IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 57, NO.

8, AUGUST 2008 1651

A New Concept of the Power Quality Temperature
Factor and Its Experimental Verication
Piotr Gnaci nski, Member, IEEE, Janusz Mindykowski, Member, IEEE, and Tomasz Tarasiuk, Member, IEEE
AbstractOne of the features of ship power systems is the pres-
ence of different power quality disturbances, such as frequency
and voltage root-mean-square (rms) value deviations, unbalance,
and voltage waveform distortions. The disturbances (including
their synergy) cause an increase in the windings temperature
of marine induction machines that are exposed to overheating,
even if the voltage parameters fulll the requirements of ship
classication societies. Effective protection of marine induction
machines against overheating requires an appropriate method
of power quality assessment. This paper proposes a new power
quality factor, the value of which is proportional to the windings
temperature of induction machines supplied with voltage of low-
ered quality. The power quality factor has been experimentally
veried. The results of the thermal tests based on the dedicated
laboratory stand to validate the new power quality factor are
presented. The time characteristics of the power quality factor
based on voltage monitoring on ships are shown.
Index TermsInduction machines, marine technology,
measurement, power quality, temperature.
I. INTRODUCTION
O
NE of the features of a ship power system is the presence
of energy receivers with rated power similar to the power
of generators. As a result, numerous disturbances appear in ship
power systems: 1) deviations of frequency and voltage root-
mean-square (rms) values; 2) voltage unbalance caused by a
great number of one-phase receivers; and 3) voltage waveform
distortions resulting from semiconductor appliances. All these
disturbances have a negative effect on ship energy consumer op-
eration, particularly on induction cage machines. The lowered
voltage quality leads to additional power losses in induction
machines and involves a decrease in their efciency. To make
the matter worse, additional power losses cause an increase in
windings temperature, which may result in overheating of the
insulation system and, consequently, a signicant reduction in
the operational life of the machine.
To protect marine induction motors against overheating, the
classication societies have introduced requirements for the ac-
ceptable level of power quality parameters. Numerous parame-
ters describing power quality and their permissible values have
been dened. Unfortunately, they do not provide satisfactory
protection of marine induction motors. The experimental in-
Manuscript received July 6, 2007; revised March 17, 2008.
The authors are with the Department of Ship Electrical Power Engineering,
Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland (e-mail: piotrg@am.
gdynia.pl; janmind@am.gdynia.pl; totar@am.gdynia.pl).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIM.2008.923785
Fig. 1. Photograph taken with an infrared camera of the induction machine
Sg 132S-4 type under nominal work conditions (ambient temperature T
0
=
28

C).
Fig. 2. Photograph taken with an infrared camera of Sg 132S-4 supplied with
the distorted voltage of rms value equal to 90% U
rat
, frequency equal to 105%
f
rat
, and working with a fan-type load (ambient temperature T
0
= 28

