categories developed represent

values

by the authors an important, (albeit

to help innovative

arbitrariness. of this of study the con-

values

provide the

a numerical have based.

subjective) upon which therefore, in

representation the cost

authors are

in the data They should, might

estimating in indicating

relationships areas further where study

be useful the

potential could

errors be done.

occur

applying

CERs or where 1

The assumption of a 10 percent page 2-4. Profit _as allocated _ t _ I _i _ '_ _ _i reasonably attribute

profit is discussed to the individual cost as possible

in the systems

footnote in order

on to

t ]

as much of the

to them

The total

estimated of an aircraft the is broken out by System cost lumped as a final isadd on.same whether profit or _This factor Nay vary significantly for the different systems. For examsystem system assembly costs (given the labor required expected for wiring) bethan for an auxiliary power ple, are to greater for an electrical plant (which is relatively simple to install) However, since no valid basis was determined for allocating these costs proportionately by system, they were treated as a fixed percentage of in-house production and subcontractor costs. The cost data used for the tall and nacelle included assembly of componentslnto the total system since the subcontractors for these systems provided essentially the completesystem. Therefore, and approximate factor of 1.21 was used for the tail and nacelle.

"'

I
2-14

'd

1 BASIS FOR ATTRIBUTING

Table CONFIDENCE

2.7 TO COST ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS

_-

VALUES

_i : i "" _ii a. Extensive accuracy Source of Data costs available and by Industry expert(s) industry actual expert(s) data

Confidence Reliability

In and

CER Validity

detailed confirmed

9.5-10

Estimate provided by and verified by some

- 9.5

'

_':

i' i_

Similar industry

estimate experts

provided two or reported by at least costs actual

_t

Estimate only Estimate

provided

by one

industry

expert

j i

based

on one

reported

actual

cost for

5 3

7 6

-:'' ,
:I

Estlmate similar Other

based on Judgment item as basis for assumption

using data extrapolation

':
t
-o

- 3
f i

.4

-4.,

Qm

....................

Table estimating determined and

2.8

lists

the

confidence summarized

values in Table

assigned 2.1.

to

each

of

the

cost were .......

relationships at these in levels

Confidence

values

by prorating with Ci the

values

assigned

to major

components

subassemblies

accordance

following

equation:

Where:

V C s i

= = = these

confidence cost system each major

value

component values are

or

subassembly numbers to low (0). the and

It are cost words, has than D. been one used

is to

stressed reflect

that only

confidence

ordinal

the

relative ranging

confidence from for that reliable high which is

attributed (10) a 7.0 to

various In other

estimating a cost

relatlonships estlmating is

relatlonshlp based on and data less

confidence to _e more an 8.0

value reliable rating.

attributed _rlth a 6.0

assumed than one

rating

with:

SOURCES OF COST DATA It is in necessary to to develop obtain reliable Obtaining to is investigate discussed valid cost cost such many briefly data estimating costs was at some desired level _uch this data. of as study Each

detail _i those and it

order

relationships a problem sources for of

summarized was data and

above.

necessary source

potential below to

general problems Aircraft

indicate

some

advantages,

disadvantages

associated

with

it.

Manufacturers Aircraft manufacturers of little aircraft cost data value. weight by aircraft systems out would for appear transport to be the most likely and This arc data most source readily do not level except costs

complete proved : a%ailable appear in liave some been to to

source be at be of the

aircraft and

systems. volume level, at the data cost

Whereas group

weight or

system

documented for

manufacturers (wing, into tail

system

cases

structural broken

and body). such

Aircraft

traditionally

categories

as engineering,

2-16

k. :

Table

2.8

SUI_L%RY CONFIDENCEVALUES FOR COST ESTIMATINGRELATIONSHIPS OF

System

Confidence

Value

... ,I. J
Q.

Wlng

8.0

Tail
Body Alighting tear Structure Controls

9.0
7.0 8.0 5.0 & Brakes 8.0 9.5 6.0 (less Reverser System System Controls engine) 6,0 5.5 4.1 6.9 6.3 7.9-8.3 4.9-5.8 7.8 4.0 Power & Equipment s 7.9-8.4 5 0-7.3 8.0 8.0 3.0 7.2 7,5 7.3

j!

: i +""' ,

Wheels Tires Nacelle Propulsion Thrust Engine Fuel Flight Hydraulic

i '; _,

: .. :i : i t +_ --

Electrical Pr.aLmmatic Air Conditioning

Ant i-Icing Auxiliary

, +

!,

Furnishings Instrument Avionics

"

Load & Handling :+ . ..


_b

Subtotal Final Assembly Total (less

and Delivery engines)*

..; t -'::
-)

bare

* The subtotal and the total confidence values shown are weighted averages based on the estimated percentage of the total cost for each of the aircraft systems. The estimated costs for the DC-IO-IO, C-141A, and F-28 I produced identical weighted averages for the subtotal and total,

"_ :

ii:p /-, + | /'r.:

2-17

tooling, have not

manufacturing, been associated in

labor with obtaining study (5) performed

and material, systems. system pertaining for C-5 identlcal accounting detailed the costs to cost

but

within

thes_

categories

they

The problem results nical study, slmilar Lockheed puter to be o_

information to C-5 cost,

is

illustrated and

by techIn are

the

a Lockheed

:_chedule Space Center. systems in this

characteristics Lockheed but not was to

NASA Johnson by system those system

this

provide

(these

necessarily of with detailed such

defined records which cost effort The cost of

study). were on comamenable could the

made

use Even

which was each and rela_ed could

tape.

information, of the

readily system some to not of

computer identified.

manlpulatlon, This

only included

a portion major

subcontract effort. performed to specific cost to provide

prlme-contractor manufacturing tified and

design assembly to

engineering effort allocated

in-plant be iden-

by Lockheed systems. data from specific guard profit handles cost

sufficiently The biggest

be

problem was detail. their

with obtaining
reluctance Aircraft

aircraft cost

manufacinformation data Even

turers, at any

however, level to of aircraft

manufacturers prlclng_or routlnely specific

their very

cost carefully.

related though

manufacturing, Inc. provide of

Science

Appllcatlons, would for the not sale

proprietary because

data, of intense

manufacturers competition Government The were specific consisted i supplled proposals derived

information

transport

aircraft.

Cost cost

Informatlon estimating relatlonships from these data data data, on major obtained which were developed from llsted in the previous sources. in that report The report, (6)

prlmarily of of

government in items detall and contract the

sources mostly equipment and

subcontracted which to the were found

on vevdor records, of

and avionics furnished aircraft

in by

reports

government

manufacturers C-141,

such milltary

transport

as the:

C-130, KC-135,

and C-5A.

2-18

l
s they While were these data were and used in developing data with were cost estimating required from cost relatlonships, sources. are: incomplete addlclonal and problems other home of the limitations
q_

government

information detailed

Government _
OD

contract

cost data are not sufficiently

for all J

systems. Government contract aircraft. differences there is is one the are of cost While data most arc of available the systems and only for have counnercial in the only few minor transport Furmilltary

"

transport functional aircraft,

between cases the when

military they have

little

connnon.

..

nishtngs @ The C-SA

more military and

obvious

examples. aircraft technology are problems and of for which is any over value the unique

newest available Further,

transport it reflects data

cost ten

data years of

were old.

which

many C-SA extraordinary

questionable related to

-t

because contzact

innumerable, which below it the

under weight cost units. one

was

procured

expensive

methods

employed

,m

to

keep

design typically

threshold. summarizes costs for unit curve) is many procost ignores one

Contract duction (even the

information Using this

to determine an assumed manufactt, to ring

an average learning process

adjusted that tasks the the

to reflect aircraft

fact she

a dynamic vary the

el

whex_ _ '" greatly under only It

assigned llfe o_ is

a subcontractor cnnrract. For might time times the until,

occasionally example, initially subcontract finally,

over which the shell

_h_

subcontract that terminated

a nacelle be been

manufactured by several provided. the

require is

provided; modified is

may hav_ plant Cost

a complete

power Spare Parts

build-up

Data sources confidence of In cost the data cost were sought to expand the data which spent base were

Alternative and I to improve in the parts

estimating

relationships was

developed tlng spare

previous study. A substantial effort <_o data as a posslble alternative.

Investl_-

1 '!!

2-19

t
t

w_

It was recognized nificantly immediate i : were higher assembly profit line

at the outset margin use. they than However, might be

that spare parts identical it was parts felt so as was to

probably

have a sigfor prices useful, for so that than more spare cost ,

manufactured that to obtain if spares

uniformly

higher, cost

adjusted

provide prices

supplemental parts that

information. be related to could prices

The problem weight be were or

could

other

characterist_cs Government, because rather they

estimating commercial easily


i

relationships spare parts

developed. investigated

were

attainable. Government spare These parts date price were data were obtained to be of for limited spare assemblies for the

and

components. reasons:

determined

value

following

Spare -" typically are f..

parts

are replaced only basis.

only in

those ths

parts course are

that of

are normal from

stocked

oecause

they Parts on

are that an ,

maintenance. th_ manufacturer only limited

replaced needed a system. parts results use. a

rarely Thus,

obtained parts

as of

spare

represent

portions

_..

Spare _lis

prices in

represent several include: of the quantity and sew_e

the

amount

of

the

last make price

unit the

purchased. data of is is the in a learning is because

problem_ the fact bought a small where produced aggregate

which that per thr

--

little often

These

specified (set-up time

function over is to

order

amortized ! _. l! , ' Ii ,li unit price

quantity greatly total because

when

quantity the and item the

is would effect

produced, fall of

increased); quantity the

relation curve is

the

unknown

production cannot be

quantity determined

unknown; the date

and the effect of purchase is

of inflation not indicated.

Spares parts prices are typically below the subassembly level. This

available

or:ly for components of determof a

leads to the problem affect

ing whether complete unit.

and how assembly

costs would

tt,e price

I
It . is difficult of per spare Lo associate parts estimating Subcontractors item on an airplane than the has, at one time or another, '_ms, source those with and of price information eot|ltl not could with parts no numbers. that

Weights coat

frequently

be_ obtained not be

pound

relationships

determined.

l I

_l_Jor

Aircraft Nearly

Industry every major

been
t

manufactured aircraft data,

by a company industry and because in fact, was

other

aircraft

manufacturer. a hvgc potential contact

major of cost

subcontractors of the this

represented attempts of were major more or

made

to

significant
_D

experience In item

production possible, to eliminate

system than reduce one

componentu manufacturer

subassemblies. a particular biases.

whenever contacted

possible

individual

Initially _. contractors Although

it was thought

that,

llke the aircraft the price

manufacturers,

sub-

would be reluctant verified selling

to discuss

of their products. subcontractors would to

experience detailed

that, with prices

few exceptions,

not provide discuss


4_

for specific

items, most were willing that such prices competition. would

price in general markedly

terms as they recognized charged by their

not differ

from those increased

This cooperaand factors

tlon significantly influencing

our knowledge

regarding

the prices

the prices

of major

system components.

The following

p=_ints characterize

data

furnished

by the subcontractors:

Prices were provided c-aft systems l as to why they

for both commercial

and military

transport

air-

and, when appropriate, differed.

explanatlons

were provided

Prices were application

provided in 1975 dollars of potentially erroneous

and, thereby, eliminated (Iuflathe inflation assumptions.

tlon is discussed briefly in Section 2E.) s Explanations were provided as to how price would to vary specified if changes or if in design, technology performance was

normally

be _,xpected were

_r rellabilJty

a new

applied.

2-21

Examples influence

were

also

provided These

regarding include

other

conditions purchased

that under

might a to win

prices.

quantities

particular

contract,

inflation,

the need to be competitive they have

a particular

procurement

and the relationship

experienced

in former dealings

with customers. i

While most not consist information accurate

of the information

provided

by major

subcontractors

did

of actual prices that was provided

for specific

items,

the approximate

price and

was considered

to be representative Furthermore, of major

enough

for the purposes were very useful

of this study. in relating costs.

the explanacomponents

tions provided

the costs

and subassemblies information enabled

to total system

Thus, using that obtained

this subcontractor from other sources on = -

to complement

and supplement

cost estimating understanding WHICH

relationships

to be developed systems.

that were based

a detailed E.

of the aircraft COST influence

FACTORS

INFLUENCE

Some of the factors the following sidered before

which

cost are discussed

below.

While

comments will

not apply

in all cases, relationships

they should be conto predict the cost of

using cost estimating system Weight

an airframe

or aircraft _etween

so that potential and Cost

pitfalls

may be avoided.

The Relationship

The cost estimating a function of weight

relationships

summarized

earlier

estimate

cost as

at the system

level.

It must be stressed,

however, _t_Lte-of-

that such cozt estimating the-art rather

relationships Should

hold only

for a specified

or class of servJce. than evolutionary program

a dramatic

technological or should

b_akthrough a weight

design

advancement

occur

reduction

be implemented,

it is likely efforts

that these relationships are undertaken would to dramatictypically

would be invalidated. ally reduce weight increes,, slgniflcantly.

If, for example,

for a given

item, its cost per pound

2-22

i
Qe

'
},

The following ii _to aircraft applicable hydraulic throughout

was

written

about

the

cost/weight

relationship that it is

pertaining generally

actuators. much of

the

It Is felt, however, aircraft industry.

_ !

"Although a favorite game of pound on aircraft machinery, It Is design will be more expensive than design requires more careful stress materials, and design concentration mance and reliability. '_Neight reduction Incentives on the part of the customer heavy design probably will design will be chosen if

estimators Is to establish a price per obviously a fact that a very lightweight an ordinary design. A lightweight analysis, additional machining, exotic on an additionalfactor beyond perfor-

desire A very I _ ordinary

may be in several to reduce weight not be chosen in there is no serious

forms; a generalized is usually inadequate. the first place but an weight competition.

"Supplier experience has a strong Influence on weight. As veight is emphasized from time to time, the designer learns whac designs are reliable and yet lightweight. He also learns intuitively what factors affect the weight and how the weight can be reduced economically. Here in depth experience In a given fleld is of considerable value and will contribute much to the reduction of weight. "The procuring agency or customer can have a very serious affect on the weight of an article. Cost being a primary penalty for lightweight design, If procurement Is based only on price, then a negative incentive exists for low welght. If on the other hand a weight is stipulated as a primary factor and there Is a stated dollars per pound incentive the supplier can evaluate the relative merits of a lighter weight configuration. ...without a specific designated dollars per pound advantage specified by the procuring agency, all suppliers are essentially in the dark as to how far they should go in their weight reduction studles."(7)

1 _

Inflation

and Learnin 8 frequently Is cited as influencing an increase In the cost are: volume of inflation money and

I I

Two factors "learning." to available level. than it Under does

Inflation

simply results then, the

relative price

goods which inflation today using the

in a substantial will of cost materials, use of or items in

rise in the general to produce and

i j

an item same mix has

more

tomorrow labor. have curves been to 7he its

capital what

For callcd .
_o

many years

industry

made

variously

"learning," reductions process is

"progress," in cost as

"improvement," the number that of

"experience" produced many

predict learning

increases.

a phenomenon

prevails

industries;

2-23
,r

existence there cost time reduced forms item to of the forth, curve. _ i average percent theory ; J .... i" i_' i ;. :': _ _! it. the._r ing to specified composite labor, of at qre

has

been

verified hypotheses

by empirical on the basis o exact

data

and

controlled in which theory the cost. cost of cost the is

tests. learning that per each

Although or "'

several

manner

reduction the total to the some

occurs, quantity constant

the

learning-curve doubles, the previous (unit) cost cost of of

of items percentage to or For the to the

produced of

item is -' an up unit if so ..

Alternative producing all items the item, 200th, unit percent an the grlds. of this some is a (8) 200th and and

theory

refer

incremental average if the co_t of

a given

quantity

producing producing the lO0th of the

a given an item of the If cost

quantity. is the 80 percent 400th

example, of the is

producing of the

cost

unit process cost

80 percent is said to

cost an 80

production the of average

follow all units, 200

percent is 80

learnlng of 80 the

of the

producing first i00

units

producing average in a power

the Either

process formulation on

follows of

cumulative results Although percent of minor

learning function is frequently it

curve. that is made must curves. assembly have different cost

linear to be a

logorithmic curve that

reference for

learning

an aircraft, learning major

recognized For example, material learning

many different assembly labor, items acts

fabrication and curves. acts one to reduce subcontractor

labor,

or vendor Thus, Even

supplied inflation though

may all to

increase function frequently

while

learning of

these effect

factors should

independently be considered data

another, analyst attempt-

combined to make

by the because

extrapolations the impact of the

from other.

reported

cost

one

may tend

offset

Military

Versus Because

Connercial military of the and

Aircraft commercial basic common notable to which transport aircraft, systems exceptions the aircraft it would aircraft wo,_.!d be be exist. are are occasionally that While exceptions the

I:

different the this are cost is

models and

same of case, uses

expected

construction the the

identical. These put and

frequently by both

caused

2-24

u contractual I" !i '" ; procee_ under which they are produced. Some examples of differ-

ences between m_lltary and Section 4. These differences the _ost estimating to determine the

comme_clal do not that of were

aircraft appear to have been

are discussed below and in be large enough to invalidate developed when they the are data

relationships the cost

app_lea upon

a complete based when

aircraft. be cost

However, reviewed of and

which

relationships be

should only the.

appropriate system

adjustments

should

considered

a particular

i:
i __i _.

Is

sought. One cause for differences is the manner between in mtlt_ they _ and are commercial used. While transport a typical

aircraft

components

which

Air Force cargo aircraft

flies less than 500 hours flying hours. equipmentwhich, aircraft military

annually, Air Force in part, components.

a commercial flying hours results in

transport may approach 3,600 annual are, however, more demanding on the the lower Other are caused expected differences by differing life of in some cost

military between

and

commercial the

aircraft over-

contractual For example,

requirements some military

among

agencies

seeing production. : ... against tlons. nuclear

components

must be hardened regulaupon

attack

and the FAAhas

very strict

fire and smoke

Each of these requirements

increases example,

the cost of the aircraft required use of high

which it is Implemented. _
\ 6.

As another

reliability

(HI-Rel) parts

for military

electrical

components

may cause

them to cost two to ten times . Other Factors The extent o . .o a partlcular components change _n the
_m

their commercial

equivalents.

to which existing

technology

will meet

the requirements

of

syutem on a new aircraft be used in manufacturing increase

and the degree will greatly

to which influence the cost

off-the-shelf cost. depending after A

can

in

technology case. started.

may either Technological This

or decrease are the

specific has

advances increases

often cost

incorporated and perturbs

production the learning

usually

curve.

q,

i!

,k

' 2-25

Another

factor

that

influences

cost

is

the

difference

in

design

phi-

losopi,ies among the aircraft : regarding need _ For how a requirement outside and

manufacturers. is best

Each often has its own idea Their approach to and cost. and often i

fulfillcd.

for additional example, Boeing

manufacturing generally

capability design their

also influences own systems Lockheed system,

Douglas

then procure :
;i i

componen_:s from several subcontractor design

subcontractors

while

has a single

and produce

a complete

I
SECTION 3 ,,,_ S_Y OF WE, IGHT ANALYSIS

Weight and military

and technical aircraft. data transport

were_sing collected these

and analyzed data, weight

for 26 commercial estimating

iii

relationshipsl.**(WERs) summary of the weight is then 5,

were and given

developed technical of these weight of each

for data

the for

17 aircraft the

systems

discussed aircraft. transport presented A airand

26transport existing data are

m_

demonstration craft. analyzed A.

UERs for and WER is

three

In Section and the

detailed

technical discussed.

derivation

SUMMARYOF WEIGHT ESTINATINGRELATIONSHIPS WERe have been the less in the which developed level. bare engine are under These this study for commercial sum to in the and military "manufacturers 3.1. those The design phase features, base nor i

. L

transports empty symbols

at

system the

WERe, which are in known

weight" used

weight, defined to be

shown

Table Only

equations are likely

Table during

3.2. the and

ii

characteristics of the aircraft were under not

conceptual technology in the data

development common to the

were

used. of

Any design the vehicles before for

i , i -

which used

majority were

normal

conditions,

removed adjustments

correlations special

were features

made. were

Then, where calculated.

appropriate,

separate

In a system

some in in to

cases, to

separateWERe have a WER that 4.

were

developed

for with systems,

major each

components of the CERs

of

order

corresponded for some the

I : " i -_" _ _

discussed developed

Sections improve

2 and

Also, (e.g.,

component system is

WERe were broken into

correlations

nacelle

* For some aircraft systems, additional data were available and **The systems for which WERe were developed correspond exactly dard weight groups defined in Military Standard 1374, except Standard combines hydraulics and pneumatics into one standard and includes the autopilot with flight controls. Not to have pilot with avionics would have required arbitrarily splitting flight guidance and control system weight for newer aircraft controls and avionics whereas the autopilot weight for older readily available.

were used. to the stanthe Military weight group put the autothe integrated between flivht aircraft was

_ _"

3-1

....

, .....

::

.......

, ......................

= ,, ==_ ......

Table 3.I SUMMARY OF WEIGHT ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS 1. Wins W1 " .


'j.

I ....... ,.

" -

0.930 Iw +6.44

+ 390

Medium and LarEe Small

i.

W1

4.24 Iw + 0.57 Sw

where:

Xw

U (AR)1_5 (ZFW/TOGW)0"5(I+2_ )(W/S)SwI'510"6 t/c (cos _c/4)(I + X )


e

:. 2.

Alternative Wing Equation W1 Tail W2 = 5.03 St 6.39 St Conventional Tall "T" Tall 0.112 TOGW - 1,720

W2 3. Body W3

"'"

161 Np - 5,110

Medium and Large Commercial Small Commercial

W3

ii0 Np

W 3

0.467

Sb1"277

Military

4.

Alighting Gear D

w4" Z
:' 4.' i-A D " W4' " _ W41 i-A

+Z w41
i-E

Basic AlIshtln8 Gear

"

W4A + W4B + _%C + W4D

'"

3-2

i
Table
L

T
3.1 (Continued) SUMMARY OF WEIGHT ESTI3qATINGRELATIONSHIPS .. -_ ,; 4 Medium and Large Commercial W4' " 0.0439 (TOGW) - 2,050 Medium and Large Military Small Coun,ercial SmaZl Military i 4.

.......................................................................... .... _

L
.

'

Basic

AZtghttng W4_ -

Gear

(Continued)

0.0440 (TOGW) - 672

W4' ..!*'. W4'

0.0395 (TOGW) 0.0302 (TOGW)

= "L * : Li' ! (.' :


" i

4A.

A//ghtlng Gear Structure W4A - W4' [0.450 + 23.1 X 10.8 (TOGW)] Alighting W4B = Gear Controls '/4' [0"130 - 6.56 X 10.8 (TOGW)]

4B.

L
4C. ._ 4D. Tires

Wheels W4C

and Brakes
m

,j

W4'

[0.268 - 8.12 X 10.8 (TOGW)]

!i ' ! ,.

W4D 4E. Add for W4E 4. : :. ""


AQ

W4'

[0.152 - 8.38 X i0"8 (TOGW)] Tires - 0.0102 X i0-5 (TOGW)] in Sink Speed

Low Pressure each W4'

[0.125

Add for W4p

ft./sec. 0.038 W4'

Increase

4G.

Add for W4G

Prepostttoning " 0.184 W4

and Inflate/Deflate

Requirements

Table

3.1

(Continued)

SUMMARY kVEIGHT OF ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS 4H. Subtract for Carbon Brakes W 4' [0.0786 - 0.071 X l0 -6 (TOG_)]

W4H = 5. Nacelle W 5 5A. Cowl WSA = where Ic =

W5A+W5B

+Wsc

0.0415 =

NeI c (1.316 + 0.0125 Dr) LID f + Lf DE + Df) Lfe x Df + Lc D-c

(1. 316 + 0.0191 5B. Pylon

W5B " T Spy e Mdem + 0.0144 IPY) (8.0 Ly where py If, S PY PY 5C. Add for W5c 6. Propulsion W 6 6AI. = W6A + W6A + W6B + W6C I 2 Reverser = (0.218 Df Lft r + 0.0120 Tft r) Ne Tall = Mounted "S" 3.04 Duct Nacelle

[ (WsA + WSB)/Ne ] 0.893 _ (WsA + WSB)/Ne

Fan Thrust W6A I

_
3

3-4

/,

1
Table 3.1 (Continued) SUMMARY F WEIGHTESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS O _ 6A2. Engine Exhaust Reversers (0.179 and Nozzles Tpt r) Ne Cascade or Target Type Reverser with Translating S_eeve Simple Reverser Target Type with Separate Flow Exhaust Nozzle Simple Target Type Reverser wlth Mixed Flow Exhaust Nozzle

W6A 2 --.
Dm

Dt Lpe x + 0.0389

W6A2

(0.131 Dt Lpex + 0.0239 Tptr) Ne

' 0"

W6A2

(0.105 Dt Lpex + 0.0122 Tptr) NO

' _
P

W6A2

(0.113 Dt Lpex + 0.0144 Tptr) Ne

SeparateSystemEngine Exhaust Flow Without Thrust Reverser Short Duct Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser

..

W6A2

(0.096 Dt Lex

+ 0.0094 Ttr)

Ne

6B.

Fuel

System

W6B W6B 60.

2.71 (LNft)0"956 0.920 L Nft

Commercial Military

Engine Systems

W6c W6C 7,8. Flight

117 Ne 133 Ne and Hydraulics

Without auto throttle W&th auto throttle

Controls

W7 + W8 W 7 + W8

87.0 + 2.17 Sos0"973 360 + 2.525 Sos

Single Hydraulic System Multi-Hydraullc System

I
3-5

Table 3,1 (Continued) SUMMARY WEIGHTESTIMATINGRELATIONSHIPS OF

.. .....
m.

7,8.

Alternate Hydraulics

Flight Controls Equations -

and

W7 + g8 W7 + W8

45.0 + 0.269 (Sw + 1.44 St)I'I06 45.0 + 1.318 (Sw + 1.44 St)

Single Hydraulic System Multi-Hydraullc System (Sw + 1.44 St) _ 3,000 Multi-Hydraullc System (Sw + 1.44 St) > 3,000

""

'

. 7.

W7 + W8

18.7 (S + 1.44 St)0"712 - 1,620 w

Flight Controls
i.

W7 W7 8. Hydraulics W8 i
J

0.769 (W7 + W8) 0.728 (W7 + W8)

Single Hydraulic System Multi-HydraulicSystem .

m -

0.231 (W7 +W 8) 0.272 (W7 + W8)

Single Hydraulic System Multi-Hydraullc System

W8 9.

Electrical W 9 W9 W9 = 16.2 Np + 110 Commercial

= =

0.508 Sb 0.0919 Sb + 1,870

Military Sb _ 4,500 Military Sb > 4,500 '

I0,11, P,_eumatlc,Air Conditioning and 13. Au_illary Power $10 + Wll + WI3 Wl0 + WII + WI3 10,11. Pneumatic and Air = 26.2 Np 23.4 Sb 0.944 0.545 Military Conditioning Commercial i

Wl0 + Wll Wl0 + Wll

13.6 15.6

NP 0.560 Sb

Commercial Military

3-_

........................... :.............. .___

....

_S_.:_:___._...

_\_.7:..

T"

!.
Table "" i ; 11. Air 10. SU_Y Pneumatic Wl0 0.290 (W10 + Wll) 3.1 (Continued) OF WEIGHTESTIMATINGRELATIONSHIPS

Condittonins

VZl - o.71o(Wl0 +w111


13. Auxiliary W13 = ; _.. i 12. W13 Auti-Icin8 = W12
f _4

Power 0.944 26.2 Np 0.545 23.4 Sb - 15.6 Sb - 13.6 Np 0.560 Military Counercial ,

0.38 -

Sw

Nacelle Air Induction and _tLec. Only Wins Mounted Turbo-fan or Jet Ensines _Icnout Ta_ ! _i-Ice Wins Mounted Turbo-fan or Jet Engines with Tail Anti-Icin s Fuselase and/or Tail Mounted Turbofan Ensines with Tail Anti-Icing WinE Mounted Turboprop gnst,es with Tail Anti-Icing ,

Wl2

0.120 Sw

W12

0.238

Sw

" W12 0.436 Sw

W12

0.520

_"

14.

Furuishinss W14 -

and Equipment 62.3 Np + 290 118.4 0.650 NP - 4,190 Sb Co-..ercial Conuercial Military Np _ 80

._ . /.

WI4 W14

NP > 80 Sb _ 4,500

'"
_P eO

WI4

0.271

Sb + 1,710

MilitaryS

b > 4,500

3-7

=i

Table

3.1

(Covtluued)

SUMMARYOF WEIGHT ESTIHATING RELATIONSHIPS 15. Instruments

W15 W15 15A.

= =

1.872 Np + 0.00714 0.0540 Sb + 0.00714 Instruments 0.00714 G + 34

G + (0.00145 T + 30) N e + 162 G + (0.00145 T + 30) N e + 160 ._

Commercial Military

Fuel Quantity W15 A -

15B.

Propulsion W15 B -

Instruments (0.00145 T + 30) Ne

15C.