C).
The harmonic content of the testing voltage is presented in Fig. 4.
vestigations performed at Gdynia Maritime University [1][3]
pointed out that the simultaneous presence of various distur-
bances may cause overheating of induction machines, even if
the voltage quality fullls the requirements of classication
societies. To exemplify the problem, photographs taken with
an infrared camera of the investigated machine Sg 132-S4 are
given in Figs. 1 and 2. Additionally, for easier interpretation
of the pictures, Fig. 3 shows the view of the investigated
machine in the measurement position. Fig. 1 corresponds to
the nominal work, whereas Fig. 2 corresponds to that supplied
0018-9456/$25.00 2008 IEEE
1652 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2008
Fig. 3. Sg 132S-4 in the measurement position.
Fig. 4. Harmonic content of the testing voltage (THD = 12.45%) [3].
with voltage of lowered quality and with a fan-type load (for
a fan-type load, the torque is proportional to the square of
the rotational speed). The frequency and rms voltage values
were equal to 105% f
rat
and 90% U
rat
, respectively (i.e., the
maximal permissible level of frequency and rms voltage value
deviations laid down in most of the appropriate rules). Ad-
ditionally, the testing voltage waveform contained harmonics
observed in a real ship power system [3], which are injected
to the supply voltage with a programmable ac power source
(see Section V). The total harmonic distortion (THD) factor
of the testing voltage was equal to 12.45% (this value is
slightly above the usually accepted rules but is frequently met
in practice [4]), and the content of each harmonic is shown
in Fig. 4. As the investigation results show, the machine is
seriously overheated, despite the fact that the voltage quality
practically fullls the requirements of ship classications so-
cieties. Thus, the lowered quality of the supply voltage has
a direct impact on the temperature rise of electric motors.
The measured end-windings temperature rise is about 60 K
higher than that in the nominal conditions. It should be stressed
that for the majority of insulation materials, every 811 K
increase in windings temperature causes a double reduction
in its lifetime. For the F class of insulation applied in the
investigated machine, the halving interval [5] is equal to 9.3 K.
Therefore, such undesirable supply conditions reduce the es-
timated machine lifetime [1], [5] to about 1% of the lifetime
under nominal work conditions.
To sum up, it is necessary to improve protection of induction
machines against the thermal effect of supplying a voltage
of lowered quality. One of the possible solutions aiding this
process is the introduction of a temperature factor of power
quality, the value of which should be proportional to the wind-
ing temperature rise of induction machines.
The idea of this new power quality factor is similar to the
broadly accepted factors describing icker severity. Namely,
it is to evaluate the impact of different disturbances concur-
rently occurring on the additional temperature rise of electric
machines. Similarly to icker severity factors based on the
assumed model of incandescent bulb and human eye reaction,
it is based on the model of power losses and heat transfer in
electric machines.
II. STATE OF THE ART
A few synthetic power quality factors have been proposed
in previous years [6][8], but none of them is appropriate for
the evaluation of the windings temperature rise of induction
motors. Some of them [6], [7] were proposed for different
applications, for example, for the purpose of localizing sources
producing distortions. Furthermore, in [8], the following power
quality factor was presented for the purpose of marine induction
motor protection against excessive heating:
f
pq
= k
U/f
(U/f)
m
U/f
+ k
u
c
m
u
vu
+ k
THD
THD
m
THD
(1)
where k
U/f
, k
u
, k
THD
, m
U/f
, m
u
, and m
THD
are coefcients,
c
vu
is the voltage unbalance factor, and
(U/f) =
U/f U
rat
/f
rat
U
rat
/f
rat
(2)
where U
rat
is the rated voltage.
In fact, it was worked out on the basis of empirical obser-
vations, and it is too simplied for the assumed aim. First,
harmonics of different orders have a different impact on the
windings temperature rise [9], [10]; thus, the THDfactor cannot
be used for the evaluation of the windings temperature rise.
Furthermore, the windings temperature rise cannot be estimated
with one simple formula, because depending on the type of dis-
turbance, machine, and load properties, the different physical
phenomena cause overheating. For example, for some cases,
overheating stems from the increase in current for rotational
torque production, and for the others, it results from the growth
of magnetizing current (saturation).
Finally, the new concept of an appropriate temperature power
quality factor, the value of which is proportional to the windings
temperature rise of induction machines supplied with voltage
of lowered quality, was presented at the IEEE Instrumentation
and Technology Conference (IMTC 2007) in the works of the
authors [11], [12]. This work is an extension of those papers.
III. NEW TEMPERATURE FACTOR OF POWER QUALITY
The temperature factor of power quality was determined
in [13] as follows: First, the positive- and negative-sequence
current components [14] of the fundamental harmonic were
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NSKI et al.: POWER QUALITY TEMPERATURE FACTOR AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION 1653
Fig. 5. Single-phase equivalent circuits for (a) the positive sequence [14]
and (b) negative sequence. r
s
: stator windings resistance; x
s
: stator wind-
ings reactance; r
r
: positive-sequence rotor windings resistance; x
r
: positive-
sequence rotor reactance; r
r
: negative-sequence rotor windings resistance;
x
r
: negative-sequence rotor reactance; x

: magnetizing reactance; r
Fe
: core
loss resistance.
determined with the electromagnetic model of an induc-
tion machine, as given in Fig. 5. It should be noted that
the nonlinear properties of the magnetic circuit were taken
into consideration. Furthermore, harmonic windings currents
were assessed on the basis of the method presented in [15].
In the second step, the increase in windings power losses due
to the lowered voltage quality was predicted on the basis of the
estimated currents. The increase in rotor windings resistance
due to the skin effect was taken into account. The impact of
voltage and frequency deviations on fundamental iron losses
was estimated on the basis of [16]. In the third step, which
was based on a machine thermal model, analytical expressions
describing the normalized end-windings temperature rise were
derived. It should be stressed that the effect of an increase in
temperature rise on windings resistance, and, consequently, its
inuence on power losses, was taken into account.
The normalized end-windings temperature T of a nomi-
nally loaded induction cage machine fed with voltage of low-
ered quality can be expressed as follows [13]:
T =w
0
(1+p
wU
)+k
c
(1w
0
+w
x
)
k
t1
k
t2
k
c
(k
t3
+k
t4
w
x
)
(3)
where w
0
is the normalized difference between the maximal
and the average end-windings temperature rise; p
wU
is the
normalized power losses in the phase winding that is most
exposed to overheating (refers to the power losses in the nom-
inal work conditions); w
x
is a variable that depends on the
additional power losses due to the lowered voltage quality; and
k
c
, k
t1
, k
t
, k
t3
, and k
t4
are coefcients.
The exact value of each coefcient in (3) and the calculation
method of p
wU
and w
x
are shown in the Appendix.
For easier implementation of the analytical solution (3) in
a measurement system, (3) and the formulas presented in the
Appendix were replaced with simplied expressions (4) and
(5), which are shown later in this paragraph. The normalized
winding temperature rise of the machines worst affected by
the lowered voltage quality, which is equal to the proposed
temperature factor of power quality fpq, can be evaluated as
T = fpq = a
u
u

+ b
u
u
k
u

+ T
u,f
+
50

h=2
_
a
h
u
2
h
f
k
h1
h[]
+ b
h
u
2
h
f
k
h2
h[]
_
(4)
where T
u,f
is the normalized additional temperature rise
caused by voltage and frequency deviations, which is assessed
with the following equations:
T
u,fa
=1 + a
1
_
u
f
[]
1
_
k
1
for f
[]
1 and u/f
[]
> 1 (5a)
T
u,fb
=
_
f
[]
u
_
k
2
for f
[]
1 and u/f
[]
1 (5b)
T
u,fc
=
_
1 + a
1
_
u
f
[]
1
_
k
1
_
f
k
3
[]
for f
[]
> 1 and u/f
[]
> 1 (5c)
T
u,fd
=
_
f
[]
u
_
k
2
f
k
4
[]
for f
[]
> 1 and u/f
[]
1 (5d)
where u is the normalized fundamental voltage harmonic
(positive-sequence component); f
[]
is the normalized fre-
quency of the fundamental voltage harmonic; u