Other _nstruments

W15 C W15 C 16. Avionics

1.872 Np + 128 0.0540 Sb + 126

Commercial Military

WI6

= =

Np + 370 2.8 Np + 1,010

General Category

Aviation I oL II Domestic

W16

W16

2.8 Np + 1,380

Category

I or IT Overwater

W16

"

2.8 Np + 1,970 2.8 Np + 2,320

Category Category

III Domestic III Overwater

WI6 WI6 17.

0.i0 Sb + 2,330

Military

Load and H_ndllng W17 " 50 Commercial

WI7

130

Mllltary

3-8

"

Table

3.2

SYMBOLSUSED ]N WEIGHTESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS

Upper Case . AR BPR G , -

S,_bols Ratio

Lower Case Synd_ols a + b - coefflclents b c cos cs dam - body - c_l .- coslnc - control surface weight of i ]

Aspect

Bypass RaCio Diameter (inches) Fuel Quantity (gallons)

GLA H I -

Gust Load Alleviation Height Weight (inches) Index for wing)

- demountable power plant - engines - fan

"_ ,

L NIA N RSS S T

Length (inches except feet Maneuver Load Alleviation Number Reduced Static Area (square Engine Takeoff Ultimate Weight Thrust Gross Stabillty feet) (lb./engine) Weight (lb.)

e f fax

- fan exhaust ducting including bifurcated ducts and outer cowl - fuel tanks reverser .

ft ftr h i

- fan thrust - horizontal

TOG_d ,s

U W " W/S

Load Factor (Ib,) (lb./ft. (lb.) 2)

- _ip to engine face

front

Wing loading Zero Fuel

p ptr py pax

- passenger - engine exhaust reverser - pylon - primary - landing exhaust sear nozzle thrust

ZFW -

Weight

s t

struts exhaust to

- tall or turbine flange - average thickness chord ratJn - vertlcal - wins - taper ratio root chord) C/4 - sweep angle chord (tip tall

_.

t/c v w .. _

chord/

of quarter

._

'

3-9

equations for small

for and

the large

cowling and

and for

pylon).

Likewise, and military to

separate

WERs were for

developed cases

"

comerclal

transports

where a single WER was not appllcable systems, design alternative equations available regarding

all types of aircraft. Thus, depcndlng e_plalned use.

For several

are p_ovlded. factors to

upon the 5, a ] studies design where

information

and other which

in Section

choice may be made

e_uation

The &_tlmatlng approximate : weight

relationships

can be used for conceptual but where limited

estimates

are required,

data

a_e available.

These estimating the weights

relationships required

can also be used as the airframe cost estl2 and

basis for determining

for making

mates using the cost &stlmatlng 4 of this report. B. SUMMARYOF WEIGHTDATA System and 7 military data, Three weight data are

relationships

discussed

in Sections

given

in

Tables

3.3

and data,

3.4

for

19 as

commercial more in a and Table

transports, ware used study in

respectively. the de civation are base.

These of the

as wall

detailed 3.1. broader,

WERs presented order the to provide

recen_

aircraft data

included These

in are

more

comprehensive

MDAT, SCAT-15,

AST(M).
The sources for the data tabulated In Tables 3.3 and 3.4 are given in that were made to

Table 3.5 together with ensure C. comparability APPLICATIONS Weight the equations were are
f.

notation

of any adjustments

for all aircraft. OF THE WEIGHT ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS

estimates in Table as examples

have been made 3.1.

for the DC-10-10, in Section great

C-141A and F-28 using

As mentioned of their

2B, these aircraft The used and results the

selected presented

because with the

diversity.

together

equations

and variables

actual weights

in Tables

3.6, 3.7 and 3.8, respectively.

_ =;

* The MDAT is the Medium Density Air Transport, SCAT is the Supersonic Cruise Air Transport and the AST(M) is the Advanced STOL Transport (Medium).

3-1o

mt

:_ "

, ,..

m"'.-'m_m_.-,,

"

"

I ......................
all

'

+'

"I"

I,

"l"

I+.

+ +. " _
, ,

-.
+ _, _'
_

1
_

_""

"

_
'

,4

_-_7

_.-...................... ............. :...................................... __ "................ __ ........... ..... _ _ ....... _ _:_ _::_-_...... "" ._'_ . ii .......... ......... __-2._ ....... :__

3-20

/,

.,

._

.,

,'I, "

"

"..

z"

_
"

_._.

!
'- .
":

_.__i
_i
_

,
_,
II

o
I

il
!
I _-__'_' ' " _

(_

II

;2 "
t 1

,-;

,.;

.;

,,;
3-21

,,;

:\\ ...........:............... _i. :--"

'

;............. ':-=_

,. " _ _::i'_ ........

<:,-

, _"_"

,'

,o,

_"

WI}

4W Z

m
U

+
_

_
_

,,=I

,.w

wi_

,,e

:_ _

,&,l

r,,."

f_

II

_.-,4

3-22

! I
e#

g
m e.4 ,eq

"
| e_

.,-

3-23

! I
When the it 4.7 Note so ment these was total found estimated that the weights DC-10-10 were and compared were with the total actual by 5.5 not 2.9 weights and | C-141A was certain for the low engine. are nacelle s_gnlflcantly aircraft seats, items oxygen is taken Several weights because the under-est_n_ted by were propulsion exclude them.

d
|

percent, that that in

respectively. the case could the only are the are of the not

The F-28 F-28, be made total of

over-est_nated design nacelle, to weight. the tall data

percent. available and instru-

!
| ]

estimates and systems

systems

actual

was

adjusted actual for

However,

7 percent significantly tail the to mounted pylons reduce were

The DC-IO-10 because of weights heavy due C-141, the are to the the double low use i

estimated hinged for of the

weights rudder nacelle and

The estimated

because material

extraordinarily flutter. For

stiffening

the

furnishings furnishings of a number

and and of

equipment equipment items such weight show

underestlmated. does not include and

The WER for the weight and the actual

on military as of troop these

system into

litters

supports. _ and estimated were noted

When the weights in

account,

good

agreement. and actual

significant for the

differences F-28. design These informa-

comparing not be

estimated explained,

differences tion was not

could

however,

adequate

available.

I.
. study i basis a_rcraft i system, turn. ,, " The production were for presented each CERs system or logical The syste_ cost

4 SYST COST
estimating 2.1 relationships of Section 2. (CERs) derived In this section, for in this the each in Table discussed

in detail.

CgRs were derived of the systems. is

or major

components

of several in several in detail; except

Each in are the cost in

grouping is first

of systems de_scribed

cases, these

discussed

descriptions Then,

accordance_rLth_tlitary data for the system is

Standard presented, It should since

1374

as noted.

and the be noted they are

derivation that

of the

CER or CERs is data are air-

explained _. presented craft

in detail. in general

much of the

cost

terms

considered for

proprietary each system,

by the

nmnufacturer8 emerging costs are

or subcontractors. technology given in _ discussed

Finally,

or system

grouping, " '.! _:tor All data

as appropriate. dollars. Ho_c of the subcontracHowever, the

constant

1975

a_c recent data used,

and were assumed prtJnarily factors unless that

to be in data

1975 do11_rs.

historical ! normalized average

documanted 4.1.

in Reference All costs are

6, were cumulative sealFor

by means of the for 100 unite

in Table other_rLse

costs

indicated.

A quantity

in S factor structure, -" :

or "learning an 86pexeent

curve" learniu

was used S curve

tc adjust was used

to 100 units. based

on C-5 and C-141 data. (6) was used base learning on a curve

For instruments Rand Corporation was used based

and avionics study. _9)

an 88 percent For all data. other (6)

learning systems

curve

a 94 percent

on C-5 and C-141

., _.' ._:'

..

* For convenience, all system sunnuarized in Appendix C.

descriptions

presented

in this

section

are

_::

** Reference 6 normalised costs to 1973 dollars. For this report, these costs were adjusted from 1973 dollars to 1975 dollars usin$ factors of 1.249 for airframe and 1.i31 for avionics. These factors are different from those indicated in Table 4.1 since" Reference 6 used proJecte_ escalation rates which have been corrected in Table 4.1. ***These learnin_ curvo8 are incorporated in the CE_ equations in Table 2.1.

:,._

4-1

Table 4.1 ECONOMI.CESCALATION FACTORS Calendar 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Year Airframe Production Avionics Production '

3.074 3.055 3.016 2.854 2.665 2.573 2.471 2.377 2.292 2.231 2.163 2.098 2.003 1.900 1.807 1.709 1.585 1.483 1.409 1.309 1.202 1.093 1.000

2.575 2.559 2.526 2.390 2.233 2.155 2.069 1.994 1.926 1.855 1.796 1.737 1.688 1.624 1.532 1.441 1.363 1.295 1.234 1.176 1.123 1.062 1.000

! i

'

The factors **Also used

apply for

to

the

mid-year.

instruments. DoD Price Indlcles, Revised 22 Nov. 71, OSD (PA&E). Cost Indicies, USAF/ASD

Sources:

1953 to 1957:

1958 to 1971: Historical and Porecasted Aeronautical USAF/ASD Coat Report #110, January 1973. 1972 to 1975: Cost Report Aeronautical Economic #110B, July 1975. Escalation Indicies,

4-2

!
_ A. WING, TAIL ANDBODY SYSTEMS The wing, for "_ _ "i _ , _. they have tat1 and body designs the of structural and wing, use tall systems similar and body aircraft, costs because the are considered together of similar Although the total to the in to cost materials account and methods for about small research objective systems. compared compatible of Some with with new the

fabrication. cent was been this data of

40 pereffort bad i

a transport of their

a relatively previous

devoted conducted study were

analysis this develop for the area.

Furthermore, the tail

principal

was

CERs for wing,

non-structural and body and were that were

obtained research.

IS

'

previous those

Then, the other

CER_ were systems.

developed

derived

for

Systems

Descriptions The wing system consists of the wing box structure, leading and

"" o. _.

trailing Actuation

edge structure

and leading surfaces

and trailing is accounted structure

edge control

surfaces. conthe and antiFor '

for the control

for in the flight is included hydraulic functional with

trols system. wing system.

The wing carry Systems

through

such as the fuel system, their respective

system

" "" " "" ' ""

ice system

are included with landing

systems.

wing mounted fitting

gear designs,

the wing bulkhead, required

trunnion

attach gear

and auxiliary

spar structure

to distribute

landing

loads in the wing with the alighting

and to transfer gear system.

these loads All wing

to the fuselage

are included in

attach bulkheads

located

the fuselage

are included

in the body system.

.=

The tail system The horlzontal

or empennage

is defined through

similar

to that of the wing. but the ver-

tall includes terminates

all carry at

structure,

-_ :'" i: _

tidal tall usually Falrlngs fillets

the fuselage with

loft llne (top of fuselage). the tall system. structure, door and win-

and the 1n are included system conslats of fuselage

The body

shell

]-

dow frames, doors, windows, floors, bulkheads, cockpit windshield, radome and tailcone. Door actuation mechanisms and alrstalrs are also

i i

I_'i

4-3

i-li
.....................................

? ........................

.... ,=
__ : _

_r_

=,,,
,_,_,_,...

Z _''

.................... L_Li. II , .....


'._ ...... _=...... ::_,,, : :_

............. ..11 .iP i'lllmllITmlm


__i'

i
:

i i

i, !
I

i
i i i

i-"

included

with

the

body

system.

For

the

C-bA and

AST(M),

the

body

system "'

' _ _ .:-

includes the cargo loading floor structure. Sidewall instrument and panels

system since it is built insulation and paneling are considered part

in integral with the as well as cockpit of the furnishings

and consoles

equipment

system,

i,ii:_
b.! .

Systems

Costs Subcontractor cost Because it can information this be information discussed cost _nly was avallable is in considered general for several proprietary terms. military to

-'

_-

transports. _[.
Ii Z

(6)

"_

the_contractors, complete

Reasonably ......

wingsubcontractor

data were available

only for the C-141 of 34,000 subcontractors

and C-5 and ranged and 82,000 provided weight. pounds.

from $39 to 43 per pound

for wing weights several

For each of these two aircraft, to 88 and 95 percent was assumed

wing

parts amounting

of the total wing to the balance of

The same cost per pound

to apply

cost data were obtained il

from $60 to 89 per pound

For each of these four aircraft, tlally the entire tall system. was a cost of $81 per pound represented 27 percent

o oo v uo o
for the C-5, C-141, for tail weights KC-135 and C-130 and ranged to 12,000 pounds. supplied of 3,000 a single subcontractor essenThe only subcontractor data for the _ for one section of the KC-135 body which of the total body weight. at a total system level cost, the wing and body to arrive by an approximate factor of 1.33 as cost to 2C. In the case of the tail, hence the subcontractor level assembly, a factor of 1.21 was applled adjusted in and cost subcontractor cost tail per per pound cost is data observed data for are plotted as weight C-141 can _s as a function increases. and be C-5 wing in subcontractor pound is as weight the the

In order subcontractor discussed included those

costs were adjusted

in Section system

costs. When these

'

of For

weight, example, a

a reduction the

show stated

reduction as follows:

increases cost per

which pound

as weight

double_

reduced

4-4

! ! t
to 93 percent of structural to as "weight i '_* for the wing and 92 percent cost per pound scaling" with increased for the tail.* This reduction weight, which will be referred by airfor convenience, In discussions is commonly three experienced craft manufacturers. two indicated is reduced ,. indicated with aircraft manufacturers, is doubled the cost that an 80 percent slope (as weight

to 80 percent)

reflected slope

their

experience

and the third the wing and above indicate since ............

that a 90 percent data

was typical.

Although

tall subcontractor
_a

for the C-141

and C-5 discussed

92 and 93 percent expensive milling) methods which

slopes, were

these data are probabl_

not typical

used for saving weight in unusually

in the C-5 (e.g., chemlcal per pound for the C-5

resulted

high costs

am

wing and tail. diseconomles ""

Also, wide body

transports

such as the C-5 may exhibit in h_ndllng parts).

of scale

(e.g., increased with

difficulty

Based on the discussions scaling

the aircraft

manufacturers,

a weight tall

slope of 85 percent

is assumed

in this study

for the wing,

,.

and body.

: , . -Figure scaling because cussed


ma

The cost estimating

relationships

for the wing and tail shown data and an 85 percent data is not shown

in

4.1 are based oD the subcontractor slope. The actual subcontractor proprietary.

weight 4.1

in Figure

they are considered later.

The CER for the body is dis-

The results addltlonal ""

from a General on wing,

Dynamics

study were used costs. (4) were

to provide

information

tall and body

The cost estimat-

Ing relationships

developed

by General

Dynamics

for first unit with the adjusted

costs in 1970 dollars. .subcontractor average ..

To make

these data comparabl_ they were

costs discussed

above,

adjusted

to cumulative CoEts also

cost per pound for i00 units engineering, sustaining

(CACIo 0) and 1975 dollars, tooling, and profit were

for sustaining

""
_b

* This reduction in cost with increased weight same manner as a learning curve, which shows increased quantity.

can be interpreted in the a reduction in cost with

_'

4-5

............

_ ___,,_"

o-_"

'

........................ "_. _..Z.

l
r"

b
ii Qw i ""

added. C-5 data

A learning

curve

slope

and was applied.

(6)-

of 86 percent The economic

was indicated escalation

by the C-141 from Table

and 4.1

factors

were used estimating cent

to adjust the data relationships for

to 1975 dollars. the w_n8 end tail 4.1. _t is

The adjusted General Dynamics differ by from 0 to 23 pernot costs clear how comparable nor is it from the

from the

CERs shown in Figure costs are to cnrve

Central certain

Dynamics that the

the subcontract slope

collected used

learning

of 86 percent

to adjust

. : ..... ,.

first unit cost to CACIo0 ts appropriate for the General Dynamics data. Even a small change in the learning curve slope would introduce a large change an eight Dynamics in the CACIoO. For example, a one percent change in slope introduces

percent change in CACIo0. Given these uncertainties, the General estimating relationships for wing and tail show good agreement with from the subcontract single between (1.19) subcontractor the General was applied data, data point for cost the body was of limited estimating relationships an approxi-

am

those

developed Since the

value_ for

the ratio

Dynamics

body and wing

to the wing CER to provide

mate CER for o-

the body. values for the wing, tail, and body of 8.0, 9.0, and 7.0, i j

Confidence respectively,

were

assigned,

Emerging Technologies _ Engineering studies and development substantial weight savinBs can be realized materials.
_m

programs through

have demonstrated that the use of composite of aircraft materials

Until utilizing

experience compostte

is

gained materials, is

with

the manufacturer the effect

structures "" -. .. on the cost made for

of composite

of aircraft substitution

structures

uncertain. materials and cost the

However, in several may typically cost

some estimates places on the

the

of composite that both weight

F-16 and B-1 indicate in about but

be reduced

the same proportions.

_10) Thus,

total

would be reduced current structures.

the cost

per pmtud would be about

the same as for

wl

See discussion
lb

in Section

2C.

_[

4-7

B. S_stem

ALIGHTINGGEAR SYSTEM Description The alighting gear system consists of all items associatedw/thmain

and nose gears. of struts, side attachment material : comprise steering. cockpit system System :_ : four tires. _. _" for the

This Includes landing and drag braces, bogie and _rXng attachment grins _ounted for also such

sear structure which is made up beams and/or axles, trunnions, bulkheads, gears. and extra load-path gear braking controls and

fittings in the the

wing for

The alighting as retraction, wires,

components

functions cables,

The controls controls includes Cost

include gear.

or lines the

from the gear

to the landing tlte rollins items

In addition, brakes

alighting

0f wheels,

and tires.

Alighting distinct Detaile_ C-,

gear

cost

information structure,

may be conveniently controls, cost wheels information

grouped and brakes,

into and

categories:

subcontractor

and vendor

was available cost information AlightBecause

C-141,

KC-135 and C-130. (6) for cost the structure were is for obtained

Subcontractor the DC-IO, 727,

was also ing gear all

obtained controls cost

and 747. sources. it

data

from several proprietary,

of the

information terms. alighting

considered

can be discussed

: " i :

only

in general

The principal prise for approximately each of the

gear

subcontractors alighting aircraft. same percentage

supply gear

items which structural chat total of

com-

84 percent

of total transport

weight these alight-

four military also supply for

It appears of the

subcontractors ing gear and tail, t_ii


T'

about

the

structure the

co_nercial

aircraft.

As in the case to apply which to

the wing of

same cost gear

per pound was assumed components structural to 20,000 for

the balance data were 31 per

the alighting available. pound for

structural

no cost

Alighting gear weights of l_t:o0

costs ranged pounds.

from $76 to

i'.

4-8

! l
._
/m

Alighting 4.2. cussed They are

sear based

controls on the

cost flight are

per

pound figures system in design value does

are

shown _u Table costs dis-

controls si_lar This

component

in Section cost

45 ae they per pound is

end construction. not appear to vary 11

_|

The average with the

$78. controls.

total

weight for

of the the wheels

Cost data i_
G

and brakes

were

obtained

for

the

C-5, was save

C-14l,

and KC-135. The C-5 components were unusually expensive. probably due in large part to the use of beryllium brakes weight but increase For unit the other costs. The C-5 data, wheel from 2,100 of total are the total therefore, and brake to 2,600 alighting

This which

:_" _-

were not costs pounds. gear system ranged

considered.

two aircraft, weights portion

from $10 to 14 per Tires _I. : cost. For per pound. per pound. In order " _" i!_ _ ! to are

pound for

a negligible

example, the C-141 tires For the C-130, the tires

$2,600 per aircraft $1,300 per aircraft

or $2.10 or $1.50

to arrive

at a total were 2C.

system

level

cost,

the

costs

dis-

cussed above, except of 1.33 as discussed 1.10 to account do not apply.

for tires, in Section

adjusted by an approximate factor Tires were adjusted by a factor of assembly cost

for profit since other factors related to system Theme adjusted cost data were used to develop the shown in Figure 4.2 for the gear -- structure, controls,

estimating relationships portents o the alighting and tires. Oniy in the ....... be a reduction to cent slope, which data small greater that cost for alighting case

four major co_ wheels ar

_s,

; " _ _, i _ _ i _[

of the

alighting

gear

structure

did

there

appear

in cost per pound with increased weight. An 85 perwas discussed in Sectiou 4A, was consistent with the gear structures of less than 10,000 pounds (i.e., weights indicated

and medium size than 10,000

transports) pounds (i.e., off

and was used. large with transports)

For structure the data

per pound leveled

increased

weight.

I-

Table ALIGHTING

4.2
m*

' SYSTEM COST


m.

GEAR CONTROL

Major Component or Subassembly Anti-Skld Actuators Hydraullc :i Fluid Support, Attach, etc. Gear Plumbing

Component Percent of Total Control IIZ 19 24 8 3___8 IO0Z "

e Weight Cost per Pound $175-200 175-200 5- 20 0.68 25- 75 $ 63-93 (avg. $78/Ib.) 5.0 ' Confidence Value 5 6 5 8 ..

" :
;

Total Alighting Controls*

i!
i

i t_ *The total cost per pound is a weighted average control weight. The total (overall) confidence based on the percent of the total control cost. explanation. based value See on the percent is a weighted Section 2C for of total average further

4-10

J
,

Confidence and tires fidence of 8.0, value for

value_ 8.0, the

for

the

alighting r_sp_ctivoly, is 5.0

gear

structure, were assigned.

wheel._

and brakes,

.. 1

and 9.5, controls

The con-

as shown In Table

4.2..

i f

4-12

C. _

NACELLESYBTFM......

S_stcm DescrIpt,ion The nacelle _ysCem Jncludes the cowl structure, th_ pylon structure

and the represents the

sound the

suppross_ou structure

riligs from

and supports. the inlet to the

In general, engine aft rear

th_ cowl face excluding


t

thrust

reverser structure system.

structure. aft of

The exhaust rear reverser of the

duct, face is

cowling

and thrust _he

reverser
p_

the engine

inclur_cd inner

with

propulsion ducting

The fan thrust cowl over the

including fan thrust

and outer is also

and core

length

reverser

'

included

with the propulslov includes

system. engine attach mounts and wtn_ bulkheads are or fuselage with

The pylon
s_

th_ apron,

attach their

fittings. respective The sound

Wing or fuselage functlonal suppression systems.

included

' struts. ....

components treatment skin

Includz to the

the rings

and support wslls is

Any sound suppression with sound the cowl.

cowl inside for are ice

included in the the

Any inner rings

and ducting inlet lip

protection with

suppression system.

and nacelle

included

anti-icing Cost

System

Subcontractor KC-135 and C-130 -dated (except . greater includes propulsion nacelles.
t

cost for all

informatlon data. four

was available (6) It nacelle weight. accounted of the shoul_

for

the

C-5,

C-141, prothat 30 percent weight in the _upplied

from government

The same subcontracto_ be noted is about

the

nacelles

aircraft.

for than

the C-5) the total

the subcontracted nacelle system which were but were accessories

weight This for

additional primarily

engine system These

accessories weight, engine system

a part

subcontractor the starter

may include

and lubricaducting.

tton

systems,

fuel engine

tubing, hydraulic included vary

tubing, for

and anti-icing different contracts.

The specific

accessories

When the nacelle costs included subcontractor supplied engine accessories,

4-13

i
I they the no_ were cost adjusted estimating further to remove the cost of those in engine Section accessories 4D. by using was I I

relationshlps because it

discussed was

The C-5 due to

considered

abnormally

expensive because

exten-

slve use of titanium. is for a turboprop

The C-130 was also excluded

its nacelle and KC-135 of 2,500

rather than pure _et engine. from $88 to 105 per pound

The C-141 for weights

cost per pound ranged to 5,600 pounds. relationship

Thes_ data were used

to develop

a cost estimating and low bypass fan

for nacelles

with no acoustic

treatment

ratio engines. Additional pany report (ll) cost which information contained was Alllson provided in a Douglas data Aircraft Com-

Corporation These

on quiet costs pounds. ranged

nacelles

for high

fan bypass

ratio engines.

nacelle

from $154 to 115 per pound In order to determine costs were adjusted :
i

for weights

of 5,0U0 level

to i0,000

a total system

cost, the subcontractor in Section 2C. A !

by a factor

of 1.21 as discussed for assembly

factor was not included into the _otal nacelle included

to account

of engine

components

system because

the nacelle

cost data already

"engine build-up." adjusted shown pound the with cost in data Figure were 4.3. weight body used to develop percent assumed. the slope This two cost e,_timating in slope 6.0

The relationships cost per for

An 85 was

for is

reduction the same of

increased tail and

used

wing,

structure.

A confidence

value

i_ _.

was assigned Emerging

for the nacelle.

Technologies materials in nacelles has been studied by

The use of composite Douglas Aircraft

Corporation. (12) The substitution nacell_ (includlng

of advanced

compos-

ites in the DC-IO-30

thrust reverser)

was estimate_ Thus, the

to save about 12 percent

in weight

and 12 percent

in cost.

total cost would be reduced

but the cost per pound

would be unchanged.

4-14

"'

l 1

4-15

.4

D. System

PROPULSION DescrIptlon The propulslon

SYSTEM (LESS

ENGINE)

"

system fan

includes thrust the

the

englves

(which system, and

are the fuel

not

considered exhaust The ,

..

in

this

study),

the

exhaust system,

reverser engine

engine system.

thrust

reverser/spoiler

_ybCam

fan exhaust cascades, structure,

thrust reverser doors,

system

includes ductlng

the translating located with

structure, the translatlng exhaust thrust

blocker

fan exhaust

and the actuation system

system and controls.

The engine

reverser/spoiler

includes exhaust

all of the structure flange which systems include

and systems

located

aft of the engine turbine tailplpe and bullet. ignition,

the thrust reverser, for coollng injection

The engine throttle,

Include

components

lubrication,

and starting

as well as the watar Includes

system and cockpit drain system, system,

controls.

The fuel system system,

the fuel fill and fuel dump

fuel distribution

fuel vent plumbing,

integral wing

tank sealant,

and supplemental

fuel tanks.

System Cost Propulsion following system system cost information thrust reverser is conveniently (includlng exhaust grouped inr_ the

categories:

system), engine

and fuel system. Subcontractor cost information was available for the C-5 and C-141 some approximate and exhaust ranged cost system

thrust

reverser

and exhaust

system. (6)

In addition,

information

was available Aircraft

for the DC-10 thrust study. (12)

reverser

from a Douglas

Company

These costs

from $108 to

149 per pound for weights influenced whether by whether

of 3,200

to 6,300 pounds and were slgnlfleantly was used and

or not a fan type thrust reverser treatment was used.

or not acoustic

Engine Table 4.3. DC-8, DC-10, considerably

system co_ts were estimated The percentages C-141, among of the engine data.

based

on the breakout

shown

in

system weight Although the error

are based

on the percentages vary

and C-5 weight the different

the component introduced

aircraft,

into the

total

4-16

tR

Ii

im

engine provided

system in

cost Table

is 4.3

not were

more

than

__lO, in

percent. the following

The

cost manner.

per

pound The

values

estimated

starters wiring in is e

for the C-130 and C-141 cost about and ducts were Section 4H. estimated

$150 per pound.

Miscellaneous as discussed

to cost $25 and 75 per pound in the throttle controls and

Most

of the weight cockpit

and ignition linkages

system_

in the mechanical

throttle

to the engines, is discussed

The cost of $60 Lo 80 per pound in Section include 4E was, therefore,

for mechanical The engine

controls which coollng

used.

and lube systems which

ducts, plumbing,

valves

and other mechanlcal to cost between which

components

were very approxlmately based on similar aircraft systems.

estimated

$50 and 100 per pound later for other is

types of components The average

are discussed

cost per pound

for the engine

systems

$87 as shown in Table 4.3.

Fuel system 4.4.

costs were

estimated

based

on the breakout are based

shown

in Table L-1011,

The percentages

of the fuel system weight The cost per pound

on DC-8,

C-141 and C-5 data. types of components 4F. The average

estimates system

are based

on similar in Section

used

in the hydraullc

as discussed is $31. cost,

cost per pound

for the fuel system

In order to arrive at a total propulsion and engine system discussed costs were adjusted 2C.

system

the thrust reverser

by an approximate

factor of 1.21 as of components

in Section

A factor to account

for assembly

into the total propulsion system cost estimating

system was unnecessary, because account system

the nacelle inclu-

relationships and engine

for "engine build-up" with

ding the thrust reverser However, most the fuel system

integration

the nacelle.

cost was adjusted outside

by a factor of 1.33 because the nacelle and require

of the components integration.

are located

extensive

The cost estimating separate different in cost cost types per estimating of thrust was

relatlonshlps relationships reversers. based on

are shown for An 85 the the

in Figure reverser slope used for

4.4.

The three

thrust

represent reduction nacelle.

percent slope

for the

pound

assumed

4-18

! 1
A confidence w_
D

,4
L

*
value of 6.0 was assigned and fuel for the thrust reverser. at Conftdence 5.5, values for I:he eng:Lne system system 4.3 were estimated and 4.4. and 4.1, respectively, as shown in Tables

_idr

4-21

! , ,_ -............

...... --

,-, L_

.........

m,

E. System

FLIGHT CONTROLS SYSTEM Description The flight controls mechanical and fluid), flight rub autopilot strips, in system controls, control guidance and the includes hydraulic surface and the ...... following controls dampers, controls), components: (actuators, electrical cockcontrol controls i 1374 some " : . i 1 !

!. "

pit

controls,

valves, (except supports,

plumbing the

integrated fairleads, the

and miscellaneous Military system. Standard But, in

attachments. control

also

includes

flight

of the recent pilot system

transport

aircraft,

it is difficult and control

to separate

the autoof the

from the flight guidance among components.

system because

interdependency system which

Therefore, fllght

in this study guidance

the autopilot system

is included with

the integrated system.

and control

is part of the avionics Flight control funct_,ns flight

may be broken

into two groups:

those

per-

formed by the primary flight c_ntrols. for the horizontal provide pitch,

controls

and those performed consist

by the secondary of controls These

Primary

flight controls rudder,

essentially

stabilizer,

ailerons

and spoilers,

roll and yaw control system provides

about

all three axes. operation provides

The secondary of wing leading

flight control

fur symmetrical

edge slats and trailing for aircraft takeoff

edge flaps.

This action

1lit augmentation

_nd landing.

Flight controls three sources; motor servos,

are typically system,

powered

by one or a combination system

of

the hydraulic

the pneumatic

or by separate lucludlng

Other types of power

are used occasionally,

electricity i_ _; % I! medlumwhen

(electromechanlcal it is already

controls)

and the use of fuel as the hydraulic pressure (fueldraullc controls).

at the required that are used of power that

The type of flight controls depends Although offers I_ _ largely any certain type on the of type coatrol

for a particular is most any readily given

application available. each flight

can

accomplish For

function, mechanical

unique

characteristics. and less expensive relatively

example,

controls Because

are lighter they require

and offer

automatic

synchronization. to the

llttl_ space

and are attached

4-22

{,

gm

control thiner

surface and lighter within system. Actuators

at

several structure. structure

poises,

mechanical

flight

controls

permit the

a distriI

_neu_tlcglight because
of

controls larle duct

require sizes
of

a larger

i Im

volume button

the

the

_ both

are

the key co_pouenC_ standpoint,

in the

flLsht

control_ the link

system between

from

a cost

and functional controls of

They provide surfaces that

the pilotWs the i flisht

and the a_odTsm4nic

must move to in this report

control i 1

the aircraft.

The te_nactuator

as used

includes hydraulic and sears System


I

associated actuators and motors

components such as control values in the case o (also knov,m _s eervo mechanisms or servo actuators) in the case of meclmn/cal actuators. ! catesortes for the flisht of maJo_ controls controls, components system: electrical and subassemblies hydraulic controls, Detailed to develop are

Cost The cllowlns

_o 7 used

in this

study actuators,

actuators, cockpit cost cost

mechanical controls, _ _: i information esttmatns Cost aircraft control


em

mechanical fluid,

plumbtns, .has been relationship Information

supp_rt_ into

and miscellaneous. these categories system. actuators

aggregated for for

the flisht some fltshc 4.5.

controls control

es

for

two recent flisht

is

shown in Table varies

The cost

of subcontractor

supplied 747.

actuators

from about are

$70 to 200 per

pound on the

However, range "

when 747 actuators $175

Srouped

by power source, for

a much narrower actuators,

of about

to 200 per pound

_a indicated

hydraulic

a cost of $122 per pound is indicated for the pneumatic actuators and a cost of about $70 per pound is The htsh is the result edse fltsht cost of indicated for actuators L-lOll technolosy which are primarily edse enabled sisnificantly. for

....

mechanical. actuation coral _ts

of $400 9er the new, contro_

pound for

leadtns that

ll_htweisht

leadtns 648 pounds

s_stemweisht pounds got

to be reduced ?A7 and 1,27A

compares edse

to 1,18A actuation.

pounds

DC-IO-IO leading

Table COSTS AND NEIGHTS

4.5

OF RECENT FLIGHT CONTROL ACTUATORS Cost

Actuao_ 747

Type

Cost

Weight

(lb)

per

Pound

Aileron (hydraullc actuators and control valves) Elevator (hydraulic and control valves) actuators

$ 46,000

263

$175

95,000

483

197

Rudder (hydraulic actuators and control valves) Leading Edge (drive shaft, rotary actuator, ball screw actuator and transmission, pneumatic drive unit) Trailing Edge (drive shaft, gearbox, transmission, brakes, drive motor, ball screw actuators, hydraulic control valves) Spoiler actuators Horizontal assembly, hydraulic L-1011 Leading actuator, Edge (hydromechanical control valve) Speed _rake and control (hydraulic valves)

33,000

186

177 !

126,000

1,029

125

i00,000

1,478

68

61,000

312

196

StabiXizer (actuator motor, gearbox, brakes, controls)

37,000

516

72

100,000

249

402

, ,_

4-24

I
". !

i "" actuators these ,_


i

P,,chanical _th would (about close be $70

controls the _vable to

are

the

shafting It

and was

linkages that

that the

connact coat of

the

surfaces. that as of they

assumed actuators

similar per

mechanical are made of

indicated metals

on Table and m_ehtnad I

4.5 to

pound)

expensive

tolerances. controls and ass_ed and sisal to avionics be the _560 which monitor flight per is the crew pound positions re_arding as they lu and any are Section operations malfunctions. to the cost of the

Q .

The electrical flight _eir of controls cost instruments is

similar 43.

discussed

Cockpit and : peddles to

controls for the

include flight crew. for were

items

such

as of of to _Ich

control $40 to

column 60 per

levers, pound was

wheels,

A cost t_e

assumed data less $70 were

be

appropriate these

this

equipment. be less were

_though complex est_ated about cost by and, to four

no specific therefore, cost about


r

available, than

believed actuators

e_enslve per the

mech_ical this

pound.
total

Further, control therefore,

equipment syst_weight only very

comprises and slightly the

only overall

percent

": !.
iL.

..

of

flight is,

estimating this component. equlp-

relationship ' _e

influenced

_-

pluming,

hydraulic

fluid

and

supports

and mlscellaneous

i! }. _

,_ .

ment

costs _e

are cost

based info=atlon

on

data for

presented each .Jor

in

Section component

4F. or subassembly discussed

""

weight above

confidence isandsummarized

in value. Table

The system 4.6 together

weight with

percentages its percentage

areof averages system Since aircraft, the

"

--

for five aircraft weight percentages

(DC-9-30, DC-10-10, L-1011, 747 and C-141A). did not vary disce_ably by s_ze or type of

ii

" L

co_erclal separate _verall

aircraft calculations confidence

and military were not (6.2)

transport aircraft. _e made for small, medium and with the total flight

average cost wide body control system

per

associated

cost is due largely i! l

to the fact that, while control fluid, system adequate

excellent

data were

collected low for most

pound for the total flight oTI actuators and hydraulic

is $102. The relatively data were not available

i|

4-25

I
T_tble 4,6 FLIGHT CONTROLS SYSTDq COST I
t

HaJor Component or Subassembly Hydraulic Mechanical Actuators Actuators

Component of Total

Percept System Welgh_t.t 16% 25

Cost per Pound $175-200 70

Confidence Value 9.5 7.5

Me=hanlcal Electrical Cockpit Plumblng Fluld Supports

Controls Controls

29 4 4 6 3

70 560

5 4 2 5 8 3__ 6.9

Controls

40- 60 5- 20 0.68 25- 75 $ 91-113 (avg. $102/lb)

and Miscellaneous Controls System

13 100%

Total Flight

*Weighted

average.

See

footnote

to

Table

4.2.

4-26 .'_

t !
I costs I was The The only. adJustod adjusted
coBt

tnforwation In order

presented

in

Tab:e

4.6

re, resents !_vel co_t,

nubcontractor thln coat

to determine

a tota.t

system

by an approximate factor of 1.33 a, discussed in cost data were used to develop the cost _sttmnt_ng

Soc_lon 2C. relation-

ahip

shown

in

Figure

4.5.

i /

,j
_,

EmerginR

Technologies is system flight is an applicat_on could of fly-by-wire technology change In power to servo both the to the

Power-by-wire 1ight controls of future signal colocated Th_s redundant

which

significant_ systems. by wire

design

,w

and

cost

control

by wire, and

a discrete reservoirs to be wire may

electronic which *" actuated. be made are

transmitted with the aas easily problem at the

pumps at the

hydraulic initiated than

actuators for fighter and, wish actuators

surface because offers is

design more A major

aircraft therefore, power-by-wi_e and,

plumbing

greater that i_

survivability. concentrates efecting elect=Ical plexlng electrical has funded

associated surface

greater structural distribution would be

loads design.

thereby, an

adversely

To accomplish which includes

power-by-wire, remote of in this load concept 4G.

improved and the Air Force of multl-

system

control for The

required. i discussed

The impllcatlon in study in more depth

system two

Section

power-by-wire are contemplated

efforts. the near

However, future.

r,o applications

power-by-wire

i
--,t;-27 i

! 1
. HYDRAULICSYSTEM System Description :_ provides control power to o_erate components. This the system alighting is sears to

[
]7 _:

The hydraulic and the hydraulic

system flight

required

,
i

meeC peak system demands during tions. BecauSe of the criticality For example, the L-lOll hydraulic systems such inoperative inoperative systems systems.

the most critical flight and landing condiof its function, it is generally redundant. operating two three

has four separate, parallel, continuously that it can complete its flight plan with control and land safely with

and can maintain ,

L_

systems. turbine driven ground

Engine driven hydraulic pumps are the primary power source These are occasionally supplemented by a pump connected motor for emergency auxiliary pumps powered by the or peak power requirements. power unit provide checkout and preflight pressurization. provide the

for hydraulic to an air

Electric power for motor- flow low units are fluid by .

Power transfer capability by hydraulic

L ili

one-way pressure another reservoirs,

motor-driven in one system source.

pumps which through

of generating motors powered system includes

pumps driven to pumps,

In addition

the hydraulic controls technolosicaliy for

accumulators, system

filters,

valves,

and plumbing. stable transport use over aircraft the last

L
several stayed shelf !i ure

The hydraulic years the

has remained operating resulted military

as hydraulic This has

pressures in the fighters

have off-thepress-

same..

frequent

of standard, have

components. systems which that is

Recent imply

and bombers but appear systems un'aillins components research.

used higher reliable.

weight

advantages hydraulic

to be le._s have

One reason ]" _" -ally stable

transport that

aircraft

remained

tehnoiosicdesigning Thus, ,

commercial

interests

are

to pay for

developing military because the

and testing aircraft government

new hydraulic systems has underwritten

system this

such as pumps.

hydraulic

seem to be more technologically

advanced

: :

System

Cost The following categories of major components

: and subassemblies have


+

4-29
i,
i,

'"

_'

.It
been used in this study voirs and accumulators; plumbing detailed develop
"

i!

or the hydraulic system: hydraulic pumps; reserfilters, regulators, valves and manifolds; hydraulic fluid; and _Lscellaneous into these material. categories system. The to

|,

3
f

end supports; cost the information cost

has been

aggregated for

estimating costs 4.7.

relationship

the hydraulic system between

r f

Some recent provided 2.500


i

of representative Hydraulic

hydraulic in cost The cost

components $1,200

are and 't"

in Table of

pumps vary between indicated. to atrcrat

and their

unit

weights

vary

about

19 and 36 pounds. of hydraulic

Thus, pumps

i: !
I

a cost

_65 to 75 per pound is concern for their

has become a significant soma procurement co low bidders higher awarded priced to the contracts even

manufacturers. recently than

In act, been that awarded o

: !!
i'

hydraulic product

pumps have was heavier contracts weight

though

o their always
_

_ !
_

competition. bidder with

Previously, the lighcest


,_

Were almost pump. end acctunulators

Based on limited t_aeen _19 and 23 per There valves,

information, pound. information

reservoirs

cost

be-

was no cost

available

for

filters, an average

regulators, cost about

-. _.

and maniolds. the cost

They were assumed

to have

midway between lators.


o

of pumps and the cost the lower

of reservoirs

and accumucosts for .,

Thus,

by averaging a cost of

end upper bounds

of the

Chose items,

$40 to 50 per p_und was obtained. of $5 per pound for supplier. However, _us, hydraulic use plumblng and supports would .

An approximate was indicated increase thls

cost

by a parts cost

of stainless a cost between

steel

by thr_e

to fourfold.

$5 and

20 per pound was used. , $5._5 pound. Hydraulic per gallun fluid or, costs based about $300 for a _$ gallon barrel. This $0.68 is per

on a weight

of 8 pounds per gallon,

,a

:..
i_.-

_-30

REPRESENTATIVE

Table 4.7 COSTS OF HYDRAULIC

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

I;
Item Description Englne-Driven Hydraulic Pump (15HP)

Approximate Unit Price $1,200-1,500 Comments For small aircraft such as F-5. For most aircraft. transport Typical

i"
Engine-Driven Pt,mp (45HP) L Reservoirs 500-I, 000 Hydraulic 1,800-2,500

cost is about $2,000.

L _

Accumulators Plumbing (per pound)

200 5-20 High cost is less steel. for stain-

Fluid

(55 gallon drum)

300

L
i 4-31

_
i

_scellaneous assumed several to cost from in

material _25 to

(including 75 per for pound.

controls, This

wiring, cost ttcm_ range is range such

and is

s_rltche_ used in

was

places

this

report The which uncertain items, basle

miscellaneous for the cost

as wiring, data on wiring $50. the cost percent _., r


wJ

'i :} :_

ducting and

and brackets. ductlng cost is

some of

pneumatic this

indlcates

_ cost be of

per

pound

about of fifty

Because of was other used.

and may not a cost range

representative plus or minus

._is_ellaneous

The above weight is

cost

information in Table value. for they per the varied pound

for

each 4.8

ma_or

component with its

or

subassembly of

discussed system system ._ i i weight. ..

st_nnarized confidence weights that cost

together

percentage of hydraulic C-141A, of the is

and

Based DC-9, only for

on an analysis L-lOll, as 747

component deter_tned ' The average

DC-IO, slightly the only. w_ total

and

it

was

a percent

system $27 which

hydraulic order to

system determine approximate were

represents level 1.33 the cost,

subcontractor the $27 in per

costs pound

In

a total factor to

system of develop

.,

a.lJusted _e shr_an

by an

i
+" +

as discussed cost estimating

Section relationship

2C.

adjusted in Figure is

data 4.6.

used

Installation given venttonal for the entire expected, significantly calculated for materials assembly aircraft however, greater the the many feet Fl_ber's and and

for of bill

the

hydraulic

system and

be2 l,,ved

to

be

very to

expensive the conamount however, the

,. _ ..

plumbing which em-unt

r_.q_tred typically for labor. used

may Le

analogous

._

includes

a relatively in Section

small 2C, for It would of 6.3 is

! i]

a large installation

As noted is believed

factor be_n

appropriate system. system value

'

and has that

nct

adJuste0 for

by aircraft the hydraulic

installation than the average. system

be was

A confidence

hydraulic

C_R.

..........

_-32

[
-_ Table 4.8 I

HYDI_&ULIC SYSTEMCOST

,J

; i

Major Component or Subassembly Hydraulic Reservoirs ' Pumps and Accumulator's

Component Percent of Total Sy8tem Weight 17Z 8

Cost per Pound $65-75 19-23

Confidence Value 9 7

and Ha:Llfold8 Filters, Regulators, PlmnbtlL8 and Supports Hydrau" e Fluid

Valves,

$ 36 22

40-50 5-20 0.68 7_.___5 25$20-33 (avg. $27/lb)

3 5 8 3__ 6.3 ;

_, L
;

fC

Kiscell_ueous Material Total H_lraultc System

1.__2 IO0Z

ii

'

+,

;:.:--"
,.:

J,

I:
_"
t

i', ,'+.......
.:

.... .......t ........


;....

_"'

""

'

''

' ' !
, i ,. i I . _
] i |

'"1
_.;! ,..r,.,t .... :; ..;.., ..........................

+.,..,i ............ i ........ i,,. ...... ,,', !,,-'_r,',"


r .

_i ,l .... _. ,+-i.!+i,,, 1; ....

+
I

..... I, !i ..... i . I. !.' ,_1 iii_tit!ttHi!',t.+!-liii+iiti!tiltlitii_it{t li;iiii [I,!HI , _ll; l lll _p+lIl_l ;!1 ! 11 ......... ,, ' .t .... I : _ l_ll '+i:;l '.+li',i'_i+i'_ liii_'i t'l '''.:

I. _

_+

........ _, _., I I ..... _

i:_

I I I

" ' i !iNiit'di!i,iii_'_i!i!:r/:!!J;!iJii_ii:'_il !+1;_ !_ i!! i 1 !l'#!!ii!l!!i*_!!+!l!:!_7::_Y/!:.!iiJ'::.:iilAil :_:!! i_i; . Ii I :;';

:
" : : ,,_ ,-,

iilllli!!l_:il :::: i! _:]. !'.H ;';_;': ! !ili

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,,o

;:i: "!i!i:_!l. _'+;:+:I ::_ .::,_! i, i t i ii;I-_. .......... ,_. .............. !!i': ..... .... : !!iii!i!'iiii:i!!ili!_i:!ii -.:;;_'.._._i_ 7.i! Liiii_!' !'.._! ;li : ...... .;_ ........ -.':m- ! H,_: ;;'.' ::'.:: _ . ++;I ii!i ........ _ti!i:!i!!!++, ..... ............ '. : " .....::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :": ::::::": !........... '. , f ii iil;!i_i!i i t:!!':!l:!i:?!i:".!'i!!!'!!!::!!!:/

. .....

i : i :

:.
;..

"" !!+m'm i!!! _:!+_Ii!11111iiiJ +I_+ lt_ +If NilIII _........................... _ '!'.:':t_;_i:_':::;ti++:t_iliJJm_Ni il............................ :::_ : : i!ii+"t' _l, i ....... .......... I.,.....:::'l::::._::"':; ,:'::: :':" . ...,. ...._+,: _ +_ : .i .,_- ::':: '" ; _ J: .: :. "::.:__ _ ..... : : : P,7:i!!T: iii! .+!t!-!ti!i ....................... .... ,.+ ............... i!_ i! i +... !!ii : ................ . ............. . ............................... : :
'++l"i'r+l+ 'i .... + .... *_+i'_" _i;;F".!_:,'.;;+,;';;;_';_+I.+i++;;i',;;,,.
"" ++' 't ' "-' ...... ..... ,++ .........

..I_ ,.i
:'!'-+!_!.

+_ .......................
_:'.l: i '

: "i++'li,+ "+"+ + +I'! +- +.. ._l++

, ;i

"" +
+

iii,
i

1_ +'P.

+ * +

*'T : t :.; +_ . i. + i
.... +
I

. _,i .....

'_'"I ........ ":;!:'_!:l:_!'l!:,+.':',l .-.;.,',l...,l:-:i..;:l-...'..


I-" I - .

i......................... ::_:::_ ":'_.::::_::;..': ;'.;..-'; '"': ''-:


I .........................

I " : _::: : l : " '


I ' ' [ " "

' : " ' ; "


_

_'+'
_

;..+ i,:+.++..; _Ifr.,,p.''+'+ .... _ _+l ................ ++ + " _...;', ..; .... :: ,..: ,.._........... ,_i
..... o.o ....... l _i_i "'_:il "':::_: ............. ' i ..... _7;,i.i+ .... :::;!:':;;::::i:;:: i!i! !;i

+I ++.... '+" .... I + _ .;;. _ ; :.

"I ...... i i+ I +++Iill ....... iI';''I''''I l ...... .+-+IF., ...................... | +. I"........................ ; . . ; .....................................................

' )_: : ' : : " : : : i

[ ;

............ _.;:! _i_lii::_l'.::_i -: " ::

, ::i:

....... i;:;::;+:];;::': " :

I :; :

.......... ::: i!:'l

2r _

(_--I_

+ ++ o. +liiNIIlII +i:`+:'' ........... :_,+ :+i:;_++ I I ii:':,i+i ++++ .;.,........ +............ + - . : o,, _ + i:+'';.++ ................................ :. ....................... :;+::+++i+ ,mNill+i.lll il. ;:+: ..,: "
"" """" ' ' _........ +l++ " " " ;"i_' I::_:_::i:l:d',':.":..-'!:.:'. : :;:F: ::. i : : "

.................................. '.... ""

;: ..............................

'

=o

:.

':

_.!itli+:!t ti_l+l_illl_illl t +t!+ '_*' :_ii !t! _it_t_ ,,,,_:'i ,+ t ..u'.m .................i+!ii!!:tm +,._::::
:,,H:::,. ::i i :+.+':::;; .!,.i,,,,_:_, -ii ........

++:++*++++++ .......... I............. ..... .++++'"'+[++: i l........ i++' .


::;::!_._::_+"'+ ..... i, .... :::: ., ..... -, :, ;:.: ...:;:.=== + +- , '+, /:;:.:.:.;,: _-_ , !:::;_;::::: ::;..:::=============:;.. = ;....,.: :: :::: == ===
: ' ....... ' ''+, --_'., ..... ' ...... + ' ......... ' .......... ' + ' ' " + ' i ........ ..... .... I ..............

:+I: :.ill il-il : ::, + :::+++ :+ t ' . +mllli:::,+++ ...... +.:::i+_+7i;.i:++ :7++; =+l+y+++i+l+:]l+tli+++L:+++_+: 7:7+:. + . ii[ '+; _ ! !. ,:;:iiii!iii:!::!i:i!i:i_::..!:i:::::!:!::_:::! i _. L
' . :: ; :

<<'

II

+I,

,_ 0,) _t

--

. : :

+: "

"> _!_iiiiiltt!"-ti_ :!i!Miltftii!i:N:iJ "i[i iiii lll i iiliilii!i_t++_'-_l_+_:_ ;-_-+-::.,-:_::-_i:+-_/:!,: ++ _ ._:+ _+:.._,+.::+,:.:-:_:.:::.=:._._ _;_._!t _._ ,,. .... :-;,';; .... , :: .,;+,,i+ +i !I _i_itiiii+iliiT{.!!:l::7,_:_; +i+..i.iT_: !!_iiN!l!!tlli:_"l!t!!!iil_tittt:'_it,'-"_:' t ' +' ..... :.. !i_Ti:: ;!7: ..i _.,........... I...................... . , t .... ' _+!!,+:'+' !_+i!'.i*: :,iti i!'_, : ,, t ........ .............................................. ' +" ' "
0 + ' 'L

" ,<,

i,,,,

"

..i!!ii! ............ ,,.,.... ..... :.:....._ ,,,,_,ii ,,+Ill...... _!!,,,,,m!_:i+'... ,.. _ ,.,.,_ ,.....+.;i_.,. .iiii+...t_!...... ,, !i........ ,,, ......................................... .. ....... , ................... I................... +.,..,,,. : ....... ,+,+,_,+_........
I_ ....
,I,

....

t i
, i

........ _...l ...............................


' .......... ..................

,,.,
<"'

11

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'

+'

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I ..'

01,.+,

.......

,i

.,.,

++ +

I+,,

, ;

,,

,,

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.....

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+,...... +,+,_,++ ++,, ......... ......... +u+ ........... ...+ ........


lli

il'i_'.l+;:',;;,,;,;;;;l; I' i ......... II, i',',il H Ii :,JJL +......... i &_ +I I i L,III. . ++


+_,.i+ i.i.l.i;+

_i;;il;iili,l;;-_,;. ' + +++' i +|i,.++ ,, .... ........ ' .... , . + I ......... , .........
i+ii .I+. ,i._; l-+i+

....

I i ; -::"-':,'I:;;:I'+:--..::I"'" :,'':" i ' ''+'"l'"l'''t "''I .......... + ......... L ..................I'"'I ......... I...........

.+t-+_
""I; j.

'

................

++ ,tt..,:;........... i...l.._ .,.;.:+.+.++ ++ , + .+++ ; 'L .........................


.i+l i;ll +i + I "

+.... t ........ ......... I........................ ! I,-,,I i ...... ' .... l..ill ........ I.... +........ :.. , .......I....I...... I , I . ......
t ........... I !........ i. ., i
I""I ............... + ............. I""

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....

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I

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tl ...........

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", t + :,

...........................
; ($ g&6I uT s_Tufl OOI ,tol _ _ ,.,,- _

p.
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<,,", U_d

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,"+ SO0,

e_e^v)

L!III

....

'

!
G. System t ponents i_ . menta, f_re ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Description The electrical on an aircraft passenger extinguishers, system supplies power to a variety lights, of operating avionics, control comlnstrusystem, (APU)

including, doors, sear

among others: galleys, controls

and cargo landing

environmental and auxilliary

power unit

_ _-

,.

startlns, The electrlc_l system consists of the AC power system, DC powe_ system and light.s equipment system. The AC and DC power systems (i.e., constant speed drives, generators include power' generating an0 batteries) and the to distr_bute power center. of

_ _.

necessary controls, wiring, cables, fittings the electrical power from the power source The AC and DC power systems also include

and supports to theelectrical structure

the

and circuitry

,_._ + +._

the electrical power center. components using electricity The lighting their supports lighting The constant engine gearbox system

Circuitry from the power center are included with their respective includes allLnterior and exterior

to the various functions. lights _th the lights. the to

and associated system speed

circuitry. the

For com_ercial ind_vidual the passenger crucial

aircraft, reading link engine

t : _i i

..i I'* i _" /,_ . _

interior

includes drive generator

(CSD) provides as it converts

between speeds

and the speed

variable

a co._.ant The original

output

so as to drive differential

the generator

at a constant

frequency.

CSD, a hydraultc

CSD introduced

in the 194Ors, hours before use. The greater reliaThe ACD CSD

had very limited endurance (a maximum o_ about 1,000 flying overhaul) and was, therefore, not practical for commercial axial sear differential (AGD) CSD was developed to provide bility, longer life, applied lower operating all costs ant lighter aircraft. the integrated fighters cooled oil

!!_

weight.

has now been _i_ _ ! / "" ._ _. development (IDC) which It combines

to virtually

transport is

The newest drive

to be installed is used on the an AGD with

on a transport L-1011 as well design the

generator in '

as several spray combined

and bombers. generator

an advanced reduces

a common housing

and thereby

weight

by about

35 to

', _

l
The generator CSD to electrical been oil incorporated cooled, half converts energy. into oil mechanical Like energy from the engine gearbox have to weigh and CSDs, many technological They have Current spray evolved oil advances from air cooled | ji generators. cooled. lightest cooled, to spray generators and As noted [
_w

about

as much as the has been

generators

available of

in 1965 ten. of

reliability above, spray

increased

by as much as a factor are an integral

oil

cooled

generators

part

the new IDGs. ..

A generator control unit is required for each generator to operate independently. It contains the generator voltage regulator, protection In normal parallel operation the load is one or more generators generators to the electric limit power. fails, all AC buses capacity.

circuits and logic clrcuJts. shared !_ are panel used by all generators. If

', ' ""


't

supplied includes so that

by the remaining then collect control aircraft

of their

The buses

and distribute and protection systems cannot

A bus protection power sources are or

when external be subjected are

to improper individually load

frequency and unit

..

phasing

voltage.

Current

transformers currents.

used both

collectively ' is similar

to sense to a circuit current under

system

The _lectrical as it

control

breaker

in function condition

automatically

interrupts wire.
le

electric Transformer

an abnormal supply into power

and protects

distribution

rectifiers AC supply

to a DC bus and are DC output.

the key components inverter and .... _

changing _ !! _i _iii
it

controlled

The static

the battery furnish flight critical AC and DC power for instruments, navlgation and selected lighting when power is not available from other sources. The battery functions to start the APU as well as providing standby and emergency the power. Battery charge is maintained by a charger energized by

.J

,'.,
i

AC system. Aircraft lighting cabin by the aircraft specifications retrofits are is provided in four general Exterior areas s exterior, requirements the military exterior have a FAA for aircraft. _"

crew station, are defined

and cargo cognizant

compartment. government

lighting

agency/speclfication: 6503H for frequency,

co,martial Because lighting

and M/litary are changed

Specification with rela':ve

common.

Aircraft

performance

and a profile

4-.36

'
:i

tI
major Impact on cost of many exterior lights. For example, four lights may be required ments severely to do the work oi limit one or two when aircraft location performance of lights require-

the potential

and protrusion

necessary exist for . ]go

to meet functional requirements. large, subsonic transport aircraft. and interior function they the cost considerations right aircraft

This problem does not usually Like exterior lights, the cargo compartment must perform. cabin lights are

design and cost of crew station also dictated primarily by the The design driven largely there lighting is and, thereby,

..

of passenger rather

lighting

is alone. the cost

by aes_etc no clear

than

by function a cabin,

_ am

Since for

or wrong way to can vary

Illuminate

comparable

by as much as

30 to 40 percent.

li : _

Systemco,,s The followng categories of major components used in this study for the electrical system: conversion; AC power distribution; and subassemblies have AC powe_ generation; interior and exterior categories systems.

been _ _._
_i
.-I

_ _,.
_
_

AC power

DC power;

lights. Detail to develop the

cost ngot_atiouhas been cost estimating relationships

aggregated into these for the electrical

_i _ __/ _

set the

AC power generation equipment represents per engine is required and an additional APU. Approximate is provided although employ cost information 4.9. for

a significant expense as one set is occasionally fitted to AC power generation cost indicated for Is felt airThis to

recent

equipment be typical,
_r

in Table it ten vary

The CSD unit

from $15,000 technology CSDs attached are about

to 30,000 to the to

transport possible.

craft. is

C$Ds

off-the-shelf fact that

extent

illustrated

by the for

JTgD engines common,

(on the DC-8, l_cre are no

DC-9, _:

727 and 737,

example)

95 percent

significant differences between those on commercial aircraft. The cost to about $3,000 of generators to 3,500

CSDs Installed

on military

transports

and

has increased This price

from about increase

$1,200 is about

to 1,400 equal

In 1955 to the

today.

i _ _

inflation rate, however, manufacturing have a_tually offset inflation to such

and design technology improvements a large extent that more than half

: i t

4-37

!
........ _ ...... , ...... _" .... _ -:,_

J
Table 4.9 REPRESENTATIVECOSTS FOR TRANSPORT A_RCRAFTELECTRICALSYSTEt4COMPONENTS Descr_ption AC Power Generation ACD Constant Generator = Quick Attach Detach Kit (qAD) and Plumblng Heat Exchanger to Cool CSD O11 AC Power Conversion Static Inverter 2 or 3 per aircraft 3,000-4,500 6,000-.13,500 Speed Drive I per engine 1 per CSD 1 per CSD 1 per CSD $ 24,000 3,000-3,500 500300700 500 $ 96,000 12,00014,000 r _. , _ ! Approximate Quantity Required , Unit Cost Total Cost ! 1 |

2,000- 2,800 1,200- 2,000

! :

._ ,_

'!" / -

'AC Power Distribution Generator Control Box Contactor Bus Protection Panel Relays and Circuit Breakers I per generator 2-4 per channel 1 per aircraft 1,000 per aircraft 5 per channel 2,000-3,000 500 1,200 50-300 8,000- 12,000 4,0008,000

1,200 75,000-200,000 5,000 '" ,.

,. o :,

Current Transformer

75 for single 1,500150-400 for package

Electrical Unit**

Load Control i per CSD (600-1,200 pounds) 800-1,200 -3,2004,800 "_ 30,000- 50,000

Wlrlng-Tnstalled

.... DC Power System Battery Transformer/Rectlfier

2 per aircraft 1 per channel

1,000 750

2,000 3,000 $241,900-409,300 4.10.

Total Cost

' :

* Assumes four channels per aircraft. Does not include lighting - see Table ** Current transformers and load controllers may be used interchangably. If a load controller is used, only two contactors are required per channel. ***In addition to 3 included in generator and part of generator cost.

"

4-38

,_

i1

I
of the L price increase materlals may be attributed _o the greater use of more expcnslv, 11shtwelght _-i _. "1" ,, , "" cost about
t

The cost off AC power generation equlpr, ent averages 928,600 per engine The weight rangu from 165 to 205 pounds. Thec_fore, a cost of 9151 to 188 per pound was estimated, l_ie generating equipment employing AC power conversion about 93,800 applies to AGD type systems. AC power the new IDC, costs roughly 20 percent more. consists in Table of several 49. Their static unit inverters weight is which .

equipment

_.ach as indicated

15 pounds, therefore, a cost of about 9250 per pound is estimated. AC distribution equipment are a diverse collection of items that control breakers, wire, and hence wire, conduit boxes relays

include

_ _ f : ""

gi_er_tor circuit

and panels; voltage regulators, contactors, bus panels; and switches; distribution boxes and panels; and and supports. of circuit vary Of those breakers greatly items listed above, the

u_scellaneou8 quantity, aneous

conduit weight,

and switches with the remain size

and the miscellof the aircraft fixed sizes, with By -

and supports,

i,

from 500 to 2,500 varying using weight from about

pounds 190 to

The balance 250 pounds

of the items for a wide 4.9

relatively

range

of aircraft it

the information statements, it

contained

in Table that

and correlating items cost

detailed of

was determined

these

on the order

$80 to 100 per pound. The DC power - _ circuit eelleneoua i _ see


i,

system relays,

includes limiters,

batteries, distribution the weight

chargers, bo_es

transformer and panels, contained of

rectifiers, and misin Table ....

breakers, wire

and conduit it with

By using detailed

information data,

4.9

and correlating was determined Lightin_ system costs

a range

$50 to 58 per

pound _ _. _" types.

for

the DC power system are the shown in Table light 4.10 for a variety for of aircraft controls comprise and 40 to 60

costs are for the

These

and fixtures Lights lighting

but not weight

or power

supplies

unless of

otherwise total

noted interior

and fixtures

from 60 to 85 percent percent includes of the total transformers,

exterior lighting wire supports,

weight. The remainder of the weight plugs, etc. By correlating the coat

t
4-39
t .... _ ! 2 ! .... ......

i / _ data in Table 4.9 with per pound to represent detailed weight statements and using a factor of $50 miscellaneous material as di_cusBed in Section 4F, both exterior and interior are part of the avionics subcontractor and their cost

1 1 a f _ !

_ :

a cost of $45 to 80 per pound was determined for lighting. Although caution and warning indicators system, they are often provided by the ligh_ng is shown on Table 4.10 for information only.

il : ++ i: i l :_. +:: :+_ : : " :_ _ :.

The above cost information is summarized in Table 4.11 together with percentages of system weight and confidence values for the four classes of aircraft electrical larger. relative defined in Section 2C. system as a percentage However, there is As might be expected, the weight of MEWdecreases as the aircraft lack of consistency among the regarding classes of the get the

_+
_'i

a notable system

mix of electrical

components

of ctrcraft. _

While there is no apparent reason for many of the variations in the mix, som_ can be explained by close examination. For example, the large decrease in AC power generation equipment weight between medium and wide-body aircraft is the because three most medium aircraft wide body aircraft provides considered have electrical This 2C. only three have four engines while two of engines. cost information for each the pound is

ii t

" "" ,

Table of the four

4.12 classes

system

.m

of aircraft. in Section

was accomplished An average cost

_y applying of $104 per

methodology

described

: "" _ +. -" :: '

appropriate for small end medium commercial aircraft and for military air+ ! craft. in these $89 per pound is costs is appropriate for wide body aircraft. components The difference included

due to the variances

in the mix of

in the electrical systems of each of the various types of aircraft. :_ Table 4.12 also provides 7.9 confidence to 8.3 4.12 level values depending represent costs, for the electrical aircraft system

-m

CERs. They range The costs

from about presented total factor

on the

type. costs only. ,+ t _,

in Table system of 1.33

subcontractor these costs 2C.

+ +.

In order

to deteruLtne

were adjusted The _dJusted shown in

by an approximate cost Figure data 4.7.

as discussed the cost

in Section

were used

to develop

estimating

relationships

f!?

44,

t !
Table 4.12 I ELECTRICALSYST_ COST BY AIRCRAFTTYPE Small Medium Wide Body Military Transport

tea
(avg. Confidence Value

lss-n3
$100/lb.) 8.3 (avg.

$94-118
$106/lb.) 7.9 (avg.

$76-102
$89/lb.) 7.9 (avg.

$93-118
$106/lb.) 8.0

r
_"

Emerging TechnoloEies Technology related to the electrical system is rapidly advancing and

...........

""
mD

many in_ovations should tion of new t_nologies and distribution Variable eventually variety input are speed

be implemented in the future. The potential applicato current methods of electrical _ower generation below. fr-quency VSCF is solid state (VSCF) teehuolo_ actuaily tec_ology el,_ctrical is seen by some as a

"! "* --.


t_

discussed constant the CSD.

replacing of options

a term which to convert output.

includes the

i
.m

for

using into

irregular "i -"

of the power

source

a constant

Cycloconversion,

DC llnk and high voltage DC are three such options. Cycloconversion input from the output. a high generator Since speed enploys a cycloconverter selected which points uamples in order only the irregular to provide frefrequency 400 Hz acceptable .... a

at several

constant quencies,

a cycloconverter generator is

can convert

to lower

required

to produce desired

an input constant since

of at least output. generator

1200 Hz that concept

can be reduced a serious

to the

This

introduces currently variable AC with it

design at into the

problem required

' "i
tl

llfe cannot converts

be achieved frequencies an inverter. uses 2,000

speeds. converts with cemponen_-s of

DC link DC to constant DC link is

DC power and then Achieving reliability state

frequency

a problem

because

to 4,000

solid

and compatible a ltght_eisht

Joint operation is inverter is required

required. _ :thsr, the development if DC l_lk is to be feasible.

_|

.)

;1
4-44

....

,J

_1

! l:

' L

-'

1 1
T High voltage constant frequency DC is theoretically a more efficient means of providing output without a CSD than either cycloconversion or DC However, ultra to be achieved. mv-t used. be noted _ince high
1is

link and is presently being studied by the Navy. voltage circuit breakers must be developed for it In comparing different i i technologies VSCF and CSD system (static vs. costs, it are

that

very a VSCF

...............

i __

dynamic)

a CSD is

rotating apparatus, it has an inherent overload capability. Solid state components do not have an overload capability in excess of _heir stated max_num load. peak load currently an overload equipment. The electrical distribution system is a major target of opportunity distriL-lOll being This requires extensive to develop thereby, analysis to be performed on them. heat sink regarding is to achieve electrical

requirements

_nd design

must be based

Research

conducted and,

an nstantaneol_s avoid potential

"T -, _,
_*

capabillcy

damage to

for i "" "t ._:


l_

technological advancement. bution technology employed and DC-IO) is obsolete as it would undoubtedly and programmable A feature control

In fact, it is felt that the electrical in even the most recent transports (747,

compared to an aircraft that would be designed today employ more remote load control, signal multiplexing logic, distribution system loads. feeders is the relocation of

of a new electrical

the major distribution buses close to the major wiring, and thereby weight, to be s_ved because to the buses and wiring Relocation of the buses necessitates indicating minimized ,everal reduced

This enables much from the generators

"" -i .,

from the buses to the loads are shortened considerably. from the cockpit to _arer the major loads, however, controlling circuit protective purpose, signals Wiring relay devices and

a means of remotely their status. by multiplexing

Wiring is needed for that the control and indication by using a coded logic signal).

but can be (one wire serves is further which

.1

different

functions

Q4

by substituting

solid-state

for mechanical

logic,

is now co,on as extending

in aircraft and retracting

systems for such control and sequencing functions the landing gear. That improvement also does

"1 .|

L
_' _i . ' _ away with logic. wiring wiring stanti_l a large _esides source enabling of failure costs, the and maintenance of significant elimination cost--the mechanical in of subquantity further relay '_ ' 1 i _ the achievement reductions and matntenance _ght enable of a si_nificant allowing

structural

volume

to be reduced

savings Moreover,

in overall aircraft cost. the introduction of a computer

would

greatly

s_nplify

system The the

L ']i

growth and modification by making computer permits automatic control need for especially manual supervision during anomalous

the solid-state logic and load management

prograznable. so as to reduce

and the consequent system operation.

possibility of huma_ error, The computer also makes

enables system rather

self-test an aircraft diagnostics to accommodate new to further by a simple maintenance possible avionics simplify software than by expensive k_ile the basic red, ring. technology exists today to achieve many of

change and

the advances

in the distribution system above, problems electrical be overcome to make them discussed must a _ost-effective Multiplexing, like aircraft, requires
1_ dra_ntheltneontheproliferationofco_putersandfurther

two significant reality: on an have

many of the a computer.

current avionics components The aircraft manufacturers

iii

development !_

is

expected

to be delayed

until

a single

computer

is

developedwhichvill in use and provide progress. Remote control

accomplish the functions adequate redundance. Work of in

the several Is now this area in

circuit

breakers

are

required

to replace

manually

_i " e.

operated thermal circuit breakers and thereby _he electrical load center from the cockpit. cuit exotic breakers currently cost techniques get into from $1,000 to

enable relocation of Remote control cit2.000 their each price they cost will using will limited, drop

manufacturing when they as thermal

and although full

dramatically I be as cheap each.

production, which

never

circuit

breakers

from $50 to 300

:'I

4-47

! i
B. INTEGRATEDPNEUMATICSYSTEM Integrated pneumatic, these air pneumatic conditioning, are treated system (IPS) is a term often applied to the combined Although for T wr .. ,, | T dk and auxiliary in _Ltlitary power systems. 1374 (except anti-icing separately systems Standard

the pneumatic manufacturers system tr_ll because have

system which is and their major of their

combined with subcontractors

the hydraulic system) the consider them as part of a single an aircraft and production IPS are discussed separately, much of the manufacturer of all below. cost costdata

commonality.

In some cases the for design the

a single systems. cost

subcontractor The s_stems is are

oversee which presented developed

of these Although

comprise

information

each

system because

estimating relationships are interrelated.

Jointly

"_ '! 1 _ i
i

Pneumatic

System

Description system air fron includes each all heat exchangers and dueling and from the air for starting, driven which auxiliary cabin ice supplementery ., i:

! .

The pneumatic carries pressurized (APU). air on critical

of the main engines system provides and ventilat4on, surfaces

power tmit pressurization, prevention

The pneumatic co:_ditioning aerodynemic

compressed engine

i "t i i i to "" _i .a Each


!

and turbine

or emergency hydraulic engine is equipped_rLth control system regulates

power. To perform these function_, each turbine a bleed air extraction system. The bleed air the pressure and temperature of air supplied

pneumatic accessories and to the air air is distributed by a comprehensive service engine system, connections, normally but necessary controls

condtttoni_g systdm. The pressurized dueling, suitable pne,_natic ground and isolation air conditioning that air and check unit valves. and anti-ice

supplies

a corresponding valves are arranged

.!

isolation

such

can be cross-fed _,_ i


e

from an7 engine to any system or engine scarcer. In the event of an tsolalion valve failure, it can be locked closed without affecting the crossfeed and distribution Pneumatlc Heat cost between S_ptem capability Costs valves and controls contained to in the pneumatic dace. system This of the system,

-, -,

exchangers,

$150 and 250 per pound according

subcontractor

4-48

I I
. value is supported out the IPS. by data for other, similar components included through-

]
db ; _ nically modern L the for Air Conditionin2 System De.scripti.on system" has been replaced by the more itch_ _q_e term "air correct transport flight conditioning

teem "environmental control system" aircraft. In addition to supplying station, heats galley load and lavator2es; compartment center cooling,

(EC$) when applied to conditioned air to the ECS provides conditioned cabin air

!
i ,_ i :! i 'i _

cabin, avionic

pressurization,

the cargo

and supplies

: L
i _
-.

and electrical

Air Conditioning S_ste_ Cost Subcontractors provided cownercial pound transports.

detailed

ECS cost by the

data

for

recent weights, material,

wide costs

body per

_ :-: _" : _ _i

When divided

appropriate Installation not included

of _152,

167 and 184 warP. indicated. values of air indicated dollars). end controls were

ductins or cost. 1967 when

and miscellaneous The cost ' manufacturers (in then-year

in the weight since

conditioning

has decreased

dramatically

that the average cost per pound was about $275 _ Increased competition in the ECS business was this significant High fuel costs could have cost reduction are now causing on the cost as it new concepts of future

:i

cited as the major reason behind spurted technological advances. and design considerations is is too early which

an impact

_;; i r

ECSs, but _nti,-I_inR

to determine

the probable

magnitude.

-_

System.Description functions can be performed which source by either hot bleed air or

Anti-icing ,. _ _ _"

electrical heat. Bleed air systems, all ducting from the main pneumatic hot air include surfaces cavities along the electrical plus all _irin$

are the most common, include and inner skins which form the

the leading edges blankets fastened and controls.

of the surfaces. Electrical systems to the outer surfaces of critical

_
/

"Using "the DoD inflation factors $_20 per pound in 197_ dollars.

provided

._, Table

_.1,

this

is

equal

to

'I

4-49

--

Anti-Icln System Specific The cost cost cost

Cost data air were not obtained systems in th_ is for either type of anti-icing to the of system.

j
anti-icing included believed co be similar it is J _ ! System Description system supplies These air all power for operations motor .... ground include: driven hydraulic opera. "* .. , IPS because composed

of bleed other items.

of the

systems

.. _ _ _!-: i i:: _i I

similar Auxiliary

Power Plant

The auxiliary fiChe in lieu

power plant support engine

of ground

equipment. starting,

ground air

conditioning,

turbine

pumps for hydraulic addition to allo_ng system air _ay be used

power and driving a generator ground self-sufficiency, the in flight hydraulic auxiliary that to provide services emergency

for electric auxiliarypower or supplemental electrically

power. In plant power powered for com-

conditioning, Whe_ the

or critical, is

ponents.

power plant it be enclosed is

expected

to be operated steel

in flight, for

FAAregulations

require

in a stainless as part

housing

fire protection and this power plant system. _i proof The auxiliary enclosure, air components Auxiliary

enclosure

considered

of the auxiliary

power system induction

includes and exhaust,

the

auxiliary

power unit

(APU), backup

fire'' _

piping

and auxilit_ry

such as starter, Power Plant System provided of $$0,000

battery Cost

and generator.

Subcontractors indicated .... : about a range

two different to 90,000

cost

estimates with

for

APU8. cost of

One

per unit

a typical $100,000 included applied

$75,000.

The other

estimated indicated aircraft

a cost that while the

of more than lower range cost

per unit. APUs for to APUs for per

Follow-up smaller wide

investigation and medium sized

the higher range between

body aircraft. appropriate. weight Further,

Thus,

an overall

$50,000

and $12_,000

! _ _:

APU is

When the costs breakdowns, data a cost

were divided range costs of

by the APU weights from $100

indicated

in detailed resulted.

to 200 per pound previous study (6) _,

on APU engine

presented

in the

:i,i: _
! ", T

4-50

...._t_ ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. _ '_

J
_ I __,. _-_-._o._ ........... _._,,........ ._ .-_ ..... . ....... _ ...... _o_._4ww,_,_t , _ _-v_ _ ' .'_

indicated exceeds ' :_ of $125

costs half

between

$145 cost

and $200 per pound. of the auxiliary

Since

the

cost

of

the engine reuse

the total

power plant

system,,

a cost

to 180 per pound was estimated.

J
i::_ _ -ments APU cost estimates are such as fire protection is of increatlingly to combat sensitive to engine and the accessories greater noise concern could size, that the installation it drives. aircraft increase requireNoise Industry the cost of reduction L _ within

_ and added measures future APUs. Other Sources

significantly

of Aux&ltary

and Emergency

_.ower other sources of auxiliary sources

':

i '" i ::. i i_ i', ,i _ !L i_ i' _! _and/or include: units. they

In addition emergency air Since not

to the auxiliary power are

power plant, used

occasionally

on aircraft.

These

turbine motors, controlled speed thf:se are not standard equipment included in the cost cost est_nating

motors and emergency power on most transport aircraft, relationships. items are However, provided a brief below for

are

discussion inforNation.

and general

information

on these

i::: _ _ , l _ _i:. _ i I+: :'_ ]" -, i L ,!.!_ ,, _ /{,. "_ ,i:,, i L

The ai'r turbine motor (ATM) has been used for auxiliary or peaking power requirement_J such as a hydraulic power assist for takeoff and landing on wide engine body aircraft driven and offers redundancy as a backup rotor, hydraulic system for the main power

pumps.

ATMs can provide

or electrical

depending connected cel each

upon the driven accessories (generator, pump, etc.) that are to them. The use of ATMs by the primary manufacturers of commervaries significantly. systems the four are Pot on the hydraulic variable control. power for for _xample" 747; Douglas systems angle, Boeing does on the positive has not an-ATN for use them;

transports of the four

hydraulic

and Lockheed

has two for speed with pover

L-1011. displacement

Coutr:olled hydraulic accurate auxili_ry motors

motors built-in

speed speed

They are operating motors speed

used aircraft can

to provide generators as an as a prime function

and stable

constant supply,

from a hydraulic

Controlled

power electrical

supply

multi-engined

aircraft,

ill! I

.,

i'

.4

electrical

source

for

small

aircraft

or as an emergency with airframe

source

of electric have " i -.

power on any aircraft. i been held aircraft.

Some discussions

manufacturers

regarding the use of controlled speed motors on future commercial Controlled speed motors are, however, less efficient than other auxiliary typically power because used they cause hydraulic for power loeses. backup power

means of obtaining In practice, to emergency

CSMs are systems.

on military

aircraft

.. (EPUs) are power used only in emergency to start the They " ""

Emergency engine are

Power Units hydraulic to ItamAr

and provide

to operate

the control

surfaces.

an alternative stored bleed

Turbines. (70 percent

Emergency hydrazine

power units

can use water) is conditions decomthat a or .;

either engine added cannot position it

monopropellant air or mixed the

and 30 percQnt monopropellant bleed air

mode of operation

in which engine consist drive

to supplement satisfy

air

mode wh_n available powe_ units gases which

demand. that

Emergency generates

of a catalytic turbine

chamber with

an impulse

integrated

a gearbox. pmnp.

The output EPUs are

then

supplies

power to drive

generator

or hydraulic DC signal after

completely

self-contained but they must

and require be recharged transport like the ..':

onl t a 28 volt on the ground with

to initiate use.

operation, is

each

The Concord included

the

only

commercial aircraft

an EPU; however,

EPUs are

on non-transport

F-4, F-14, F-15, F-16 and F-18.

I
Costs of Other .Surces of Auxillary and Emergency Power Typical 10,000 $30,000 vary trols for for ATMcosts (exclusive unit unit of driven without that accessory) controls vary from $8,000 to Costs coni to :_

a 10-horsepower a 90-horsepower the ranges of

automatic includes

to $25,000 controls. rating,

automatic with

within

indicated driven coat

in accordance output about provided. $12,000 of their

horsepower

and types Controlled

engine

speed high

motors quality

to $15,000 design

each.

They are high '

of extraordinarily : reliability

because

and required

as emergency

equipment.

i
-.o u.

4-52

!
seneral petitive. _ubcontractors ware unwilling to discuss EPU costs terms because they are new add the market place in even the most is extremely com-

InteRratedPneumattdeta1ed weight statementsp _ Syst m Costs By using

the composition

of

the

IPS was

determined of arcraft 4.13.

asindicated a percent in _f total Section data indicate that

systemThis breakdown each of the four clas_es weight for 2C. is provided in Table the for for pneumatic small small for system constitutes aircraft the aircraft types than a smaller for othe_ system for

These

percentage types :

of total a greater

IPS weisht percentage aircraft

commercial comercial the other

(8 percent is

compared

to about

20 percent)

and that

anti-loins and less

1"
_

weight wide

body commercial

than

(24 percent

and 7

percent are not

respectively compared to 15 percent). Reasons for these differences known. As eLisht be expected, the absolute IPS weight increases as from

i' 1 .. 'f _ _ _ _

the percent increases aircraft as a percent of NEWit vide body but 4.7 size of the aircraft cmmerclal for small to 2.6 percent got decreases comercial aircraft. for air "miscellaneous and enclosure) material" distribution were not (pneumatic system; discussed e_stem above. ducting They were

The costs supports; plant the ensine

and power

conditionin8

and the

auxiliary

mounts

assumed for

to cost items

between

_25 and 75 per pound based 4F. Table 4.1_ cost

on the rationale cost

provided for

similar

in Section IPS;

summarizes per pound of

information about

key components

of the

the averase

the IPS is

I
_i

,llS.
Cost comprise system information the often IPS are vary and confidence presented values 4.14. stge for the individual ranges are systems for affected each by the which in Table The cost because above. they Instances assumptions

markedly

by aircraft as discussed

design values

and mix of components are low reflect

where confidence regarding some

the neeessity

of makin$

IPS components. The costs presented in Table 4.14 represent costs only. In order to determine a total system level cost,

subcontractor these costs

_i

+/,

4--_$

te

were adjusted The adjusted relationships

by an approximate cost data vere used

factor

o 1.33 the

as discussed four cost

in Section esttmatin S

2C. "" _mm


i

to develop

shown in Figure

4.8.
...............

i
lIB _i

WJ .

:
ira _, o, ot

.!

4-56

I [

.b

I. System

FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENTSYSTEM Description Furnishings and equipment cargo compartment. includes In the a vartet_ cockpit, insu_tion, of items this in the cockpit, -_

main cabinand

category lining,

includes 19

all _nstrement and console panels0 seats, system, and cockpit door and partitions. In the main cabin seats, floor covering, containers, including of the insulation, co_aerctal side

crew oxygen

aircraft, panels,

this ceiling

category structure,

includes hatrack

or baggage installation carts,

complete lavatory installation, food container inserts, ovens, divider cool partitions, air and call portable _rlth the is stowage buttons, emergency electrical in

complete galley refrigerators, food for luggage and Passew

wLndow shades,

provisions stevardess oxygen system the avionics

-_ ._

and magazines, passenger enger wtth

passenger system are

seats, bottles.

oxygen

including included system

reading it.

lights

and discussed system. category

The entertainment cabin

included the seats,

In the includes

of _litaryaircraft, and lining, covering, fittings), troop cargo

furnishings litters, delivery and troop this

and equipment crew bunks, system oxygen galley

""

insulation floor

and lavatory, pry-bar,

and aerial stowage aircraft, system.

(wnches, system. tnsula-

..

tie-down In the belly

equipment

of the co_nercial loading

category containers

includes

""

tion

and itntng as they

and cargo

The cargo

are not ,,
P

included

are operatorts items include

items. the engine finish, ax). and cabin fire extinguisher _nergency elides and

_scellaneous systems, equipment life rafts fire (i.e., are warning first not

system_ aid kit

exterior and fire are

and miscellaneous Emergency items. exit

included

as they

operator's

SyeteJ

Costs Cost and technical furnishings characteristics and equipment related components to cost are dtscusled Ae_,te, below

for

the major

including:

'I
4-58
......... . .... -,, : )

interiors, equipment. plate

galleys, lavatories, toilets, Cost est4mating relationships and equipment SMtina represents items a sipificant erystem.

oxygen system and other are then developed for

interior the com-

furnishings Aircraft Seating

cost aircraft

and weight. varying

Passenger

seats with

are each

chiefly

custom

on cc_nercial

in accordance

customer's wants and needs. aircraft where the purchaser _! quality unique seats least of equipment seat design.

While aircraft manufacturers does not have an option as airlines frequently

make a "house*' to the type and select a mOdels of

(including seats), In fact, airlines

almost alway8 have several

on their various aircraft types. For example, TWAcurrently has at five different models of seats as it has elected newer designs for rather frmne than selecting i8 typically less a standard a standard seat design for all of its such frame ,_

newer aircraft aircraft. The seat as chromed

item

even

though The cost

features of the

or recessed

may be addod as options.

i8 relatively low because of large production special features such as entertainment units, _ _

volume. The seat covering and trays, or breakover are the generally sam_ price. seats. is viewed

primary determinants of cost. It was no-_d that U.S. airlines buy about the same quality seat end, therefore, pay about the Foreign It airlines, is stated on the that other hand, often order cheaper

and lighter seats)

the weight

of furnishings

(including

11 _-

by aircraft m,:lnufacturers with the same concern as the weight systems. Evidence does not entirely Support this contention, the weight of coach seats has been reduced dramatically the first 7078

of other however, 130

as

from about to a_urrent of a first The airlines class even cost.

pounds of less

per triple than

seat

provided per triple

on one of seat

weight class are ;

65 pounds

while seat

the weight bottom. in first

I_

seat

has remained unwilling

at about

45 pounds per

apparently I opportunity

to sacrifice

any luxury

at the

of saving

severai_'hundred

pounds not

to mentlon

(it would still heavier than a For example, by be 1.5 tines reducing the weight of a firstcoach soar), c_.ase ceat the weight to of an from 45 34 pounds L-1011 with 20 percent first class seating (52 passengers) could be reduced 1 by nearly 600 pounds. 4-59 _ !

W_

Table of aircraft average seat cost

4.15 provides representative seats. The cost indicated including The cost some optional of seats wlthout

costs and weights for passenger seats accessories accessories $700 by adding such as is

for several types ($600) is the fold down center $550 per seat items. Both they are

_.,_
me

backs.

about

_; em ,-_ N -' -, _

bottom the cost double seats seating adjusted.

and may be increased and weight or triple rather of coach

to about seats

optional

vary cost

in accordance

wlthwhether

as double

seats

and weigh be expected. the cost

78 percent Thus,

as much as triple if an unu_uaZ be appropriately

than 67 perc is

nt as might :ailed for,

configuration

estimate

should

The high 4.15 is llmlted

cost

per pound indicated featues

for

flight fact

attendant that they are

seats

on Table

because of special quantities.

and the

made in very -_

Interiors There ins, lining of is a little and trlm| utility c.nmparable are difference utility size racks in the cost of _.ntertors service is chiefly (including: units; panel!! "i

and passenger tables; coat This

partitions among fact

and doors; alrcrngt that

trays

and divider

rooms and _:towage) due to the

and function. consisting parts. for

materials

slmtlar bonded data

pr_artly

of aluminum honeycomb, .!

fiberglass

and metal cost the

Limited never Lines 6.16, slightly by the designs aircraft,

were available

interiors. of the costs the

_ese 727/100 are sane for

data

include Air

a !

DC-9-50,

and a retrofit These are cost

United

to provide Since fact

*_rlde body styling." and 727/100 in interior

presented size This (the

in Table DC-9-50 is -I -_

the DC-9-50 the that

about is

larger),

difference

surprising.

can be explained manufacturer by the -}

the DC-9-50 727/100

was built

from aircraft

and the

retrofit 727/100

interior cost

was designed includes items

and built which

subcontractor. Also, the supplied on the DC-9-50.

were not

cost

Since the design and construction of aircraft estimating relationship for interiors covering

inter_ors the area

is si_tlar, a from the floor

Ia

4-60
!

t
i
L Table 4.15 REPRESENTATIVE COSTS OF I_IRCRAY SEATS Weight _Pounds) 45 22 18 58 52

l
!
1

Seat ,,,_, .q _

Type

Cost

per

Seat ,.Bottom

Cost

per $29 27 83 36 30

Pound

First Class Passenger Coach Passenser Fltsht Attendant

$I,300 600 1,500 2,100 1,550

Pilot (milltarT) Crew (military)

_i,

'-5;"
I :

i,.e

,i

|
4-61

1_
i

L
mm

Table

4.16
mD

COSTS OF RECENT AIRCRAFT INTERIORS


'i

Item
m

Cost
_

Couents
L_ m

,m _ ._

DC-9-50
i

Side Wails and Window Reveals Storase Blne, Cabin Ltshtin S and Sculptured Ceil.lnsPanels Complete Interior

$20000-25,000

DC-9-50

II0,000

Since lIshtlnS is part of electrical system, r_duce by 25Z to determine interior cost only. Includes equipment such as passenger service units and amortized design and tooltns costs.

"_ .. _. .i
4.

727/100 _"

225,000

'i
: i

"* i
t

i.

o&

..

i
,t

_4

.i

i
": ' 4-62 t )

! |
_ on one side to the floor on the other length. About _l,O0 per linear foot aircraft L vtndow lighting _ of normal reveals, width (six bins across side mlght appropriately be based would be a reasonable amount for seating) and would ceiling include side on walls, storage and sculptured panels but exclude

and passenger service units. A cost estimating relationship based for aircraft would be on linear feet wide body interiors greater only by the greater width of the ceili_ panels as all other components are comparable. A wide body ceiling However, even this is approximately difference might fixtures in lieu seven feet wider t_u a normal ceiling. be offset by d_sgns which incorporate of ceiling p mels.

I_ &-m

additional

lighting

@alleys Galleys each aircraft are made in modular type. Like other units which fit galleys th_ space are available on

f,_rnishings,

regarded is

as marketprovided.

5: L _= Although galley design is not affected by th_ desisn of other furnish-

ins tools They are,

by the airlines because they affect the service that therefore, frequently modified to stttt the customer.

ings and equipment by food purveyors. frozen foods which There are

components, it is greatly depend_ut of trends established For example, the current trend ts the extensive use of has meant more use of microwave ovens. types of galleys, those for wide body aircraft as

two general

i_

which and 737 whichand lover facilities contained those the passenger and on other aircraft DC-8 have upper are completely in cabin. such

this

A representative _ost can range

cost for a complete from less than $400,000

747 galley _ is about $700,000, bu_. to more than $1,000,000 depending A complete facility

on the desired class of service and manner of food preparation. DC-IO galley which includes a service center, aft bar and lover

I
I

Including" galley, carriers or trolleys

ovens, coffee (carts).

makers,

refrigerators,

bar

and tray

4-63
.......

costs i i i ! for

about

_250,000. because

The cost they

of DC-IO galleys fewer people

are

risnificantly 450)

less

than -'

747 galleys

feed

(200 vs.

and because

flights $50,000

are generally o shorter duration. Other example costs are about to $100,000 for DC-9 galleys and $100,000 to _125,000 for 727 salleys. Lavatories

-,

Wl

Lavatory

design

often

differs solid, modules layout

from manufacturer

to manufacturer

as,

for Douglas integrates while example, manufacturers other use I_ a complete unit. Further, of the for the

structural walls into that are simpty bolted of lavatories are differs

its lavatoriesas into place according to

"" " ,....

the "footprint" _ i _I potential may require number of

space

in which

they

to be placed. however,

The 747 has the purchaser between the

locations

as many as 17 lavatories; There is, of course,

as few as eleven. lavatories

a tradeoff

and the number of seats,

!
.'l A typical Toilets The various design of toilet lavatory tanks locations on a particular several aircraft different Design influence toilet are with toilets. DC-IO, they a tank the lavatory module costs between $10,000 and 15,000.

ii!!
"" +_, _ _ .i

and vents

such that for

configurations available wall for between

may be required toilets, as for them and the L-lOll were tried

one aircraft. the common tanks

options toilets

example, useq

747 has double

or several on the early a major

Although

common tanks functional

on the 9(:-8 and again and were time soon eliminated are

_i

had inherent duction. of the

problems

in proadvantage

Reduced common tank. Materials

ground service

requirements

technology structure on the

as well

as innovative toilets.

designs

has significantly recirculating steel along with that flush for both many of the

affected toilets the tanks

the were

of aircraft Fiberglass

The first heavy stainless are

707 and DC-8 and used tanks is has,

and tops.

and tops reduced

now used

plastic original

components 707 toilets.

and unit Unit

weight weight

to less

than half fairly

however,

remained

constant

-,

4-64

[ L
I

in recent Impair

years

and is

at

point

where integrity.

further

weight

reduction

efforts

could

I! _

structural Table 4.17

or functional presents _1,$00 and cost 3,000

L varies quality

data

for

aircraft

toilets.

The cost sophistication cost

of

toilets

between

depending drain units.

upon size,

and of $2,000

of motor,

pump, filter, of most current

and valve.

An average . toilets Is

L
L i |i.

is

representative The next

technological

advance

in aircraft

likely

to be of colerenable

vacuum flush cial aircraft.

which is under consideration Vacuum flush would have

a for the next central tank

generation and would

L
" L

fluid to be filtered and reused, thereby substantially reducing flushing the weight of fluid carried. Furthert only one ground service point would be required and maintenance Oxysen systems a state at a high has are required to enable of useful consciousness altitude. been tanks provided by fixed compressed has been gaseous oxygen used oxygen and a on the chemical the flight crew and _n the event that costs would, thereby, be reduced. !

Emergency

...

Emergency oxygen passengers to maintain decompression Emergency occurs

1:

oxygen

typically of system. miniature,

....

breathin regulation _"


i

8 equipment

consisting

containing

and distribution tO provide This

Newer technology individual sodium

C-5 and L-1011 oxygen cylinders, d_qtrlbuti_n its

per-chlorate storage

_" _i _

generators. multiple plumbing

concept

eliminates

the use

of oxygen

pressure with

reducers, associated

automatic connectors

regulators, and valves.

and extensive Accordingly, by 1 ... i t

cost and weight eliminating handling quantity of high event "blow


a

ts considerably reduced. of high pressure gaseous gaseous oxygen

Safety oxygen at

is greatly improved and minimizing the any single location.


not

pressure

available

In the iu the '

of general aircraft fire, chemical torch*' fashion of high pressure oxygen or support a crash fire. automatically presented

generators and.

will being inert

burn until flow

activated, passenger

will not create oxygen masks are

Standard, continuous at each passenger seat

i I 4-65

li

: : :"

: ;_ _
.i

Table

4.17

., . Comments .... "' 1

COSTS OF AIRCllAFT TOILETS Toilet Type Jet and Military t 3_500 Old technology stainless steel construction. Total cost of 7 toilets Is $16,000. $ Cost 700-800

!! _:.
i_ i

Executive Transports 707

,:
q

" ",

__:_il ._. : _

L-1011

2_300

ta

Estimating Range for Commerctal Transport Toilets

i1500-4,000
_d

= :'.
:

location, altitude

cabin exceeds

attendant

station,

galley feet.

station

and lavatory,

whenever

cabin
, i

approximately for the 4.18.

12,500

._ gas is emergency primarily oxygen a function system of -_

" :! :i

_ !! ii are

Recent provided

costs

components The total

of a bottled system cost

in Table

the number of passengers. Furnishing, Using and Equipment weight Costs the composition of the furnishings weight These for
, i

:. _ " :_
i

detailed

statements,

; :
/: i_

and equipment system was determined as a percent the three classes of commercial aircraft defined breakdowns system is are provided relattvly following in Table 4.19. for the

of total system in Section 2C.

: !.,: _"_

_i

As indicated, three classes

the compocitton of conunerctal

of this aircraft : "'

consistent notable

wtb the

exceptions_ and structure weight (from are

-_:

_ .... _ il .....

As the aircraft size increases, galley equipment becomes a greater percentage of the total system

i:

5 to counonly 19 percent). because complete shorter meals not served This the as expected on is smaller aircraft which fly routes.

_' '

I I
Table 4.18 4. COSTS OF EMERCENCYBOTTLED GAB OXYGEN SYSTEM COMPONENTS _

Crew

Sygtsm

li

'!

Io
Ite___mm Crew Regulators

Unit Cost $400

Typical Quantity Required 5

Total Cost $2,000

Cyllnder and Valve Pressure Reducer Exchange Recharge Valve Gauge Assembly _ Miscellaneous

175 150 150 50 25

1 1 1 1 1

175 150 150 50 25

___" Cylinder and Valve Composite Regulator Latch Valve Manifold _. "" _" Portables for Emergency
, ,L , ,, ,

Passenger $175 ......... 800 30

System 2-3 2 i for each row of seats 1 for each passenser 7-14 .$ 350-525

1,600 1,200-4,800

Masks

I0

1,000-4,000

130

910-I1820 $5,060-12,745

i_

Subtotal Total Oxygen System Cost

$7,600-15,300

t !
I 4-67

,
._

i i
Thermal/acoustic material of the total aystemwetght i
|

and interior become a amaller percentage as the aircraft size increases (from

44 to28

percent). equipment is insignificant on small and medium sized system that this

Cargo handling

comnnerc_1 aircraft, but constitutes four weight for _rlde body commercial aircraft. I _
!

percent of the It is assumed

equipment t8 a function advanced technology has capital aircraft. It is equipment for

of length of trip. Also, perhaps, enabled the economical substitution cargo handling labor

of body

_i !
!

_" =k

manual

on the wide

noted

that slightly This

furnishings with increase offered aircraft

and equipment from the

as a percent (from 13.3 increased

of MEW to 14.5

i !

increases percent). _ _ _ services While the military : _ breakdown a variety the

the aircraft results

capacity

passenger _

that

are

on_rXde body aircraft. considered in the C-141A, are all passenger aircraft,

coun_ereial

transport on Table of 4.19

aircraft (C-130_,

included C-135B,

furnishing

and equipment

C-133B and C-SA) perform strategic and heavy logis-

transportation

functions

including

.b

tics, airborne refueling and troop transportation. Thus, equipment on military transports represent a much smaller percent) of MEWthan they do on commercial of furnishings 4.19. aircraft. and equipment

furnishings and portion (3.4

Cost per pound esttmate_ i ents are also the bases for
e

system

compon-

provided in Table these esttmate_: for per pound and in the rel_ted

The following based

discussion

indicates

The 4.15

coet8

seats are discussion.

on data provided Thus, the range for

in Table passenger

seats range ' I cost

($25 to 32) was determined by dividing the cost ($550 to 700) by the average weight (22 pounds). per pound of first class seating ($29) Is within

per seat The average the range.


,i

I
d
.i

,!

Crew these

seat seats

data are

were not

available as

for

military as

aircraft commercial

only. crew

Since seats, ..

sophisticated

their cost per pound

($30 to 36) was increased the additional

by 25 percent of commercial -.

1 I

(to $38 co 45) to reflect seats. ! i


!

sophistication

_ equipment (toilets and tanks, etc.) discussion. unit ate pro..

The costs of lavatory vlded

_i

in Table 4.18 and in the related using old technology

A range was cost of $3,500


mp

calculated i I I

(707 average

divided by average weight of 214 pounds equals $15 per pound) and new technology (I.-i011 average unit cost of $2,300 divided by average weight of 66 pounds extreme equals $35 per pound). the newer As noted above, _ "' for the fresh water indicated system; "_

I!

these represent thought

values with

(L-lOll)

technology

to be more

representative.

_ i :

No specific however, complex

cost data were availabie of system diagrams system.

a review

that it was less used for the

than the toilet

Therefore,

the range

i_

toilet

system was reduced

by about

25 percent

and a cost of between system, devices and

,, i

$12 and 26 per pound was assumed The cargo handling the drive mechanism for these; however, actuators tlon. also make system

for the fresh water rolllng

includes mechanical No specific manufacturing

for them. companies

cost data were obtained mechanical flight control in composliJ

cargo systems assumed

and they are similar

It was,

therefore, control

that their cost is the same as ($60 to 80 per pound). $I00,000 for medium sized air-

.i

mechanlcal Typical

flight

actuators from about

galley

costs range

craft to about $700,000 weights

for wide body aircraft.

Corresponding Thus, a cost

are about 800 and 6,300 pounds $100 and 150 per pound in an aircraft

respectively.

of between

is appropriate. conunerclal quality to withi

Floor covering

is of high

stand concentrated regulatlons.

use and to comply with

strict FAA fire retardant indicated that a interior

A non-aircraft

carpet supplier

range of $15 to 20 per yard would

be appropTiate.

By using

4-70

,
dimensions mined _" that and dividing 4.$ by total floor yard covering weight, it was deterand pounds per square $3.50 was a representative per pound is consistent cost for No specific Thus, the weight. Hences floor covering. to 4.50 a reasonable cost data were Obtained for thermal acoustic material. assumption was made that its cost is about two-thirds as to 60 per pound). consist of items much as the Interior(S28 Flight crew accommodations such as consoles and pedestals. Since no cost data were available assumed to cost the same as the cabin interior The detailed cost provided in Table ($7,600 aircraft _: for them, they were ($42 to 91 per pound). system coats is

!
:_ _

for a fixed gaseous aircraft oxygen 4.18. By dividing the low and high

to 1S,300) sizes typical and 550 pounds, respectively) by weights for oxygen systems of those (150 for small divided and large

forcosts s L_craft

of $51 and 28 per pound are deteractned

systems. A cost per pound of $44 ($13,800 was calculated for medium-sized aircraft. As indicated, that the discussion this the interior costs is composed for the
all

by 316 pounds)

of many items. 4.16


of

It

is

felt

interior

provided

in Table

and tn the

relevant

are category.

representative Weights for service pounds)

paneling,

the items contained in lining and trim, utility and storaFe for cost for _se !

racks and passenger the DC-9-50 (2,590 I

units and coatrooms are divided into the

items comparable for pounds) ($107,500) a_e dividedand by their cost weights ($225,000),

the 727-100 (2,483in 8 which results

extremes range of as the weights pound.the This is thought to represent which $41 to 92 per for DC-9-5Omay include items two m_ght not be included in the cost (thereby increasing the lower end the value) for the weights 727-100may exclude items included tn the cost (thereby reducing the higher value). Table and equipment 4.20 provides for costs each and confidence of the four classes values for the urntshtngs defined in

system

of aircraft

.|
i 4-71

'

!i
Table 4.20 _ ,i t '.

FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENT SYSTEM COST BY AIRCRAFT TYPE

Small CgR

Mediu_

Wide Body $ 43-70 (avg. $57/lb.)

Military
i

$ 35-62 (avg. $49/lb.)

$ 37-63 (avg. $50/lb.)

$ 40-67 (avg. $54/lb.)

'_
i

Confidence Value

7.0

7.2

7.3

5.0

Section 2C.

The variance in the furnishings and equipment system costs and

the confidence values is caused by the different mix of components by weight found on the four sizes of aircraft as discussed above. Further b since most of the cost data were obtained is for co_nercial questionable, aircraft the and its confidence applicability value for

ii

to military

transports

somewhat

military transport aircraft furnishings and equipment is much lower than for commercial aircraft (5.0 instead of 7.0 to 7.3). The costs In order presented in Table system 4.20 represent cost, subcontractor these costs 2C. costs only.

to determine

a total

level

were adjusted These adjusted I o

by an approximate cost data 4.9. were

factor used

of 1.33

as discussed the cost

in Section

to develop

estimating

relationship

shown in

Figure

4-72
.._

.......................................

......

!i;
a

q m.

J.

INSTRUMENTSAND AVIONICS SYSTEMS


! m_

Although cussed Systems together

they

are

separate they

systems,

instruments

and avionics

are dis_!" _
ih

bacause

have many similarities.

Description Instruments perform of bastc monitoring control operation, includes and warnt_ surface engine cockpit posit1 operation indicators input functtons assoctated o"

vlth

the

flight

the aircraft, systems system boxes

_ng, electrical, and fuel and warning and circuitry


w_

hydraulic quantity. _ lights, between

and pneumatic The instrument electronic the black black boxes system

..

as the points

of signal devieas. four

and the monitoring is separated into

The avionics 1.

subsystems

as follows: includes

o.

The integrated the autopilot puters; the the attitude

flight system, flight

guidance

and controls pitch, the system;

subsystem roll,

and associated system; reference

yaw comsystem; ................. " t !

director

gyrocompass

and heading system. integrated

and _he inertial

navigation therefore, part of this

These units are interdependent and are, into one operating unit. Although a the auto-throttle/thrust management

_ t _ t 'i t

subsystem,

system is functions

included _Tith the propulsion system because it a8 an engine control. All indicators, servomechanism, circuitry, flight supports guidance and attachments related are to also

and associated the integrated included.

and controls

subsystem

2.

The communication external a. functions.

subsystem

is

separated

by its

internal

and

_! communication public address system system, includes and the the tnterphone (I_UX)

The internal system, system. the

multiplex

The NUX system

is a signal call

transmission system,

source

for

the

passenger-to-attendant system, the public

passenger the

entertainment

address

system,

4-74

1
-T mm i --.
--_

reading system

light

system,

the passenger indi_idual

oxygen cool

latch air

release The system.

and the

passenger

system.

DC-10 and the L-_011utilize All amplification units, encoders

a communicationMUX head and hand sets, and decoders for

speaker

installations, and associated to the internal b. The external ment which is

the MUX system,

._

wiring, supports and attachments related communication system ate also included. coummnication use_ for system includes to aircraft the radio equip:_

aircraft

or aircraft

to ground communications. It is composed of the very high frequency (VH) system, the high frequency (HF) system, the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) system, provisions for satellite co_uunication, the selective call (SELCA) '! i!

_._

__. 7_ :

system, and the voice scrambler system. Most overwater airplanes are equipped with HF or UHF equipment All radio units, antennas, and associated coax, wiring, supports and attachments related to the external communlcatlon system are also included. 3. The navigation automatic subsystem includes all radar equipment, distance the measur-

direction

finding

(ADF) system,

the

ing equipment (DME) system, the long range navigation (LORAN) system, the doppler system, the navigation computer systems, -:

the statlonkeeplng system, the tactical air navigation (TACAN) system, the variable omnirange (VOR) system, the marker beacon ._ _" i_" system, the instrument landing system (ILS), the colllslo_ avoidance system (CAS), the airport traffic control (ATC) system

the radio altimeter system, the glide slope radar beacon system. Most overwater aircraft LORANand doppler systems. togs, antennas, associated supports are also and attachments included

syetemand the are equipped

with

i i

All of the navigation circuitry and antenna related to the navigation

units, tndtcacoax, and subsystem

i I

I
I 4-75

!!

+.

The _cellaneous equipment and crash recorder systems, malfunction the weight structure detection and balance analysi

subsystem includes the the aircraft integrated s and recording if installed,

flight, data

voice (AID)/

i+i "" _i_

(M_DAR) systems, the equipment rack

system,

-"i' _:I t

and _tscellaneous

hardware

and circuitry.

System

,Cst s _nstrumants and avionics technology the is costs rapidly are difficult advancing. the past to estimate Thus, for several with at a _ _

reasons.

First,

equipment

approximately lower cost be obtained. functions Third, given customer other

same capabtlttte'J with recently instruments and costs

as in

may now be built capabilities a variety o

and equipment Second, as noted

unattainable

may now

u i
_, i"

end avionics may vary option equipment

perform elsnl1cantly

above largely

by function. greatly fleet on a the .. + .! i or any

avionics aircraft wishes user

is

a customer upon its standard

and may vary witch its

model depending to maintain requirements, costs

mission,

the extent

to which

unique Very

approximate These costs

have IJeen determined to reasonably transport el-craft.

for

instruments the if

and cost of .F

I
+!

aviont_:s. inrJtrumen_

are believed for most

approximate However,

and avionics

contemplated, Instruments

o:
estimates should be adjusted costs are costs of accordingly. two distinct types - equipment hardware, and avionics costs and other Including installation,

:!
+: -_

(e.g. "blackboxee') wiring and antennas. Detailed cost avionics equipment.

[ ..P p

i" _

information was available for some instruments The cost of government furnished instruments

and equip-

_ For example, military transports generally have more complex and, therefore, more expensive avionics than commercial transports, and commercial transports flying overseas generally have more complex avionics than thole flying only domestic routes.

-'

._

I
4-76

i,iI

_ _li _ [

ment for ment costs

the C-5 and C-141 averaged averaged about

about

$590

per pound. (6)

Avionics

equip(15)

$650 per pound for

a conceptual

STOL aircraft.

In addition, detailed government avionics cost data for attack and fighter aircraft from an unpublished source indicated the follo_ng costs for nonweapon related avionics: average_th a range of radio navigation equipment $1,130 per pound on the $130 to $3,990| radar navigation equipment about

i _, _ "

_ L _

$960 range range about per pound with awith a of $390of to $2,120; $930 per pound about $40 comnunications to $1,670; and equipment comairborne

_:

typical cost

UL_Xof these

types

of equipment

for $1,000.

a transport It is not

aircraft, surprising

an average that is aircraft. on transport this i!

per pound would be approximately for non-weapon related avionics than the

_i _ _

cost

from attack cost

and fighter for

aircraft transport

considerably Thus, aircraft $650. etantially equipment ,

more expensive the typical cost

of avionics and instru_ent is

of avion_,cs

equipment

was assumed It should

to be $620 per

pound which that this

an average might

of $590 and be increased mix of sub......

be apparent, slightly

however, if

cost

or reduced is required.

a more or less

sophisticated

No specific cost installation hardware, items represent cost 4F. about of

information was available circuitry and antennas. one half of instrument

for "other" costs such as In general these nonequtpment systems ite_ weights.

I i

and avionics for these

An average in Section

$50 per pound was assumed

as discussed

_ Cost used for

data provided in this study, instruments

in Reference 15. when adjusted to be comparable to costs indicated that a cost of $53 per pound _as approprlate components ocher than equipment.

and avionics

_77

]
The above costa represent only subconttactol mine a total system level costp they _ere adjusted of 1.33 develop brackets avionics. costs. In order to deterby an approximate factor used The and to I m r" r as discussed in Section 2C. The adjusted cost data vere the cost estimating relationships shown in Figure 4.10. indicate
f

the

approx_ate

ranse

of weights

for

instruments

r t
w

mm

1'

I I I
4-78

4-79

K. '_ System

LOADAND HANDLINGSYSTEM Description


m_

The load visions stabilizer loading. blstem Costs The load production
Ii

and handling hoisting the

system

consists

of fittings Some military position

and structural aircraft during h_ve cargo

proma

for

Jacking, Jacks

and mooring, aircraft

to hold

in a rigid

pm

and handling

system (less

revresents

an insignificant As such Because

cost a minor of its the

in the item,

""

of an aircraft research to and location

than 0.1

percent). system. it

no independent similarity cost per pound,

was devoted

to this

.. same

in the bo_y,

was asau_ed.to_have

'

4-80

i
L. FINAL ASSEMBLY Final assembly costs constitute a sisuificant portion of the tot.1 cost tractor o an aircraft. costs including As system-level, di_cussed in assembly Section 2C, considered 25 percent is e of the subconreasonable

approximation

of

this

cost.

1 t

I I
I The weight _ oummarlzed discussed i !; as for estimating 3.1. in Table Jn detail. major components

SECTION 5 DETAILED SYSTEMWEIGHTANALYSIS relntionshlpB In this section, derived for (WERe) derived the development each altc_aft in thls study were

of each system,

WER Is as well

WERs were

of several

of the

systems. is

Each system presented

was described in Appendix C.

in Section

4 and a summary of these

descriptions

These system descriptions correspond exactly to the standard weight groups defined in Milltary Standard 1374, except that the Milltary Standard i combines the i_ _ hydraulics with and pneumatics flight controls. weight and design or performance charare presented for each system, and the dlscussed. (take-off appropriate a_rcraft. Special gross attention has been as one standard weicht group m_d Includes

autopilot

In _he following subsections, act_rlstlcs for existing aircraft derivation given 150,000 of the WERor WERs is transport ai_-:raft and where for small

to small

weight

of approxlmately WERs a_e symbols derlv_d used

pourLds or less), predict weights

separate The special

!i

to better

in this section were defined in Table _.2.' In general, data are presented for 19 co_,ecclal and 7 military trans_ ports including different models of some of the aircraft. Three study

aircraft (the MDAT, SCAT-15, and AST(M)) are included in order to prov*de a more comprehensive data base. of the aircraft In the weight the data considered various are tables The sources of weight data for each. in Table subtotals 3.5. and totals level for the of

were pres_,nted in this by the the section_

indicated term (i.e.,

symbols closer

and by the to the left

of indenture the more

descriptive the

hand margin

aggregate

data).

1 !
i

* Leaving

the autopilot

as part

of the

flight

controls

system

would

have

system weightarbitrary on newer aircraft flight required the distribution between the flightcontrols of gulda,ce and avlcnics _and control systems; whereas, the autopilot weight f_r older aircraft was readily available.

5-1

' A. WING, TAIL AND BODY SYSTEMS Wingp lals and tall and of body systems have similar designs and use similar materi

I ! I

methods

fabrication

Weight

and Weight

Design and

Characteristics design and characteristics 7 military are presented respectively. in Tables 5.1 and 5.2

for

19 commercial Estimating

transports,

Weight

Relationships

The wlng weight acteristics. a wing weight design index. I w This index Is related the higher =

is sensitive

to several

wing

design and geometry can be combined the bending engineers,

char_'

It has beeD shown equation which

that these variables is called

into

for this study is familiar

material Is: ,,

This index, which

to weight

U (AR)I"5(ZFN/TOGN)0"5

(1+2 k )(w/S) Sw1"510-6 c/4) 2

.(t/c)

(cos _

(1+ _ )
weight; the higher the index, of the area

"'
i

to thewing

box structure weight

the wlng box structure the secondary

required.

The remainder

wing weight,

structure

weight,

is related

to the wing

(S w)
Therefore, weight index Chewing weight (WI) was correlated (Sw), For medium with the bending material ,,

(Iw) and the wing area 900 square

and large correlated

aircraft well using i 4_

(S greate_ than about w the functional form: NI The weight estimating W1 =

feet), w_ng weight

a +

bIw + cSw (WER) derived S + 390 w Is: Medium and Large Aircraft and large aircraft for the C-130 are shown

relationship 0.930

I + 6.44 w weights

The actual versus in Figure weights. 5.1.

estimated

for medium

The correlatlon

Is good except a lower

and C-133 wing high-

These two aircraft

have

design

speed and much simpler

lift devices.

5-4 :

i_
Qe

I ,

ii
!

For small aircraft (S w less than about 900 square wlng weight was correlated using the functional form: W1 $w = a + b tw Sw

feet;

F-28

nnd smaller) b,

_ ; i!
_:

The W_R derived

is: W1 4.24 Iw + 0.57 Sw aircraft,


of small control

Small Aircraft more important

"

1
!

In contrast
than S
W

to medium and large

is

considerably

for predicting

the weight

aircraft.

This Is posslbly
-.

the result structure.

of less sophisticated The actual versus 5.2.

surface_

and lighter

secondary
_e

estimated

wing weights

for small aircraft

are shown in Figure

Because tho calculation to determine the bendingmoterlal


is rather involved, only The of an alternative _he takeoff gross equation wing WER has been derived. are

unlt weight
This is in

.,,

a function Figure 5.3.

weight. is:

The data

plotted

alternative

WI
The SCAT-15

0.112 TOCW - 1,720


were not Included that while only In in the derivation of

-,
"'

and AST(M) wing weights It must be cautioned that to thls

this equation. tlon elmilar is very in

the coefficient for transports derivation

of correlaare WER.

hlghp design

WER is valid which were used

which of the

those

the

This
some

WER Is not
suggested

appropriate
newer aircraft

for

newer designs
higher aspect

such as STOL aircraft


ratio wings which

or
provide

with

greater fuel economy. Tall:


The able total tall of tail area (horizontal and vertical) weight data appears are to be a reasonagainst than the '" i

predictor

weight. 5.4.

The tail The weight

plotted

this variable

in Figure

of a "T" tall is higher

weight
for to the

of a conventional
vertical the portion horizontal

tail
of

for

the

same tail
must into have the

area.
extra fuselage.

This
stiffness

is

obvious
and strength tail

a "T" tail tail loads

transfer

The DC-.10

.................

. ....... _,_m

i:

"

'

.............

"

'

.....

'"

'

m_

weight rudder. tail the lower

is

heavier And, the resulting

than might DC-10-40 is

be expected heavier

due to the split, the gross DC-10-10 weight. these

double due to its

hinged higher hand,


m

than

loads

from a higher lower tail with were

design weights lower derived of its

On the other aircraft

C-130 and C-133 have design speeds

because

have

end tails equations

sweep angles. i for conventional design and for "T" tails. ..

SeparaCeWER The DC-10 data above.

were not

used because

unique

as ntencioned

The equations

are:

W2 W2

= m

5.03 St 6.39 St

Conventional Tall "T" Tall

For the commercial aircraft, body weight correlated well with the number of passengers. This was expected slnce all of the bodies in the

data base have been designed for about the same pressurized loads and have other falrly comparable design requirements. transport seat pitch could carry was normalized This seating The number of passengers each all coach seating seating for the at -

by assuming

of 34 inches. 9 abreast the 747.

represents for

6 abreast

DC-8 or 707, seating for

the DC-10 and L-1011, data aircraft are plotted tend

and 10 abreast versus the number fuselage

The body weight 5.5. Larger

of passengers weight derive

in Figure

to have

a higher

per passenger. In order to better fit separate WETs for commercial transports 100 passengers. The equations

the data, it was decided to with less than 100 passengers are:

and more than

................

W 3

161 Np - 5o110

Medium & Large Aircraft Smail Aircraft

W5 Derivation passenger shrink of the WERfor medium density ground rules for

II0 Np aircraft airplanes two vehicles. excluded because the thirty

small study

and seventy stretch_

of thestudy

these

5-12

....................... J,

...................

:......

:: : : .............

...........
P

iJ

I
o

e,

For military

aircraft,

the body weight

correlated

well

with

the body ..

wetted area (Sb). The wetted area and excluding wheel pod fairings. _n Figure able 5.6. There Cusela_ea

is the body wetted area without cutouts The cilitary body data are plotted and are falrly comparhas a and 1oad-

are a11 pressurized might appear Integral 1oedlng

in design. upper nose

The C-$Awelgh deck troop

to be high, cargo _.n addition

but it

.separate visor

compartment, nose transport

1oadlng

system, tall

and ramp to p_rmlt The milltary

to the is:

Ing c_pabillty.

body WERderived

W3

0.467 Sbi'277

Military Aircraft

5-14

i
I

'
L

___i,_ :_ :: _::_ :l_i __:

I,:_ ,_ ;_:_::::_:_::: _ :ili:! _:,_ : _

I I .... h ............................................................................... , I ,I .It. I ....................................................................

..

" ............... = _ ....... 1 .... ....... ........ Hiiliiilili::iiiili!i:_ !i!l!i_!l:,_lii::ili_i:l_;ili:i::llii;Eii_;i;:.l_::_ii!!!!iili::l:!: ii : I:_iIi:i: ii


illi !i lift i!i i!':i}ilil_i_: :,':i: ::::_:llil _i:._ _i:.:. iilil i.. i . i_j :. !..!:_i'. : :.i/_::t::i.::..! _
F.' :;i _.i ........ ;............... I _' :::: ,' ........ :_::: _:::i: :I:.:..-:_.:.,,.].L.; '.. _,_...I -..,: ' ,... "" . . : .......... i ']i : -. i_i_-,?_'-'_. -" _? .LI ,i ,

'_

M_

" ii_lii!il_ :ii.l:_i L::i:i_:li:::Li:! ::::;I: !:i:l!_.: :!!i!!:._l::i! :i! '::::!:i: I::i.... = !:iil::i!ll 2!!ii: ii_iliii!li::]]l:: I _ I_i] J_!:]lii:_]i_l i:iiili::ii,::-il;iii_:_i_ !:I : _ i _; I m _ ii_iliiilili I I_I I ii:l::!iL.:l!:i!L;i[:!_i_;.illiil_a::l,_l: ,',:::i:iil_i::?i:::l_i! = _

Ill I.-i

....
i :" : ;"

iii! i:!i2! "i ! " _ ]L'-::_]--iiii'_t'i::i:i'l.],.:,'.lii! [': !:::


: ; ":",-. " "T: " "'":"

i
' :i .....

! :i-ii:.:i.::ii.'; : : .,. ,-i: L:.',.I:: -.-i " I ;..::.:! '. i.i:l. 7.:L! ! .ilL:i _'ii. _..
:" 1.'_ "'::'"::: .... t': ..................... t,..) ..... _ ........ 1....

""
.,-

_'.:::':!:;t'::-' !; !

..... :'_":' i:';.'i'':..

:" :t::,
:!::'

" '

::

'

.!.

': : ! :'

_ "" .,. .,. '


!

, :

L._

_.'

: '

' ! " " ' : _ :-I


.I

" i

i..,,.l"

i ', "

'

t::-:-:-:-:,:"j-i_.--

_ ...... H-" :

"+T-: , .....

-+-".-7"--[-".-_

!
_I

th':_l::i.l::_'.l;i_M_:lli_:l i_....... _...... ..... I ......... I............. t .. :


"/'""k

I ..... l:i:.].., t _:l ;. : ,i:: .t::: i .... !_,..L; ::._ . " l _" _ i... l I ::J:,: . , i i:
1 , '.

:_'-_d_: _ i , ---ill,: _ i

..... : 'i "'" ............

'

'

7;

( I;/_..)

( ,_p'_nod

.,'() ,_ptil;,_ll_ll,l,

Lit,)!'

.,i,,t' ,t(lOtl '

i: 1
:_. 5-I 5

II |
B. Welght ALIGHTING GEAR SYSTEM J and Desig R Characteristics Weight port aircraft tively. subsystems brakes, and and design allghtlng characteristics for commercial in Tables and military trans-

|
5.3 and 5.4, respec1 and 1

gears are presented gear weight is broken

The alighting for which tires. aircraft

out into the same four controls, wheels

CERs were derived:

structure,

Certain C-133B,

have special

alighting

gear features.

The

C-130E,

C-5A and AST(M) prepositlonlng,

have low pressure

tires; the C-bA has kneeling, provisions WERs, and the

crosswlnd AST(M)

and tire inflation/deflatlon high sink speed. were In developing adjusted

has a relatlvely

the alighting these

_,

gear system weights special features.

of these aircraft A description

to exclude

of these weight

adjustments

is presented are The

in Table 5.5. derived

The low-to-hlgh-pressure relations C-bA

tire weight

adjustments

from parametric

descriptive features

of each type of tire. on detailed is based

| _

adjustments statements.

for the special

are based

weight on trade

The sink speed adjustment

for the AST(M)

study data. (17)

I
Relatlonshlps alighting gear system small were developed separately and military are I _ | I
t

Welght.Est.imatlng WERs for medium aircraft. plotted mounted

,[

for the complete

and large commercial Data for medium 5.7.

aircraft,

commercial

aircraft

and large commercial transport alighting

and military gears

aircraft are wing

in Figure whereas

Commercial transport

alighting gears

military

are fuselage commercial

mounted. gears are

For the same takeoff heavier

gross we_'ght, the wln 8 mounted mounted military gears

than the fuselage longer

because

the wlng mounted and loadpath Fuselage with

|
i I

struts are usually material attach body.

and because _qulred

wing attach

bulkheads

to tbe fuselagc..are for both wl-g separate

for wing mounted mounted for

gears.

bulkheads Therefore,

and fuselage

gear are included commercial

WERs were in Figure

developed

and military well

aircraft. with

As can be seen groas

5.7, the weight

data correlated

!
I I

the takeoff

weight.

5-16

I ....

............ i ....... Ii ...


I.

Table ALIGHTING The allghtlng

5.5 i me llsted below were adjusted effects of ..

GEAR WEIGHTADJUSTMENTS of the aircraft in order

gear weights purposes

as shown for correlation special design

to remove

the weight

requirements.

No adjustments

were madeto

the other

aircraft.
al

Lbs/Arplane C-130E
Group Weight Statement Weight Tires 5,077 500 4,577 ,

-.
' "" _

LOw Co High Pressure Adjusted C-133B Group Weight Statement Pressure Gear Alighting

Gear System Welght

Weigh t Tires System Weight -

11,062 946 10,116

.,

Low to Adjusted C-SA

High Alighting

..

Group Weight

Statement

Weight Tires

37,628 - 1,583 - 5,836

""

Low to High Pressure

Removed weight increment resultlng from _,._eeling, preposition, and Inflate/deflate requirements Adjusted Alighting Gear System Weight

.,

30,209

AST(M)
Group Weight Low to _, Reduced from Adjusted Statement Pressure Weight Tires requirements to 10 ft/sec. Wei8ht 9,360 641 High

4,
t

i _i

sink speed 20.5 ft/see,

- 2,700 6,019

Alighting

Gear System

5-20

The equations
V

are:
IP

W4

0.0440

(TOGN) -

672

Medium and Large Commercial Medium and Large Military

W4

0.0439

(TOGN) - 2,050

"
m%

The data .for snmll transports, Figure 5.8. The equation 0 W4 = 0.0395

all of which is:

are commercial,

are plotted

in

derived

, (TOGN) Small .b ?
=#

The "prime"(') on W 4 indicates that these ace equations for the basic allghting gear and do not include special features which are discussed below.

Alighting by plotting
[

gear NERs

for each of the four subsystems gear weight

were developed

the percent of takeoff

of total alighting gross weight

for each subsystem 5.9 to 5.12. The


P

as a function equations are:

as shown

in Figures

ii
!

W4A W4B W4C W4D Adjustments

= = = =

W 4 N4
!

[0.450

+ 23.1

X 10 -8

(TOGW)] (TOGW)] (TOGW)] (TOGW)] wi_h

Structure Controls Nhoels Tires and Brakes


ms

[0.130 - 6.56 X 10-8 [0.268 - 8.12 X 10-8


'

.,.

W4 W4

[0.152 - 8.38 X 10-8 to the weights features.

L
are required estimated These the WERs developed features .. above if there are special include: kneeling_ brakes low pressure crosswind design special design

tires; high sink speed; and provisions tire Inflation/deflation; AdJustlnents to the alighting terms in Figure

for special and carbon gear weight The data These _'

prepositloning,

in place of steel brakes.

for these features used in developing

are shown in percentage the percentages

5.13.

are from Tables

5.3_ 5.4 and 5,5.

* Data for indlc_te

small mil_tary that: W4 =

transports, which 0.0302 (TOG_J_.

are not cnntnlned

in this report,

5-22

..............

,..

(,_/_)

&HDIaM

HV_9

ONl&HOIq_

qV&O&

dO

&Na3Had

5-27

! ! I
special _" I fe4tures all ncrease brakes _he weight whlch of the the alighting weight. gear system except foL the follows: carbon are as use of decreases The equ_tion_ Add for Low Pressure
0

Tires

" i _. '_ qb _ "

W4E " Add for


m

W4 [0.125 - 0.0102 X 10-5 (TOGW)] Each _oot per Second Increase in Sink Speed
!

_4F

0.038 W4 8 Pre-positionin 8 and Inflate/Deflate

Add for Kneelin Requirements W4G " Subtract W4H -

:' _ : i! i, .o

0.184 W4 for Carbon 8rakes W4 [0.0786 0.071 X 10-6 (TOGW)]

_Sm

im

,Jm

i I ! !
I 5.-29

C. Weight

NACELLE SYSTEM
|

and Design Weight and

Characteristics design characteristics and military for nacelles are presented in Tables

J | _
t

5.6 an4 5.7 for counerclal The data base The blanks includes

transport

aircraft,

respectively. engines. for

aircraft

with wing,

fuselage

and tall mounted

in the table indicate Some addltional

that detailed data were

data were not available for sound-treated

those aircraft. nacelle designs

available

from the NASA Short

Haul Study, and these data are presented

in Table 5.8. (18)

WelghtEst_natlng Separate

Relationships WEEswere developed for the nacelle design features cowl and pylon. These tall --

WERe must be adjusted mounted nacelle

for special

such as an "S" Duct

and sound suppression

treatment.
Wa

Cowl:
q -

.... weight

At the outset to engine by

of the study, it was expected be possible.

that a correl_tl the scatter

_f co_

thrust would

However,

of the

data obtained

this relationship This scatter

was too large

to be

of usa in conceptual these data ""

design studies. are plotted.

is apparen_ as engine

in Figure dimensions fan exhaust

5.1_ _'e_e

Such differences

(i.e., CFb vs. JTgD), duct configuration to make a general , ....

Inlet dimensions

(i.e., DC-8 vs. C-141),

(i.e., JT8D), fan duct length, and by-pass ratio appear correlation of cowl weight to thrust impractical.

A cowl

we.ight

to

frontal

area

relationshlp

was

then

examined,

but

pure

area itself produced fan exhaust be related weight duct

significant t_th

scatter size.

due to the increase

of inlet and might

unit weights

It was felt that cowl weight area index or cowl

to a weighted

area index.

The weighted below.

t
[ !

index was developed Because

as discussed

of the wide variation into several

of cowl designs, As shown

the cowling

structure for short I) the #

should be divided

segments.

in the diagrams include:

duct and IonF duct nacelles

in Figure

5.15 the segments

inlet from the lip to the engine

front

face (Li), 2) the fan cowl

5-30

At*

1
J
,4

Flgure NACEL|_ SHORT DUCT

5.] a DIAGRAM NACELLE

..

Lfd

_ ___--_-_-_ ----"--'-----I --T'


!

i I

.... 2-_-_.-_.-..,Jl
I

'-::: .... -

L--- --I -

i;

'- .,_

wt , , ,,m

LONG

DUCT

NACELLE

b r-

"_ --

-r "' t -i---,

<":

iI
I I I

I I
I

i
I_
U

(Lf),

3) the

fan

exhaust

ducting

(I.fex)

which

includes

the

inner

bifurcated

....

ducts as well as the outer cowl, important part of the fan exhaust "" The area weighted the Thus, term for each

and 4) the core cowl (Lc) which is an ducting especially for long duct designs. of the (Df) first three length segments of each is determined and or '

by multiplying " ..
?

fan diameter the inlet

by the

segment inches

by pi is

( _ ).

area

equals

_L i Df in square

_ Li Df/144 in square feet. not available so that the can be estimated 5.6, 5.7 i.e. by using

If a dimensional sketch of the cowl structure lengths of the four segments are unknown, uhe values for an existing ratio of the average design by the fourth core as given in fan core (Dc)

area Tables ......

and 5.8 (Li/Df)_

and multiplying X (Df) 2.

this

square segment, cowl

of the the

diameter,

The area the

cowl area, is determined by LC and byg . Weight these ments. of weights data were were

by multiplying

diameter

..

available

for

each

of the areas were

four of

cowl their

segments, respective

and seg-

divided for It

by the weighted cowl that segments tne unit

The weights

these

then

plotted of the

as a function inlet and fan the

fan diameter. ducting and core nearly

was found

weights fan

exhaust fan cowl values "" square

increased cowl unit equal.

significantly weights The cowl were

with

diameter. the weights

However,

essentially unit

same and their (in pounds per

were foot) Inlet

segment

may be expressed co,_l: W i

as follows: 2.5 + 0.0238 Df

LiDf/144 Fan cowl: Wf _ LfDf/144 l Fan exhaust cowl: ......... Wfex _ Lfe x Dr/144
8_ c

ffi1.9

(2.5

+ 0.0363

Dr)

Core cowl:

_ L D _-_
CC

ffi 1.9

!
..
!

|
I
4_

5-37

Therefore, the weights of the

it

was cowl

possible segments

to and

develop dividing

a cowl by 1.9

weight _ /144

index

by

summing

..

= 0.0415.
ms

The equation

for

this

index

is:

;J
Ic (1.316 (1.316 The cowl weight per engine + 0,0125 + 0.0191 Df) Df) LiD f + LfVf + ,_ Lfe x Df + LeD c of this weighted area "

is plotted

as a function

index (Ic) In Figure 5.16 and shows excellent correlation for conventional eubsonlc aircraft. Tall mounted nacelle weights are not included and are discussed later. for the total nacelle cowl weight is:

....

The equation

-,

WSA where: N is

= the

0.0415 NeI c number above. of engines, and I

is

defined

''

As shown in Figure is heavier comparable pounds the of due to blow-ln to the others, inlet sound on the

5.1_ doors

the C-141A aircraft in the inlet.

Is above

the llne as It

To make

the 747 nacelle by 337 pounds ballast). ducting is (238 For part

each 747 nacelle and 727 and

is reduced of fan flutter

treatment DC-9, and,

99 pounds 737, the

JT8D engine

exhaust

of the dry engine weight front face to the engine weight _ince this is more

therefore,

the outer

cowl from the engine

rear face is included represe_tative of the

with the fan cowl area and unit weight for the outer

cowl only.

The effect

of sound

treatment 5.17 based

on the cowl weight

and cowl weight 5.8. For example, 28 percent

index is shown in Figure the by-pass in weight treatment

on the data in Table

ratio 6.0 engine

cowl shows a. increase

of about

and 32 percent and lengthening

in the cowl

index as a result of one Inch sound Thus, for this example, (WsA/le). there is of

of the inlet.

a slight decrease

In the unlt weight

of the cowl

The weight

5-38

'

_t,nd buppresslon r_ngs and struts is not included in the cowl weight u _, plotted in the figure.

i,

_. i_

A diagram acteristic discussed effect later. on their 1) the weight

of a typlcal is Pylons weight.

wing given have in

momlted Figuze

pylon 5.18.

showlng Tail which

the mounted

Importan_ nacelles

charare

dimen_ions

four

cimracteristicn

have

:J significant

They are: weight o the power plant pod (Wdem). _ncluding This tile is dry

The demountable of the cowl

(N5A) and the propulsion

system

_.

engine welght(N 6 weight) but less the fuel system weight (N6E). Nelghts for engine mounted components such as hydraulic pumps (hydraulic system) and generators (electrical system) wore not considered since they

oo

represent only a small portion of the demountable weight and since their _
4_

elimination simplifies the determination of pylon weight. 2) The h,3rizontaldistance from the wing _ront spar to the demount-

_. _i
q_

able center of 8ravlty (Lpy) which, whencomblned with Wdem, is an indicator of the moment applied to the pylon. The center of gravity position of va_iou_ engine installations _as examined and found to average about half of _he distance between the inlet lip and the tip of the tailplpe or

-_:: ""

pr_nary thrust reverser. Also, it was found that the moment (Ndem) (Lpy) should be increased about 20 percent for STOL type aircraft with sink speeds of about 18 feet-per-second.

3) diagram,

The height of the pylon box (Hpy). For pylons, as shown in the this value is the distance from the bottom of the wing to the For high by-pass ratio, short duct engines, this

top Of the nacelle. I

value is usually the distance between the top of the core cowl and the bottom of the wing. For pylons which extenJ above and around the leading edge of the wing, half the wing depth at the front spar _ added to this value.

"

5-41

Figure 5.18 PYLON DIAGRAM

i i ,

4 Lpy FRONT SPAR

5-42

4) ostlmated

The from

side profile area of a nacelle installation

the pylon sketch

(Spy). llke that

This area shown in

can be Figure

5.18.

.............

It of i side

was profile

expected area) to gpy

that might and Spy.

the be

pylon

unit

weight

.(pounds

per

_quare

foot

proportional This asaumptlon

to Wdem and may be

Lpy and

inversely as follows: i

proportional

expressed

i If
QD

Spy a pylon I Index py Is

_Hpy

Spy / as:

defined

._
IQ

Wdem Lpy H S PY PY

, .

then:

WSg S PY WSB

a + b I PY

where: "_

pylon

weight, coefficients.

and

a and b are

-f

"

m_

The

pylon

index The

helps correlation

to

predict of unit

the

effect

of weight

cantilevertng with the pylon

the

engine index

off

_hewing. -_4

pylon

results

in

the

fol.lowlus equation:

: :--

where indicated weight I is by using

WSB defined the the plot

Spy

Ne

(8.0

+ 0,0144 weight of actual

Ipy) correlation weigh_ pylons are is versus shown very good as

PY

above. in

The pylon 5.19 The

_'tgure

esttmate_ only for material correlated

above

equation.

DC-10

_; =_;

" _

reference to reduce

since they are heavier nacelJe flutter.

due to the addition mounted-DC-9

of stiffness pylon also

The fuselage

,!i i II '_i :

well cowl

by defining

Lpy as

the

distance

from

th_

slde

of

th?

fuselage

to

the

and Hpy as the pylon thickness. Tai! Mounted Nacelle: The weights of the taiI mounted shows nacelles are shown weight in Figure 5.20. to

1_e

"S" duct eonfi_uratlon

a significant

penalty

relative

'
y

5-43

,. ,_-_

=- :.

I
"*' I

"

a normal design, same as

wing the the the

or straight

fuselage

mounted duct

nacelle. tall

Based mounted

on the

data weighs

for about

_he

DC-IO

through fuselage the

nacelle Carry

the

wing tall around structure the

or and

mounted for the

nacelle. the tall are stralght stub

through through

structure design with including


m_

between both Body

fuselage and

frames shall Since

the

engine

are

included with weighs the the

the

tail.

and support duct mounted earlier tall

Irames

include3 nacelle and

body .... the same cowl with cowl an ;


mt _W

straight

mounted cowl For be added

about

as a wing and pylon _ -

or

fuseage

nacelle are used. must

pylon,

WERs for nacelle of the

discussed the

a tail to

mounted the weight

"S" duct,
and pylon

following

weight from the

deteru_ned

NERs discussed

earlier:

W5c

3.04 [(WsA + W5B)/N _ 0.893_

(WSA + W5B/Ne )

..

5-46

_!f:
_'_: .. ............................ ___ .......... ................ _ .......

I
)_

i
1"

}.::.

iiiI
I

J_

D. Weight

PROPULSION and Design Weight

SYSTEM

(LESS ENGINE)

L
, Characteristics system are presented aircraft, in Tables 5.9 and The fuel data for the propulsion and military

5.10 for commercial "" propulsion system -.

transport

respectively. thrust

system is divided

into three These

subsystems:

reverser,

and engine systems. ReJated

are the same subsystems system design notations

for which

CERs

were derived. presented

propulslon

characteristics

are also the types

in Tables

5.9 and 5.10; configurations.

are given

to indicate

..

of thrust reverser unlnstalled.

All thrusts

are sea level,

static and

i_

""

The data in Tables and tall mounted

5.9 and 5.10 Include

aircraft

with wing,

fuselage

_urbofan and turbojet

engines.

In addition

the proposed the The "


!

..

CFM-56

engine

is shown exhaust which

in one of its study configurations flow system weight has turboprop information. without thrust

to indicate reverser.

separate
R _

engine

C-133B

aircraft,

engines,

was included

only to provide

additional Weight

fuel system

i
Estimating Relationships for the thrust reverser, fuel system and engine Separate WERs were developed i_ "" systems. Thrust Reverser: reverser includes which the exhaust system. Diagrams of thrust

The thrust reversers P li

and exhaust

nozzles

cover most of the current

power plant fan ,_

configurations thrust reverser ) _" | _ engine reverser system exhaust

are provided

in Figure

5.21. Only one high by-pass


(a), as this data base. is the Other

system is illustrated used on aircraft in configurations short

the

only type of fan diagrams show Figures

for separate duct designs

and mixed

flow designs. thrust

(b) and (f) represent The other three

with and without with

reversers. (c and

diagrams reversers

represent (e).

long duct designs lines

reversers

d) and without the portion

The solid

in the d_agrams by the thrust

represent reversers

of the nacelle sectlons.

system that is covered

I_

and exhaust

I I

5-4 7

'
I THRUST a) Fan Exhaust Cascade Type Thrust 747, Reverser and C-SA REVERSER Figure 5.21 NOZZLE CONFIGURATIONS
I

AND EXHAUST b)

Engine

Exhaust

or Target

Type

Thrust

with TranslatJng (DC-8-55, DC-IO, (Type)

Sleeve. L-lOll, "

Reverser DC-IO, Translating 707, Sleeve. 747 Type) with L-IOll, (DC-8, and

I
"" I ! I Fan Exhaust Flow I _ _

"

_.
La

1-I [
c)

I Df I

_._ ''''_

_-

_ ,,'1'

l ',I i1!'
d)
Simple Target Type Thrust Reverser Mixed Flow Exhaust Nozzle. (DC-9, 737, 727, DC-8-b2 Type) With

Simple Target Type Thrust Reverser with Separate Fan and Engine Exhaust Nozzles. (C-141A Type)

I--.-----

Lpex

--_...._. _1 \1

Fan Exhaust Flow_ , ' a , I Engine Exhaust Flow--_-

"

..
""

e)
Separate Flow Engine Exhaust Nozzle Without Thrust Reverser.

f)
Short Duct Engine Exhaust Nozzle Without Thrust Reverser. (KC-135A and C-5A Type)

Thrust It was,

reverser

weights

vary

conslderably separate 5.21. weight

depending _Rs are for

on configuration. each of the six

therefore, reverser

necessary types

to develop

thrust which flr_t

shown in Figure effect area area on the

There

two characteristics reverser. system). times the For the The

have is

a sigulf_cant enclosing the

of the

thrust

the

of the is

thrust

reverser the

(and exhaust fan diameter

For fan reversers,

approxlmately

length of the fan thrust reverser translating nozzle ( _ Df Lftr/144). the engine exhaust section, the turbine exhaust flange diameter times length of the engine exhaust nozzle is used ( _ Dt Lpex/144). Lpex are not known, they can be estimated by usln_ values for Dt/D f and Lpex/Lfe r and dimensions given in Tables 5.9 and 5.10, that The second engine the follows: has both thrust important a fan thrust split

If Dt and the ratios as

Dt and Lft r from an existing design, is similar to the desired design. is engine thrust. Where the thrust ratio reverser_ (BFR) as

characteristic reverser based

and engine on the engine

exhaust by-pass

total

(T) is

Tftr T ptr Total thrust and by-pass of the

1 + BPR T i + BPR ratio thrust are given reversers in Tables were 5.6 and 5.7. with thrust and

The weights enclosing type. area The unit

_rrelated to develop fo_:

of the weight

thrust

reverser has T

in order the following

WERe for

each

equation

W6 DL For fan tbrust

f (a+b_) reversers: Tft r " 10.0 + 0._.=0 weight _Df Lftr/144

N6A1 Df Lftr/l_4 where: W6M =

fan thrust

rever_er

5-52

i
11 Note that the zero intercept i_ about 10 lb/ft 2 . The HER ts therefore: i
QB

W6A1

(0.218

Df Lft r 0.0120

Tftr)

Nc

The correlatlon versus estimated d_slgn

is very good as indicated weights in Figure 5.22

by the plot of actual Due to the short are partially

weights

fan thrust stowed over the

reverser

for the 747, its fan cascades This accounts

aft section

of the fay ease. exhaust

for the relatively

low 747 weight,

For engine t
_

reversers

and nozzles:

W6A2 _. where: I ,. _
t_

a + b

ptr _ Dt Lpex/144

--_ D t Lpex/144 W6A 2 a,b The WERs = are engine exhaust coefficients. configurations

reverser

and nozzle

weight

and

for the different

are:

Cascade

or Target Type Reverser

with Translating

Sleeve:

N6A 2 _. Simple Target

(0.179 Dt Lpe x + 0.0389 Tpt r) N e with Separate Flow Exhaust Nozzle:

Type Reverser

W6A 2 Simple Target

(0,131 Dt Lpe x + 0.0239 Tpt r) Ne with Mixed Lpe x + 0.0122 Flow Exhaust Tpt r) N Nozzle:

Type Reverser = 0.105 Dt

i i

W6A 2

e
I Seporate Flow Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser_

'I

"

W6A 2 = (0.113 D t Lpe x + 0.0144 Tpt r) Ne Short Duct Engine Exhaust System Without Thrust Reverser:

_ i

N6A 2

(0.096 D t Lpe x + 0.0094

Tptr)

Ne

!
i
........................._ _........_........................................ _ ................ _, ; ._:,, , ,_. . ,,,: _.,,

,
5-53
_ _ _

1'

TI

Inul

,I_t.. !

E!!I!I;!III i
:':

"'

,
..

"
1

" _ _

!i!!:!

[i i :i_! :
' ' :

: ": :

' I

" "

{}

,..
-i.

,_ _
_

. I......... !. , "-'T,, ........ ...... ...:::.._ :................. _ iii;ii iI ' -"-....... T---'............ ,: : :" rI ': : :i.... ' i ]i;;iiii_,,,,.._!i. :-71ii il]il]iiiiii!iI _, _ -

..... ........... I 'IiI


_2_ " : L2.1[..._:-.::. ...."
, i1222!..:..!2
...........

., ' ' i ............ .-,_---4-F--_: :


! : ,.i : ;
I

'; --"_-i
!

"

.. _.

_['":_-_v

......

!.
i..

!22 ....
i

: : :::;l;.!]l...... ':i:! ":' I"::I


'. " ;:." ..

: :'"

....ii., ,i..... ,
.;. i ! .

l I;.... ,
,

: .

,... ." i ;
'

" '; :

, , "; .........
I

' ' "l


;

ir

...._::i:I_!II: i_Ii.. . ]i ..... . ..... i......_ _I I..:! ,..,..I_ : .:.' ": '1. 'x : ' :::: : !
, I 1 , , '

"

.................lIiit:i, ' i .... : "

I ....I ... .
i '

;.. '.. : .i n ; ' :


'

__

Ir n i
qp,-

I,. n ' :. I .._ i il

I,!
i, ir

J'.ll_ DI_

'lV_J,aV

!i

1
i ,

i':_ ,,,i: ..... " ;: :: "

Correlations weights in Fuel z Fuel isttcs , (L w) wing ing. fuel .. for

are Figure

very 5.23.

goad

as

shown

by the

plot

of

actual

versus

estimated

I ! 4

Sya_t ern_ system weight fuel number the of tanks are military commercial in the was correlated number tanks lengths of (Nft) for the Figure with t_nks several and wing the different span. best characterWing span results. and and vent The plumbThe developed the large Some we,-e as philosophy no

Including times span the

relume, of fuel run

provided fill, number 5.24.

i" --i," i_:;


I o

indicates

distribution of pumps Separate

The number system commercial weights and between _,ere data was found between

indicates in

valves.

plotted

NERs were for known there

aircraft. and fuel the

The underlying military distribution reason for aircraft system, these

reasons are not but

differences i:'I: i:_. ..... }12:


I

: '"

differences insufficient evidence

found to

determine would

differences design

which military

indicate and

appreciable transports.

..

differences

commercial

'Ii ''_ i

The WERs are: W._ oB = 2.71 (L N_ )0"956 ct Commercial

"

i I

_i_}I" -_'1" _'I:" _"_I:" "_ i

Weights comparability and design range from ' "i.0 lb./gal,

go," supplemental among the aircraft,

fuel

tanks h,_wever,

are

excluded aircraft

for statistical for

the

purposes data

of

1 i ] il

study about for

results Indicate 0.5 lb./gal, for self-contained

that unit weights integral or bladder type tanks.

supplemental tanks type belly tanks to

m_tal

I!' ii,_I; [ _/___

Ensine Systems : The engine system weights ably due In part to differences injection and auto throttle).

8hewn in Tables 5.9 and 5.1,0 vary considerIn engine operating requirements (e.g., water Also, In Pome cases the cr_ire systems may be

;i_I"'i I

included

as

standard

equipment

on the

dry

engine.

However

when

the

engine

I: |
:_- :_"-/_ : ........................................ _- ......... _" i ........ -:.... ....... _ ................ _ ................... --_;_,_i__/_ _ _ __--: .......... "___

5-57

system 727-200, models,

weights

were adjusted DC-IO-10, weight

to delete DC-10-40, per engine

water

injection

and auto 737-200,

throttle, 727-100, For these -

the systems for DC-8-62, the

theM DAT 70, DC-9-10,

BAC-111, DC-9-30,

and C-5A seem comparable. =_uges

adjusted

from 84 to 151 pounds with of 117 pounds Is 133 pounds is appropriate. _,


!

no correlation If auto throttle

to engine is

size.

Thus, an average the average weight

Included,

per engine

Either of the two values should provide satisfactory advance design weights. Without auto throttle
q

W6C

117 Ne 133 Ne

W6C _2..

Wlth auto throttle.....

iiL

:I

5-58

+ I
j

I+"

II _

E.

FLIGHT CONTROLS

AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS and hydraulic because powez systems weights are comblnod weight and is _ J _ _4 _ i J ! .

The flight controls for welght correlation and s_stem

purposes

of variations

in functional

....
,5

allocations .. : , D
t

interpretation

among

slrcraft manufacturers, hydraulic power system

also because designed

a large portion

of the aircraft hydraulic These

by the flight control

actuation

requirements

of flow interto are

rates and systamredundancy. dependence between

requirements

create a natural difficult

_+ i_
D-m

the two systems

and it Is, therefore, However,

develop

separate

WFP.s that are meaningful.

approximate combined

WERs

developed ' control

for each system based systems

on its percentage

of tb

fllght

and hydraulic

weight.

Weight .

and Design Weight

Characteristics characteristics for the flight controls and hydraulics

and design

systems

are presented respectively. which

in Tables

5.11 and 5.12 for commercial control system weight system

and military the earlier.

aircraft, _ autopilot

The flight

excludes

is included with

the avionics

as discussed

""

Weight

Estlmatln s Relati0nshIps A major influence on the weight system of these systems is whether a slngle

""

hydraulic aircraft

or multl-hydraullc

is used. which

The 707, DC-8 and KC-135 means Control a llghter hydraullc surface area and the

have slngle hydraulic

systems

-*

system

that uses more mechanical wing

controls.

combined .. Weight

and tall area also correlate of control

wlth combined

system weight. 5.25. Tht_

"_ shown as a function which represent .

surface are: 0.973

area in Figure

equations,

the two curves,

+" 't

W7 + W8 W 7 + W8

87.0 360

+ 2.17

Scs

Single Hydraullc

System

+ 2.525 S cs

Nulti-Hydraullc

System

Alternative tail area. The

equations tail area is

were

also

developed by a factor weights.

based of Weight

on combined 1.44 i_ based shown

wing on tha as a

and

weighted control

relative wing

and

tail, fllght

_'_

_.I

le

function good area

of

the that

wing the

and

tall

area which does are:

in has not

Figure almost correlate

5.26. double well.

The the

correlation control

is surface

still ..

except of

AST(M)p aircraft, equations

conventional

The alternate

W + W 7 8 W7 + W8

= =

45.0 45.0

+ 0.269 + 1.318

(S w + 1.44 (S w + 1.44

st)l'106 St )

Single

Hydraulic

System

.,

Multi-Hydraulic System (S w + 1.44 S t ) $ 3,000 Multi-Hydraulic System (Sw + 1.44 St) > 3,000 the wing and -_ -.
.m

W7 +W 8

18.7

(S w + 1.44

St)0"712-

1,620

Since it may be easier during tail


i

preliminary area, except

design the for last

to determine three equations designs

area

than

the

control are

surface

may be as a STOL

preferred. type aircraft.

These

satisfactory

unusual

such

Separate hydraulic the system

WERs were

developed the This

for ratio ratio, area

the of

flight the

control hydraulic as and

system system a percent,

and weight is in

the to plotted

by examining weight. surface

combined

systems of

expressed of is ta_l For wing

as a function 5.27 ratios for craft i and 5.28,

control

and there and

tail

area

Figures of these and air-

respectively surface systems or are

Since wing used.

no clear areas,

correlation averages non for

with

control

single

multl-hydraullc (the MDAT series,

this were

purpose, excluded.

production

SCAT-15

and AST(M))

The equations W 7 W 7 W 8

are: = 0.769 0.728 0.231 0.272 (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W 8) (W7 + W8) Single Hydraulic System System System System -

Multi-Hydraulic Single Hydraulic

W8

Multi-Hydraullc

* The DC-10 engine.

area

includes

only

the

portion

of

the

vertical

tall

above

the

5-64
= A

.....

1 .......

4,

Emerglng

Techpologles controls new, and hydraullc systems would be greatly affected effect on

The flight by implementing the total aircraft

power-by-wlre

technology. to wire 5.13. (RSS), tabulated. in tall loads

The estimated controls Component gust load weight

weight

of changing shown in Table stability

or active

controls differences (OLA) weight bending loads strut

on the DC-9 and DC-10 is resultingfrom and _aneuver _ncrementa moments for reduced load with

static

alleviation

alleviation RSS represent tail, condition adequate is required

(NLA) are reductions in wing

The structural size, in fuselage up tall gear fleld

m,

due to aBmalle_ flight

due to greater in alighting for constant RSS is

a balanced

and an increase rotation

t.

length

to maintain strut

aircraft because of

length. for

The longer balance posJtions. factor

the wlng with aft

moved forward llmlt load

purposes

as a result

the further weight is

center

of gravity the gust

Additional

structural

saved

because of

can be reduced

and the center-of-pressure

the maneuver

wing

load

can be shifted inboard.

Care must be taken that the weight savings FRA are coordinated with other design condlwhich may become critical

with the additions of GLAand

_ions which are no_ affected by GLA and MIAbut before the full advantage of GLAand

MLA can be realized.

The DC-10 flight controls are readily adaptable to active control technology since the DC-10 is configured with a four-channel autopilot and full electrlcal capabilities i power flight power system contr,,is. However, the DC-9 flight to provide controls the and increased systems

would have active

to be changed control

demanded by all

functions.

Therefore,

welght penalties to the DC-9 are significant.

5-68

P.

ELECTRICALSYST_

We__Kht haracteristicB C System and component weight_ of the electrJ,:al system are prc_ented

in Tables 5.14 and 5.15 for conm_erci_:l attdmilitary alr_raft, respectively. The miscellaneous connection aircraft, system. Weisht ,_ Est_matin8 The electrical number of passengers with These data weight system _: contrast intensity :.i lighting enee " the data were body wetted are plotted correlated Relationships system (data area weight was found 5,1) to correlate commercial for military well with the and wiring equipment for and wiring weight includes Fur the in racks, Douglas the shelves commercial and

operatJontil

equipment. is

the miscellaneous

equipment

included

AC distribution

from Table (data

for 5.2)

transports transports.

from Table 5.29 707,,747 dual system engine

in Figures without to the the

and 5.30.

The commercial The lighter cabin

transport 747 lighting By

or SCAT-15. low intensity driven

can be attributed

and to the utilization the heavier

of four

60 KVA generators. to the air triple high

DC-10 weigh_ system, which

can be attributed includes integral driven system allocation

lighting supports the

conditioning

plenium/

and three 747 and the philo_ophies

90 KVA engine DC-IO lighting and weight on the

generators. weights for the is

The differdue to

between

different

design

support/pleniums. because of

The different different data , I_! !_ data

generator out

capacities

747 and DC-IO are design requirements.

engine

and dispatchability to determine data

Sufficient

were not

available

why the 707 and SCAT-15 were high. 5.15 were supplemented C-123B, with

The military for small 5.30.

transport

from Table (C-1A,

military This

transports figure indicates

C-119F,

DHC-6 and AC-1) WERs

in Figure

different

elpctrlcal system

I.

5-70

+I
_.ml'' .-+ ili ';

!
O'l i,-I i-(

i
ii i+

Ii,

0' ,,,,,,,

,.,

5-74

..L

The eq_tio_

are:

'"

W 9 W 9

= -

0.508 0.0919

Sb Sb + 1,870

}_111tary _lttary

Sb _ 4,500 Sb > 4,500

)/ 5-76 i

'
G. PNEUMATIC, AIR CONDITIONINGAND AUXILIARY POWERSYSTEMS The pneumatic, bined weight _ for weight allocations portions air conditioning purposes and auxiliary because power systems are tomcorrelation and system of of different among aircraft and auxiliary a full functonal manufacturers. power 8ystemB load for interpretation pneumatic Significant are designed the aircraft by ground cooling requirements with passenger commercial aircraft The ice protection differences aircraft and by englue start requirements systems are considered separately requirements anti-icing among the provisions). for military aircraft. because of significant (e.g., not all in anti-icing have trine or tail aircraft !,

!
!._

i _

: / ii', " :_: _

Because of the to develop meaningful

interdependence WERe for the

among these systems, tc is difficult separate systems. However, separate power system. (the difference and pneumatic This between systems. -

correlations were done with and without the auxiliary save equations for the auxiliary power system alone the two correlations) equatton and the combined was then weight divided air conditioning air

_.

The latter based

between

conditioning

and pneumatic

on approximate Characteristics Weight

percentages.

t_ _

Weight

]! _ i_:
;" "" ;:

breakdowns

for

the

pneumatic

system

are

presented

in Tables Weight 5.18

5.16 and 5.17 for commercial and military aircraft, respectively. breakdowns for the ar conditioning system are presented in Tables end $.19 for commercial weight and military are aircraft, presented respectively. respectively. in Tables Aircraft 5.20

Auxiliary and 5.21 for

power system commercial

breakdowns aircraft, DC-8,

end military include

without

auxiliary

power systems Weight

707, 727-100

and ,KC-135.

Estin_atins

Relationships systems power weights with well withoutthe the auxiliary passengers system and with reasonably number of (data
transports and with body ,erred ,re, _dat_

] 4b
1

were
from

Combined found to correlate


T_ble 5.1) for

co_r_nercial

from Table and 5.32.

5.2)

for

_1tary

transports.

Data

are

plotted

in Figures heavy. The

5.31

The DC-8 and C-133 weights

are exceptionally

5-77

I !

o
_L

g
*a

,; I.* _4)

,,4 .,.4 l , ,_,,i _

_l :_.,

N I,, _

_ _

O :_ _ _1 _1 _ 0_01 _ k _ r_' _ :

.,_

(11 _t,._

"_

:_ ,--_ _

_:

._

I
"PNEUMATIC, Figure 5.31 POWER AIRCONDITIONING AND AUXILIARY WERs - COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT

'

I
j

100 NUMBER

200 OF

300 PASSENGERS

400 - ALL

500 COACH (Np)

i;

s-86

<

+u.+_ + ............................................................ ........ i. .......... .... +++ i=_

............................. ++_=+:r+:+ :_.......... =++ ............... _+, +_

mL

pneumatic tioning condenser

system system

on the DC-8-55 uses a freon

uses

steel syscem

ducting whtch

and the DC-8 air requires

condi..

cooling

an evaporator, is very high and

and an extra of

compressor. turbine

The C-I?3B units

APU weight utility bleed

due to the use electrical conditioning excluded

two gas in addition

to provide primary

hydraulic air for air

m.

power

to providing systems.

and pneumatic from the correlations.

Therefore,

the DC-8 and C-133 were


m*

The equations

are:

..

WlO + Wll + NI3 N10 + WII Wl0 +Nll W10 + Wll + W13

= =

26.2 Np 13.6 Np0.944 23.4 Sb0"545 15.6 Sb0"560 1 "

Commercial

.J

Millcary

The auxiliary power system WERs were obtained by subtraction of the above equations. They are: 0.944 Np Sb0"545

W13 W13 Separate

= -

26.2 23.4

- 13.6 - 15.6 for the

Np Sb0"560 air conditioning

Commercial Military system and "

WEgswere

developed

pneumatic system by exanLinlngthe ratio of the pneumatic system welght to the combined systems weight. This ratio, expressed 5.33 as a percent, and 5.34, is

plotted

as a function

of Np and Sb in Figures of these commercial

respectively.

Since there is no clear correlation average is used. The average for military aircraft Is 31 percent. Therefore, the equations WI0 Wll = are:

ratios with aircraft is

Np and Sb, an 28 percent and for

The average for all aircraft is 29 percent.

0.290 (WIo + WII) 0.710 (WI0 + Wll)

5-88

I !

i|

H. Weight

ANTI-ICINC SYSTEM and Design Anti-icing Characteristics system weight breakdowns are presented in Tables 5.22 and '

5.23 for tabulated protection

commercial by%rng, functions. are

and military transports, respectively. Weights are tail, air induction (nacelle) and miscellaneous ice

There
L

five

major with

configuration air induction

differences (nacelle)

among anti-icing
, ,

systems:

aircraft

anti-icing

only,

wins mounted turbofan with nacelle aircraft

and Jet engines without or wing but with

tail anti-icing, anti-icing, tail

anti-icing, and/or and fuselage tail mounted turbofan engines with wins mounted turboprop engines with tail anti-icing There are ucLnor configuration both the tail differences within electrically are also these categories.

tail

For

example, L ally

KC-135 and 707 have surfaces. There

rather differences For example, controls

than pneumaticbetween the aircraft 707 antitail, but

anti-iced

in what is L icing weight

included

in the anti-icing

system. and

includes 166 pounds of wiring the KC-13 Includes only 20 pounds, Wei2ht Estlmat!n _ Relationships

in the

tions

Because of are difficult.

the many differences in Separate correlations

anti-icing tried systems, the weight major correlawere for five

configurations the mentioned is based on fact that above most However, wins area of is also

using winshave wins The choice area. aircraft anti-icing of aircraft runs. 5.3. size

ofrequirements. wins area therefore, are shown in

an indicator size of duct

and is, weights is

an indicator as a function i

the general area

Anti-icing =here

of wins

(S W) in Figure

much scatter

example, weight difference the data even for the same configuration. For the between the DC-IO-IO and DC-IO-40 is mainly in the air induction system because of design tions, respectively. requirements peculiar to the CF-6 and JTgD engine installa-

' I

5-91

....................................... 11

Figure 5.35 ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

WER

i
L

Itl

i
ee

&O

. ,400

1200
i

1000

..
[_ II O_

eGO
i:i.; AIRCRAFT WITHOUT.. "!TAIL ANTI-ICING ::"!.... l (Symbol V ) -._-.:

600

.i

"
i & 200

1
(Symbol _ ) AIR INDUCTION !

O0

WING

AREA

(Thousands

of

square

feet)

(Sw)

5-95

Re

Alreraft antl-lclng aft fuselage craft for wlth th_

wlth

fuselage because location engines

and/or separate to the reflect systems.

tall

mounted

englnes be

usually routed weights

have from for required

heavier
f

weights engine turbo-prop

hot air duets must wing. The antl-lcin_ the addltlonal

the slr-

components

p_opcller

anti-icing

Based WERs _.'e:

on averages

for

the

different

configurations,

anti-Icing

system

"

W12

0.038

Sw

Nacelle

Air

Induction

and Misc.

Only

W12

= =

0.120

Sw

Wing Mounted Without Tail Wing with

Turbofan Antt-iclng

or Jet or Jet

Engines Engines f Turbofan


I

W12 W12 =

0.238 0.436

Sw Sw

Hounted Turbofan Tail Anti-Icing

Fuselage Engines .................... Wing Tail

and/or Tail Mounted with Tail Anti-icing Turboprop Engines

W[ 2

0.520

Sw

Mounted Antl-lcing

with

5- 96
J.

.......................... _ :..................... _,,_

_......................

,,,_

I. Weight

FURNISHINGS and Design Wet.ght and

AND EQUIPMENT SYSTEM Characteristics design in _haracteristics Tables 5.24 and for 5.25 the for furnishings commercial and equipment

w system .. _ ...... _, i: '


...

are

presented respectively.

and military

aircra_t, Weight

_
O_

Estimating The furnishings the

Relationships and equipment of passengers system for _eigh_ was found to correlate the Figures

well body 5,36 "and

with wetted and small

number for

commercial These for the

transports data are

and with plotted large occurs in

area

military

transports, developed

" :.

5,37.

Separate

UERs were The difference

medium two and

and

transports at weights aircraft systems, and the about

transports, The 5.37 weights

between

sizes

80 passet_ers. .. :-.P : _ii_ i _i:" ,= _/. "" _


_q

military have of and been

transport adjusted seats,

furnishings for cargo

equipment between delivery and supports,

shown

in

Figure the

comparability and litters in Table Figure aerial

by removing food, water,

troop survival

ditching

equipment, data in

oxygen system. with data for

The military small military

transport transports

5.25 wer_

"upplemented

5,37.

An extrapolation

of the weJ.ght

medium and transports,transport large for small but WER for small are: " 62.3 N military

data would have the supplemental transports.

indicated a data provides very basis a high

for

a separate

The equations W14

+ 290

Commercial

P _.. I.': _, | W14 0.650 Sb _ > 80 P Military

]_

W14

"

0.271

S b + 1,710

Military Sb > 4,500

i I
! i

i"

l,I

Ilia

(_I_)

(spunod

_o

spu_snoq_)

_HgI_

&_dI_b_

_NY SD_IHSINHD_

.5-102

NeiRht _ S.26

Characteristics Weight and 5.27 breakdowns for for the and instrmnents military system aircraft, are presented in Tables

commercial

respectively.

_. _, ,: ., i" _.

Weight

Estlmatln 8 Relationships The inst_Jments of system weight depend signal and is very hard things to correlate _ince of the num-

her length

and

types of wire

components from the

on many input the

such to the

as number cockpit, display.

engines, of

run and

point type of

degree

sophistication the best results,

redundancy, fuel quantity

visual

To obtain and all other in

related,

propulsion The weights

related, of the

instruments each category fuel

were

correlated correlated

separately. with several were fuel for 5.39, tanks, fuel

instruments For (data number with

were

independent correlated and wing instru_ents The best with

variables. fuel times volume the was for with engine best

example,
Q_

quantity the best plotted and 5.9).

instruments number of

from fuel "" volume;

Table tanks. this

5.9), The is

span

of

correlation in fuel Figure flow

weight

fuel

correlation was per was

propulsion thrust plotted

instruments , (data in ., from

(engine Table 5.39.

instruments) instrument

weight weights

engine are

Propulsion of the (data area

Figure

The weight

other from (data weights

instruments Table from

correlated

with ports

the number of and with the

passengers body wetted

5.1) for commercial transTable 5.2) for military Figure in the 5.40. same correon

i _

transports. Data for

The other instruments commercial and military

transports

are plotted in were included

latlons. Therefore, for "other" instruments a dual scale was used based an approximate relationship between number of passengL rs and body wetted

area, Weights I correlations and, because for the C-5A, MDAT-30 and MDAT-?0 were not included in the

because the C-SA used extraordinary weight of study ground ruins, MDAT-30 and MDAT-70

saving techniques instrument weights

were not modified Although

in accordane_

with

geometry scatter

changes. indicated in the plots in

there is considerable

Figures

5.38, 5.39 and 5.40, approximate

WERs were derived

as follows:

5-103

@4 ra_

w-4

- Illi

e-i

f-4

_"

It

'

5-106

m ! I

o o

-I07

.....

,,,.....

lrl:

t I Hili!!: _hhi! i"l:!_:i_:I ,!!I iihli!ii !II_!iil/__ili_it!,.i]ii!:l;..il...Ji!!: __ .-- lJ._. " !ill _ !1!t ........... ......... _,t,:_ ,_,.,..._........ _!I i!!: :ii iili !I:I iii. liii:L:_I,,_-_l.... ... . :!!! t'.:,'_!i!'.!i!! !:i!;!:i :I:',f!i!:,' _'.:.i:i'ii.':'i:'.,":",;_.,:i:'i!!i'i!:: i "_-" _:I_ ':_. i !_.i .::!':!:'I.',,"_I:: I..' ,:ihji ii!!ti_ii ii!t_:':ii!i i_ !iii I!: :iiitiij!tiiiitli;it!:::!tli!tlilj!lii_il!ilil:_:!l:_:;l:!i_ll:i:ti::_l / :1. -: .::1

14

_i_!{_!_:_i!!!_!{_i_!_!_ii_!_!_!i_i_!_i_!_!_i!:_:_!_!:_ I II._!:

I i

:':, :h: :::: _ _: :::: :._ :::: ..'.': :, :F ::" :::: :: .2I.':.'_ _!'."_{ :i!i i"'_"!,:: :_i : - .:_:]!::: :..j. :. :.. !.:.' :

III!1!!II!iii :!!i i{_! _ii_ i!il ii_i i{!:tll iiH !ii: :HI !!i_ I:_: ti_! :I:: :::: !!!': :::: ::_: :':: " :'-'i !........ I _ _ _i_:_:!!i_:/:1:!_:_!_i::i_.._i_::_1_:_1_ii_i_i_:1!_i_it_:J:!:_LL_ ] :--_i; H_._)!_]] _"
k.:_i _Hil!tit::ill ii!iilil_!i!li!iiii ili!_::II i 'i!i!ii!.:::l._.:,_!ii! I!II::I::: _-_t::_: - _ di I!!:ili::tiill i_:::i!::::i_: ! "_

I
"

_!_!!!! !!!It!.:!:I: j.:ii .ii.!:_ii_i!ttiii_::!_iti__ _i!:_:: !::!!iili _i_f.: i!::l:: ::_ ' : _tii_i!.t_! ::i: i',_:.t:i!i:. _:::i_i..:!::i:: i._ ..I_ :.:::: _::,:.. : ::. ' !

_!_!:_!:_i!d_:d!!!!_i!!_i:d!!_:_!!!_d!!!!_!!_!!!_i_:._d!:d_::_!!!_:_W_!!:::_:!:_:_ : i /I.
t: I : !

,,,.i,, , ............... .I ........................... . , .................... .


_: - :
I::'_::':_'::: '"' :::" :::: :"
1::.: _::::: :::,.

:"'
::.::: i

":'" ":: :::: :: ,-*:: " '" :": "':' ",,1 " ' I
;:: .... ..,: :::!' ;::.,.: I _ I,.'_ : : I ' ":

'1 " _
_i_ ,,., _ _, .. "_, .... : _1

,:::.: i :_,%:.T-,.::: _:.::

i::::_ti!i!:itli!::il:ii_t_!i i:!!':::it::;:_ :?:tW_TI:_ _:gg_"__:..":iii_ii_i:_:lll ::i':i_t_i:_ i::z:'_:':.: :_ ._i:iit _::_ :'_: " :_'"-'"" :

_T'I .... :t-: _ _l-.i".T

":f _':ii: ......... :........................... :".,:'.i:'.::'. !_!! i!!il;iiii:iii_ii!:,iii_i;:!!!!::!!::::!i:::

, ,; .:.- :,.: .:_ :::'.1:::: :.i :'7. !" . !:::, _.:.i:. ::.'.:.:i:" ::.:.:,.!:.:._ii .... _i!! :::: _ _: :_ :!!i ::}: ":_ : .... : ..... : ':" :I..!.-_ ':: :::: ":":' _"

....tt H ....t
o
o

If t t,
,........1"7....... iii:!i:
:.' t ".' t :I:! t t ::/

:i _t__ _ I _" .

't ,

I ;- ' +_'_ :"........... "

.
, .
_

f ! '
....

' -'_g :. t_

:"" "_:: :::'I_L"t_'"_ : ::

_iii'-i :!:''

!:i:l .j_.!!:-_!:,.:..:l_i:: F_;I!F-_!t!:'-!!!: I ___ _

i:

_,_ii!iii_._:L.-_i!_il_i:i!::_l_,_:t_,,:i:! -I,, i_ -T{?_:':t_,,!l:::::_!:ii::l:::.il:::l;'._:l :1 i-i\


_I

ID

i
I

(_N/H_I_)

_NIUN_ HHd &HDI_

&N_H&SNI

NOI_'ll]dOHd

5-108

J
W15A W15B WI5C 0.00714 (0.00145 C + 34 T + 30) Ne Fuel Quantity Instruments Propulsion Instruments

1,872 Np + 128

Other Instruments Commercial _

WI5C

0.0540 Sb + 126

Other Instruments Mil_tary

These equations can be combined as follows:

W15 WI5 !

1.872 Np + 0.00714 C + (0.00145 T + 30) Ne + 162

Commercial

,. 0.0540 Sb + 0.00714 G + (0.00145 T + 30) Ne + 160 Military i ..


w

As mentioned in Section 4, instruments are composed of two general categories of items - equipment (e.g., "blackboxes") and other items such as installation hardware and wi_'ing. Each category accounts for about

half of the total instrument system weight.

..

7
#

!
I K. AVIONICS SYSTEM Wgght and Design The avionics I = _ Characteristics weight and design characteristics are presented in Tables The data.

5.28 and to aid design and 5.29 for commercial given military in aircraft, characteristics are interpreting respectively. the weight

A
. ]

Major weight differences are associated with customer requirements, certlflcatlon goals, and type of equipment (e.g., vacuum tube vs. solid state). Minor weight differences are associated with equipment locations and fuselage size. weight Conventional versus automatic landing introduces a negllglble to the with avionics the system, but the latter must have anti-throttle,

penalty is

_ : ?. _" .... i _

which Weight

included

propulsion

controls.

Estlmatln& Relationships Avionics systems as follow_: I. 2. General Aviation Category I or II Domestic Category I or II Overwater Category III Domestic Category III Overwater Military were classified into six categories for weight correla-

tlon

purposes

3. 4.

._
J

5. 6.

These avionics categories account for the major differences in avionics weight among transport aircraft. For a given category, aircraft size will also

have some effect on the avionics weight.

I,

NERs were developed for the first five avionics categories, all of which are related to commercial transports, using the following method.

First, each category. weigl,t and average the average were determined for Then, the effect number of passengers of aircraft size on avionics weight was

* The MDAT-30, 747 and SCAT-15 avionics weights were not used in computing the averages. The MDAT-30 was sized fro_ the MDAT-50 and assumed to have compliment of movie pzoJection equipment. The weight is a special case. an identical avionics weight. The 747 avionicsSCAT-15 includes a large

,- I

I
=--=.__ __ _ ., ,, _ , --i. _. ._

5-III
_ r .... ..............

!
I determined. by aircraft l the public passenger order to avionics equipped internal the For size passenger is the aircraft, internal the avionics sub,ystem subsystem affected which most communications systems. is 1.5 includes per In , address and for internal determine veight_ entertainmont communications The average pounds pounds per passenger. on the remainder the DC-9-10 and avionics is 39 avionics

I ]

the effect a comparison

of aircraft size was made between

of the DC-9-30 (less Sinc_ (less for of an

as

for the same communications) carries

customer. between

The difference in these two aircraft the per avionics Finally, form: = +C Np the for added passenger. weight each

weight pounds. weight

l
i_. r ._

DC-9-30

30more is there per has is

passengers, 1.3 pounds

internal passenger mately is 2.8

communications) aircraft, pounds which

Therefore, variation category,

a total

appro_iequatiou

passenger. the following

derived

N16 "C" is a constant of in passengers Figure 5.40. which for is determined category.

2.8 from

average data

weight

and

averag_

_ I. _ J .b

number plotted

each The

The

weight

and WERs are WER's are:

commercial

aircraft

avionics

W16 !: i ; W16 W16 WI6

2.8

Np +

370

General Category Category Category

Aviation I or II Domestic I or II Overw_ter

2.8 Np + 1,010 2.8 Np + 1,380 2.8 Np + 1,970

III Domestic

"
i _,

I The weight

WI6

2.8 Np + 2,320 indicated about from 650 by the equations

Category

III Overwater I or II versus

difference

for category

l :" I D

category difference 300 pounds.

III for

avionics is converting The additional

950 pounds. Studies indicate the actual category II to category IIl_is approximately pounds is characteristic increased monitoring. the military to the category avionics III weight overeater of wlde-body guidance |

aircraft reliability

which

include

passenger

entertaioment, and performance

flight

'

I m I

and maintainability, The militaryWER wetted area. is derived

by correlating is very close

with

body

The result

FigL're 5.41 AVIONICS SYSTEM WERs

l J
_ 4000 OR MILITARY _

2000

_C-130E '_

DC-10-10 727-100

_OR_STIC GENERAL AVIATION

_I

100

200

300

400

500

600

10

12 of

14 square

16 feet)

18 (S b) _ ....

BODY WETTED AREA (thousands

O : O _ ,
b

GENERAL

AVIATION DOMESTIC OVERWATER


*

..._ ,. I .,,

CAT I OR II CAT I OR II

..

A @ m

CAT Ill DOMESTIC CAT III MILITARY OVERWATER

i !

i !

* In addition to Category 650 pounds for passenser ity and maintainability,

III avionics, these aircraft include approximately entertainment, increased flight guidance reliabiland performance monitoring.

!_.

5-116

!
i MR for passengerof aircraft, area to number passengers, given the t_ical me milita_ relationship weight data and of body wetted MR are plotted i in Figure 5.40. SEWER is: W16 - 0.10 _n Section

Sb + 2,330 4, avionics are composed or units) of

Military two general and other cate-

I gories I

As mentioned of ite_

- equipment

(e.g.,

"blackboxea"

items

such as installation hat,are, _ring for about half of the total avionics

and antennas. system weight

Each category accosts as shown by the "_tio

of Units

to Total"

in Tables

S.28

and 5.29.

1 !
| ............ i

11' ,
I i.. I

L.

LOADAND 9_DLING

SST_

WetRht Characteristics The weights for and 5.31 for Weight : ':_: effect weights T _'. preli_a:y co,,,erelal

and Analysts the load and handling and nLtlttaz_]

system

are

shown in Tables

5.30 _ /

j.

transports,

respectively.

Estimating Since

Relationships of the load and handling average transports system load are has a negligible system for use in J

the weight overall

on the for

aircraft

weight,

and handling recommended

eo-,,eretal design

and military

studies. are:

The weights

1 !
1

N17 WI7

= =

50 130

Commercial Military

:'[
b

,[

f_

,m

i!

j.
!

I,

5-118

Vl

tll

"*

........... i,..
= Ill ._ I I

I
.[

..............

t,

I
/

APPENDIX A : 11 ESTIMATING ACTUAL COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL transport AIRCRAFT aircraft is known only to

&

The actual cost of a commercial the aircraft reliability aircraft, it approximately. lished price

manufacturer that builds it. of the CERs developed i l this is necessary to A methodology is described

However, paper as

in order to check the applied to commercial even cost if only based on pub-

t t l,

estimate the actual for estimating the below,

cost, actual

data

The price _ _ _

of a commercial

aircraft

tends

to

be

constant

(excluding

inflation) for all units produced_ 13)* Therefore, a buyer can typically purchase either the lOth unit or the 150th unit for the same price although of learning and the lOthwould curve tooling) effects costs cost and are the the manufacturer fact that over considerably non-recurring a much smaller "n" units more (e.g. quantity. because design, Thus,

....

test

amortized

the manufacturer after makes


!

incurs u defeclt

for the first

sold and there-

a profit.

"

If the manufacturer's were known, then the actual

non-recurring cumulative

costs and breakeven

point

("n")

average

cost of "n" units

could be

-_.

determined.

By using an approximate point, a. the actual 86 percent

range of values cost learning

for the non-recurrlng

costs and breakeven mated. Then,

for "n" units can be approxlcurve slope, which is typical

by using

* The actual selling price may vary depending upon negotiations at the time of the sale that take Into consideration items such as the schedule which, in essence, provides the aircraft manufacturer with quantity of aircraft and s_are parts ordered and the prep.yment an interest free loan by requiring the purchaser to pay as much as one third of the purchase price as early as nine months before delivery. The the purchaser foregone interest to on percent amount the sales represents to (2 3 this of reflected in the sales price of an aircraft. a price) substantial is that cost not

I I
I A-1

for

the aircraft

industry,

the

cost

for

a quantity

different

from "n" (e.g., ,

CACIO O) can be determined. This reported This such items tracted million. methodology price has been applied (less items check engines) unrelated ouC flight of is to the $18.2 DC-IO-IO as million follows. The (13)

s_11ing

in 1975 dollars. an aircraft These

amount

includes

Co the cost and state the reported

of producing and local sales taxes.

as warranties, amount to about

4 percent

price

and when sub'_ "_

from the sales price result Assuming that non-recurring

in an adjusted sales costs are between between 300 and 400,

pr_ce of $17.5 $800 and $1,200 the CACIo0 is

million and that the breakeven estimated as follows:

is

l
i

Non-recurring
ii , mS

Costs _1,20.0M _17.2M $19.6M

i :

Breakeven .300 units 500 m_its

$800}4 _18.8M $21.0M

..

The average CACI00 is $19.2 million which is about 5.5 percenC higher than the sales price. The estJ_ated actual cost must be multlpl_ed by a factor of i,i (which represents a nominal i0 percent profit as discussed in Section 2) to achieve comparability wlth the CERs summarized on Table 2.1. The

_+

t i
?
I

indicated on Table 2.3. Similarly, the estimated actual cost of $3.9 million resulting estimated actual Price is $21.1 million for the DC-10-10 as for the -28 in Table 2.5 is 16 percent (1.055 X 1.1) greater than the reported selling price of $3.4 million. ""

_or example, $x7.5 million X 300 - $800 million + CAt300 X 300. CAC300 m $14.8 million and CAC100 - $18.8 million.

Therefore,

A-2

!
APPENDIX i DESCRIPTIONS B

OF RECURRING COST ELEMENTS MANUFACTURERS* related to

USED BY AIRCRAFT I.N-HJUSE PRODUCTION includes components the

all labor and raw materlal and subassemblies cost elements and Sustaining by the which

the

production

of It

major includes

aircraft are Toollng described Labor;

manufacturer. : ...... below: and

following Engineering

Fabrication,

Sustaining

Raw Materlal.

J*

Fabrication detailed

labor performs

operations which

in the manufacturing includes cutting,

of moldlng, anodizing,

parts

from raw materlal stretching, and deburrlng.

= :_

._

forming, plating, tion,

stamping, etching,

machining, It also

heat treating, inc]udes shop

coordlna-

and material Engineering engineering Tooling

expediting. labor and labor includes technlcal staff engineering support, labor. and

: _,

Sustaining customer

product

development

Sustaining :

is expended

for the modification patterns,

repair of Jigs, dies, facturlng aids. includes

fixtures,

molds,

and other manu-

Raw Materlal

all raw material forglngs,

such as sheets,

bars,

and

tubes as well as castings,

and extrusions.

i _.

SUBCONTRACTOR includes all major components and subassemblles that are not produced by the aircraft manufacturer. Two cost elements are included.Outside Productlonand Purchased Equipment.

]
_ I 0

_ \,

Outside as

Production

typlcally (nacelle

includes

_Jor

subcontracted landing

l_ems such _ear (nose

the power pack

and thrust reverser),

* The

and main gears, terminology and

wheels, grouping

brakes and tires) and body and_ wlng sections. of elements w_rv for dttftrt.nt mamtfact.r_.rs,

i'

Purchaeed_Equlpmenttyplcally columns, mechanlcal voirs, tors, rudder and filters, battery, pedals, actuators); plumbing, Wlrc, and ducts, systems, lights, electrlcal

Includes

fllght

eantrols and

(control

controls (pumpu, Instruments); conv_rslon and

hydrauli_and reser(generapower [

hydraullcs valves, power equipment, air

manlfolds, electrical equipment,

distribution (valves, control

control manifolds);

lighting);

pneumatics "_ ! .,

cc_dltlonlng valves, power unit;

(e1_ironmental controls); anti-icing and equip-

instrumentation, auxiliary

(ducts, electrical); men, (seats, galleys

furnishings

and lavatories);

instruments

(fllght and navlga,

tion systems) IN-HOUSE facturer

and avionics includes

(communication,

flight and navigation). by the aircraft components manu-

ASSEMBLY

all labor provided to integrate

that is required into a finished Quality

in order

major

and su_are

assemblies Included:

aircraft. Minor

The following and Major

cost elements Assembly.

Control,

Assembly

Quality

Control

labor

is concerned hardware,

primarily

with

inspection

of

production

and tooling

and preparation Inspection

and verification of subcontractor are considered

of tests and associated supplled items,

paperwork.

both in plant and out of plant, costs.

to be overhead

Minor Assembly

labor

includes

those operations

that contribute fabpa_ts

to

th_ manufacturing ricated into

of an end item consisting the Joining This bolting, is broken

of two or more assembled

parts and/or component.

of two or more accomplished or three other

a major

may be bonding into

by welding, f_stening methods.

riveting, Major

soldering, Assembly labor

subcategories:

1.

Sectional assemblies configuration "non-pooition" construction.

Assembly which of are

labor

includes

the

effort

that

produces to a unique both airframe be set up

manufactured airplane. position"

and controlled It stages operations includes of the can

a specific "fixed

and

The "non-position"

B-2

in any factory result positions." I result


Bectioa.

location

where thnt

sp_ce will be

is _vailable used the in th_

and usually "fixed are. can

in

subass_bltes The "fixed

posttton_" structural

in

factory

In a completed

subsection

or a whole

j
,_

2.

Installation installing vehicle

and Checkout non-structural

labor operations equipment

are performed in an air

in

and systems

or a section

of all alr vehicle.

Operational

and air-

worthlness

checks of both equipment

and airframe

structure of all

i
3. -.

are also included

as is the installation electrical systems

and checkout and wiring.

el.ectronics, avionics, Miscellaneous testing,

labor consists sealing,

of operations and painting.

such as metal

bond

cleaning,

',*

Q_

2 i

'1 l I I
i B-3

! F

! I
. APPENDIX C
SUMMARYOF SYSTEMS DESCRIPTIONS A. WING, TAIL AND BODY SYSTEMS The wing, tall and body structural designs

systems

are considered

together of

| -

for they have similar fabrication.

and use similar

materials

and methods

,4

The wing

system

consists

of the wing box structure, and trailing is accounted structure edge control

leading surfaces.

and trailActua-

ing edge structure


i

and leading surfaces

tion for the control system. ' "" Systems The wing

for in the flight controls is included with the wing system. system are landing spar

-. ._

carry through

such as the fuel system, their respective

h_.draulic system

and antl-ice

included with gear designs,

functional trunnion landing

systems. For a_tach fitting

wing mounted

. :_" o
i.

the w-Ing bulkhead, to distribute

an_ auxiliary and to

-,,

structure transfer

required

gear loads

i_ the wing

th_ce loads to the fuselage All w/ng a_tach bulkheads system. or empennage

are included

with

the alighting

gear

._ " _

._

system.

located

in the fuselage

are included

in the body _" |

The tail system The horizontal tail usually Fairings,

is defined through

similar

_o that of the wing. but the vertical

tall includes

all carry

strucuure,

_" :" i, _" :Ii


I"

,_

terminates

at the fuselage

loft line (top of fuselage). with the tall system.

fillets

and the fin are included

The |

body

system

consists

of

fuselage

sheli

structure, cockpit

door

and win--

dow frames, radome,

doors, windows,

floors,

bulkheads, mechanisms

windshield, are also

and tailcone.

Door actuation

and alrstairs

included with cargo body system. the For the it is built in the body system includes the loading system since C-bA and AST(M),integral with the floor structure.
h _

i i

Sidewall

insulation

and paneling

as well

as cockpit and
I

instrument equlpment

p mels system,

and consoles

are considered

part of the furnlshln_

I
I C-1

B, .. _. and struts, ment in , the the

ALIGHTING GEAR SYSTEM The .lighting nose gears, side fittings wing and and for This _rag wing gear system consists landing bogie of gear all items associated which is with made main up of attachmaterial
!

includes braces,

structure and/or and axles, extra gear

beams bulkheads, The as

trunnions, load-path controls and the

attachment gears.

wing for

mounted

alighting

comprise
,|

componerts

such include

functions cables,

retraction, or lines

braking from

steering. controls the I '

The controls
?

also

wires,

cockpit

to the landing rolling

gear.

In addition, brakes

the alighting

gear system

includes

I
I

items of wheels, SYSTEM system

and tires.

.',

I
C. NACELLE The nacelle Incl,ldes the cowl structure, rings and supports. the pylon structure, i

and the sound suppression represents " the thrust reverser pulslon the structure reverser

In general,

the cowl i

frcm the_ inlet

to the engine

rear face excluding and thrust the productlng

structure.

The exhaust

duct, aft cowling

structure system.

aft of the engine rear

face is included includlng inner

with

The fan thrust reverser the length system.

and oute_ is also

and core cowl over with the propulslon

of the fan thrust reverser

included

_: _ attach

The pylon includes fittings.

the apron,

engln_ mounts

and wing or fuselage are Included with

Wing or fuselage

attach bulkheads

il

their respective fuvatlonal The sound suppression Any sound suppression the cowl. suppression system. D. PROPULSION The propulsion in this study), the

systems. components

include

the rings

and support is included in the sound

struts. with

treatment

to the cowl inside walls for ice protection

Any inner skin and ductlng rings and nacelle inlet

llp are included with

the anti-iclng

SYSTEM (LESS system fan

ENGINE) the engines (which system, and are the fuel not engine system. considered exhaust The

includes thrust the

exhaust system,

reverser system

thrust

reverser/spoiler

engine

C-2

fan exhaust thrust reverser cades, blocker doors, fan

system exhaust

includes ductlng

the translating located with the

structure, translating

casstruc-

ture and the actuation system and controls. The engine exhaust thrust reverser/spoiler system includes all of the strL=ture and systems located

aft of the engine turbine exhaust systems which include the thrust reverser, flange include components for cooling, tailplpe and bullet. The engine lubrication, ignition, throttle and starting as well as the water injection

"_
!

system and cockpit drain system,

controls.

The fuel system includes system,

the fuel fill and fuel dump

fuel distribution

fuel vent plumblng,

system, E.

integral

wing tank sealant SYSTEM system

and supplemental

fuel tanks.

FLIGHT CONTROLS The flight

"_

controls

includes

the following controls

components: control

cockpit valves,

controls, _ plumbing

mechanlcal and fluid),

controls, control

hydraullc

(actuators,

surface

dampers,

electrical

controls

(except

the integrated falrleads, includes recent system J

flight guidance

and controls),

and miscellaneous Standard

supports,

rub strlp_

and attachments.

Milltary

1374 also

the autopilot

in the fllght control it is difficult and control

system.

But, in some of the the autopilot of the inter-

transport

aircraft,

to separate

from the flight

guidance

system because

dependency among components. Therefore, in this study the autopilot system is Included with the integrated flight guidance and control system which is part of the a_ionlcs Flight control functions system. may be broken into two groups: those per-

performed formed by the primary flight controls and those flight controls. Primary flight controls consist essentially for the provide horizontal pitch, roll stabilizer, rudder, ailerons and yaw control on all three

by the secondary of controls

and spoilers. These axes. The s_,condary

t_[i_,ht

control system provides slats and trailing edge aircraft takeoff

for symmetrical operation of wing augmentation flaps. Thi_ action provides llft leading edge

for

and Inndlng.

I
I c-3

F.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM The hydraulic system flight demands of the provides control during criticality the L-lOll power components. the most of its critical function, four separate, to operate This the system flight it is alighting is and required landing gears to condi-

I t |

!r

and meet !i
t:

the

hydraulic system

peak

J
|

tions. redundant.

Because For

generally continu-

example, hydraulic

has

parallel,

4
,I |

ously operating plan with

systems systems

such that it can complete and can maintain control

its flight and land

two inoperative

safely wlth Engine

three inoperative driven hydraulic

systems. pumps are the primary power source connected Electric power for hydraulic ' _ | l .i I

systems. These are occasionally supplemented by a pump turbine motor for emergency or peak power requirements. ._" driven pumps powered checkout by the auxiliary and preflight power unit provide

to an air motor-

for low units

I
_
r

i
! i I i

flow ground .,, are one-way

pressurization. provide pumps

Power

transfer

motor-drlven

pumps which through

the capability

of generating motors system

fluid pressure powered includes

in one system source.

driven by hydraulic the hydraulic controls

by another

In addition

to pvmps,

reservoirs,

accumulators,

filters, valves,

and plumbing.

[
#

i
!

G.
"

ELECTRICAL The electrical

SYSTEM system supplies power among galleys, controls to a variety lights, of operation tomInstrusystem, unit (APU) ] system consists of the AC power systems system, 5C power system, [.
!

i :i

portents _; meats, fire _-/_i_ i _

on an,alrcraft passenger and

including, cargo landing doors, gear

others:

avionics, control power

environmental and auxiliary

extinguishers,

starting. The electrlcal and lighting system.

!
| [

The AC and DC power

include

power

generating

equipment (i.e., constant speed drives, generators, and batteries) and the necessary controls, wiring, fittings and supports to distribute the electrical power from the power also source to the electrical power center. of

The AC and DC power systems the electrical power center.

Include

the structure from the power

and circuitry center to the

Circuitry

C-4
?

various I functions.

ccmponenCs

using

electricity

are

included

with

their

respecCive

their

The lighting supports and

system includes all associated circuitry.

interior For

and exterior lights commercial aircraft,

with the

interior lighting H. INTEGRATED Integrated blued pneumatic, Although

system includes PNEUMATIC SYSTEM pneumatic system

the

individual

passenger

reading

lights.

_m

(_PS) is a term often applied antl-lclng separately and auxiliary in Military with

to the comsystems. 1374

air conditioning, are treated

power

these systems

Standard

.b

(except T _" system)

for the pneumatic the manufacturers

system whlch

is combined

the hydraullc consider Insome oversee them as an "

and their major because

subcontractors

part 0 a single system aircraft manufacturer

of their commonality. a single subcontractor systems. The systems

cases

will have

the design the


g

_: .,

and production

of all of these

which

comprise

IPS are discussed


mD

below in turn.

._i _. _ _.

Pneumatic

System system includes all heat exchangers and ductlng which air from each of the main engines and from the auxiliary The pneumatic system provides compressed engine air for cabin ice

The pneumatic carries pressurized power unit (APU).

prcssurlzatlon, _ " prevention mentary turbine i


i

air conditioning aerodynamic

and ventilation, surfaces,

starting, driven

on critical

and turbine these

suppleeach

; -,

or emergency engine

hydraulic

power.

To perform

functions, system.

is equipped

with a bleed

air extraction

The bleed

air control to pneumatic ized air is

system

regulates

the pressure

and temperature

of air supplled The pressur-

accessories distributed service

and to the air conditioning by a comprehensive the ducting necessary

system. system, control

1 :'_ ':: 1

suitable and isolation

pneumatic and check

ground valves.

connections,

Anti-Icing System Anti-icing functions

can

be

performed

by either

hot

bleed

air

or

electrical

heat.

Bleed air systems, C-5

which

are the most common,

include

J
all hot ducting air from the along main pneumatic the leading source edges and inner of the to skins which form the systems ,1 cavities surfaces. Electrical include surfaces the electrical plus all wiring blankets fastened the outer surfaces of critical i and controls,

Auxiliary Power Plant System The auxiliary power plant tions in lieu of ground support engine

system

supplies

all

power for operations

ground include:

operacabin |

|| equipment. starting, for electric These air

ground air power ground flight

conditioning,

turbine

motor driven

hydraulic

!
! |

and driving self-sufficiency, to provide services auxiliary

a generator the emergency

power.

In addition system air

to allowing in

auxiliary

power plant

may be used conditioning,

or supplemental

power for

hydraulic When the

and other critical, electrically powered components. power plant is expected to be operated in fl_.ght, FAA

regulations require that it be enclosed in a stainless steel housing for fire protection and this enclosure is considered as part of the auxillary power plant system. The auxillary power system includes the auxillary power unit (APU), fireproof enclosure, air induction and exhaust, piping and auxiliary backup components such as starter, battery and generator. I. FURNISHINGS AND EQUIPMENTSYSTEM Furnishings main cabin all system, and equipment compartment. panels, include a variety cockpit, insulation, .... aircraft, panels, this category structure, complete refrigerators, for bottles. includes hatrack galley food luggage and of items in the cockpit includes oxygen

I ! I

and cargo

In the seats,

this

category lining,

instrument

and console

crew

and cockpit In the

door and partitions of the commercial side lavatory

main cabin covering,

seats,

floor

insulation, complete food divider cool

ceiling

or baggage installation carts,

containers, including

installation, inserts, ovens,

container partitions, air

window shades, passenger system oxygen

stowage buttons,

provisions stewardess oxygen

and magazines,
D:

and call portable

seats,

passenger

including

emergency

')
*' C-6

I
Passenger l cussed system, I category l galley (winches, system. In the cabin of military aircraft, and covering, fittings), lining, cargo the troop and furnishings seats, aerial stowage and litters, delivery and equipment crew system troop oxygen bunks, with reading it. lights are included with system the is electrlcal included in system the and disThe entertainment avionics

includes and lavatory, pTy-bar,

insulation floor tie-down

equipment

i_ _i

tion and the belly of the commercial aircraft, this category includes In lining and belly cargo loadlng system. The cargo containers not included as they are operator's items.

are insula-

._ i

Miscellaneous items include the engine and cabin fire extinguisher systems, fire warning system, exterior finish, and miscellaneous emergency equipment (i.e., first aid kit and fire ax). Emergency exit slides and

llfe rafts are not included J. INSTRUMENT Instruments elated with SYSTEM perform

as they are operator's

items.

' i

the basic monitoring control

and warning surface

functions

asso-

the flight of the aircraft,

positioning,

electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems operation, engine operation, and fuel quantity. The instrument system Includes cockpit i_dlcators and I warning circuitry lights, electronic black boxes between the black boxes and at the the point monitoring of signal devices. input, and

K.

AVIONICS The

SYSTEM system is separated into four subsystems as follows: includes

avionics

I.

The integrated

flight

guidance

and controls

subsystem

the autopilot flight director system; the gyrocompass yaw comsystem, and associated pitch, roll, puters; the system; the attitude and headin_ These into reference units one system; and the Inertial and are, a

I :

navigation therefore,

system. integrated

are interdependent operating unit.

Although

ib

part system ......

of

this is

subsystem, with

the the control.

auto-throttle/thrust propulsion All system indicators, and attachments

management because it

"

included as

J
! J

functions and the

an engine circuitry, flight

servomechanism, related are to also

associated integrated

supports guidance and

controls

subsystem

included. 2. The communication external functions. a. The internal system, the system. for the subsystem is separated by its internal and

_ |

J
[ ,_

communication public address system is

system system, a signal call public passenger individual

includes and the

the interphone multiplex (MUX) source passenger system, latch air the release The

TheHUX

transmission system,

passenger-to-attendant system, system, the the passenger L-lOll utilize units, encoders wiring, head and the the

entertainment reading system light and

address oxygen cool

system. system. speaker MUX system, related included. radio aircraft very (HF) provisions call

DC-IO and All

a communicationMUX and hand sets, the

amplification

installations, and to b. associated the internal

decoders and system system to is the

for

supports

attachments are also the or of

co_nunication conuuunica_iou

The external ment to high system, for which is

includes aircraft

equip-

used

for

aircraft It

ground

communications. (VHF) ultrahigh system,

composed high (UHF)

the

frequency the

frequency system,

frequency the

satellite and are units, and

communication, t' _ voice equipped antennas, attachments system are scrambler with and

selective system.

(SELCA) overwater All

system, airplanes radio supports

Host

HF or associated

UHF equipment. coax, the wiring,

related also

to

external

communication

included.

C-8

" I - I
3. The navigation matic direction equipment (DHE)
t

I ++
+ +

subsystem finding system,

includes

all

radar

equipment,

the

auto-

(ADF) system, the distance the long range navigation computer systems, air navigatiot, the the control slope

measuring (LORAR) system, the (TACAR)

t t

I |" _ s

'

the doppler stationkeeping the the variable instrument (CAS), altimeter system.

system, the navigation system, the tactical omnirange landing the airport system, Most systems. (VOR) system system, (ILS),

system,

_'

marker beacon system, collision avoidance (ATC) system arc system and the the radar LORAN

system radio beacon

traffic the glide

_'

overwater

aircraft

equipped units, coax,

with

"'

[ t r j "_

and doppler antennas,

All of the navigation circuitry and antenna

indicators,

associated

and supports are also

and attachments included.

related

to the navigation

subsystem

3"

" : i /: -' 1 L.

4.

The miscellaneous and crash recorder

equipment systems,

subsystem the aircraft

includes

the flight, data

voice

integrated

(AID)/

malfunction detection analysis the weight and balance system, structure and miscellaneous

and recording If installed, and

(MADAR) systems, the equipment rack

...........

hardware

circuitry. 1

LOAD AND HANDLING SYSTEM The load and handling system consists of fittings and structural aircraft during have pro-

+
: _.
i,

1'
l

1 !

visions

for Jacking,

hoisting

and mooring.

Some military

stabilizer loading.

Jacks to hold

the aircraft

in a rigid position

cargo

I;;i
,a , +,+.,.........................

c+
r........ >.... s-+ -, '*' -

I
I REFERENCES I i. 2. I 3. " m Levenson, Airframes, O.S., RAND el., Cost _Ircraft The et. Corporation, Estimating R-761-PR, Relationships 197!for(Proprietary). December

Large, J.P., et. el., P__aramet_Icquations for Estimating Aircraft E Airframe Costs, The RAND Corporation, R-1693-PA&E, May 1975. Planning Research Corporation, Methodology for Estimatlng Developed " mentj Productionj and Operating Costs of Transport Aircraft, PRC R-634, December _964 (Proprietary). Kenyon, R. E., Weapov_System Costing, Methpdology for Aircraft Airframes and Basic Structures, General _namics Convair Division, AFFDL-TR-75-44, June 1975. C-5 Cost_Schedule_ and Technlcal Characteristics Study, Lockheed OeorglaDonald, Fernando Heyer, Bruce 1972. Trapp, Company MSC 07018, November Kimoto, Daniel Marsh, Parametric Study of Transport Aircraft Systems Weight and Cost, PRC System Sciences Company, October 1974 (Proprietary Information - Distribution Limited). ! : _I i

|
4. 5.

| J_

6.

I 7. ]_ 8. 9. I i i0.

York, Roy A. Flight Weight Actuators An Evaluation o theWeig, t of Aircraftof the Society o Automotive Engineers. the Seventy-thi1_ Meeting Hydraulic Actuators, Presented Before Boren, H. E., and H. O. Campbell, Learning Curve Tables, RM-6191 PR,

The RAND Corporation, April 1970. Teng, C., An EstiraatingRelationship for Fighter/Interceptor #rionics System Procurement Cost, The RAND Corporation, May 1966. Frank Cherry, (Air Force Materials Laboratory) Composites Tech_Threshold to Low Cost Aircraft Structures, AIAA Paper No. 75-1306, August, Aircreft Company, Study of the Quiet Turbofan STOL Aircraft Dousla_ 1975. for Short Haul Transportation Final Report Volume V Economics, NASA CR-I14610, JuneE., 1973. H. Marsh, Donald F. Sargisson, Nordstrom, Kenneth Alan Co__[rce_l Design Study ofAdyanced Acoustic Composite Nacelles, NASA CR-132763, Douglas Aircraft L., A Parametric Determination of Transport _ircraft Anderson, Joseph Company, July 1975. Pric___.ee, Paper _o. 1071, May 5-7, 1975. SANE Committee on Implementation of Cost Saving Recommendations for Aerospace Construction, ILerospaceCost Savings - Implications for NASA and the Industry, NAMB--326,Natlonal Materials Advisory Board, 197_. Lockheed-Callfornla Company and Lockheed-Georgla Com_ STOL Aircraft for Short H_ul TranspQrtat_on, Fin_!lRepu!_ 1_ct Turbofan N_,SA

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

CR 114612, E.,June 1973. for Est_matln8 Ue_pop System Str,c_ural Costs Kenyon, R. 14 Technlques Technical Report AFFDL-TR-71-74, Concair Aerospace D|vislon of General Dynamics. 3ul),1971.

"'
,._.,

R-1

REFERENCES (CONTINUED) 17. 18. Douglas Arcraft Company, MassPropertes Report Advanced STOL TransfoEr

J
1
i

port (Medium), Report MDC-J5652, 14 August 1972. Douslae krcraft Company, Study of Qulet Turbofan Short_.Haul Transportatlon, Report NASA CR-114607,

STOL Aircraft June 1973.

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