is the
normalized negative-sequence component of the fundamental
voltage harmonic; u
h
is the normalized value of the hth voltage
harmonic; f
h[]
is the normalized frequency of the hth voltage
harmonic; and a
u
= 4.2, b
u
= 58, k
u
= 2, a
h
= 45, b
h
= 10,
k
h1
= 1.7, k
h2
= 1.2, a
1
= 25, k
1
= 2, k
2
= 2, k
3
= 4, and
k
4
= 4 are the coefcients resulting from the assumed electro-
magnetic and thermal machine parameters.
The values of the aforementioned laid parameters were de-
termined to best adapt (4) to the analytical solution (3). The
presented concept of the power quality temperature factor has
experimentally been veried under laboratory and ship condi-
tions.
IV. MEASUREMENT OF THE POWER QUALITY
TEMPERATURE FACTOR IN SHIP NETWORKS
According to the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) 61000-4-30 standard [17], the term power quality sim-
ply means characteristics of the electricity at a given point
on an electrical system, evaluated against a set of reference
technical parameters. The set of parameters describes different
1654 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2008
phenomena, e.g., voltage and frequency uctuations, unbal-
ance, and waveform distortions. The exact choice of these pa-
rameters depends on the aim of the power quality measurement,
as well as the applied standard for quality evaluation. In the case
of marine applications, the IEC 6002-101 standard is generally
accepted. For example, in this standard, such disturbances for
steady-state conditions (among others) have been dened as
follows [18]:
1) voltage deviations of +6% and 10%;
2) unbalance of 3%;
3) frequency deviations of 5%;
4) THD of 5%;
5) any harmonic content greater than 3%;
6) transient amplitude of 5.5 U
n
.
Thus, there are permissible relatively high values of different
power quality factor deviations in ship systems. This is true par-
ticularly in the frequency case. Worse still, such power quality
disturbances have been observed in the real ship network. For
example, in one case, the steady-state frequency deviation from
its rated value has been equal to 3.63% [19].
Fortunately, the previously listed parameters should be con-
sidered while estimating the power quality temperature factor
as well. Therefore, it seems justiable to conclude that the esti-
mation of this new factor virtually does not require a signicant
modication of the hitherto used method and tools for power
quality parameter measurement, and it can be carried out by
power quality analyzers dedicated to the measurement of these
parameters in ship networks. However, some modications of
their software would be required if the online evaluation of the
power quality temperature factor is necessary.
Unfortunately, such dedicated analyzers virtually do not ex-
ist. There are many different solutions of power quality analyz-
ers available on the market, but all of them are based on the
methods of power quality parameter measurement laid down
in the IEC 61000-4-30 [17] and IEC 61000-4-7 [20] standards.
However, some of these methods are hardly applicable in ship
systems. In particular, the methods of frequency measurement
[21] and spectrum estimation [22], [23] could lead to awed
results when implemented in the systems under consideration.
The detailed description of the problems can be found in the
three aforementioned papers.
It is worth adding that there is very little requirement for the
sampling frequency of the used device and, consequently, the
covered frequency band if the power quality temperature factor
is to be measured. Taking into account (4), it seems that only
lower order harmonics (and interharmonics) are of particular
concern. Therefore, the typically covered frequency band up to
the 50th harmonic is more than enough.
Summing up, the problem of the measurement of power
quality parameters in ship networks is not solved at all. Imple-
menting this new proposed factor can be a part of its complex
solution. It will not require an increase in the required com-
putational power of the measurement device or any hardware
modication, for that matter, on the one hand. However, it
will decrease the risk of ships drive failure or malfunction,
increasing overall ship safety, on the other hand. Moreover, the
ship network case can be considered to be the worst case, and
the method of predicting electrical motor operational life can be
easily applied to systems as well. The standard power quality
analyzers can be used in this case.
V. LABORATORY STAND
The power quality temperature factor was experimentally
veried for two induction cage machines, namely TSg 100L-4B
(3 kW) and Sg 132S-4 (5.5 kW), coupled with dc genera-
tors and supplied with the programmable ac power source
Chroma 6590.
There are built-in thermocouples in different parts of the
stators of the induction machines: in windings, in teeth, in
stator cores, under bearings, and on the casings. It is also worth
mentioning that TSg 100L-4B has a comparatively strongly
saturated magnetic circuit, whereas Sg 132S-4 has a compara-
tively weakly saturated magnetic circuit. As a result, the former
is comparatively sensitive for an increase in the U/f ratio,
whereas the latter is comparatively susceptible to a decrease
in the U/f ratio [1]. The parameters of TSg 100L-4B and
Sg 132S-4 will be presented in [1].
The exemplary connection of the aforementioned elements
is depicted in Fig. 6, together with the locations of thermocou-
ples in the investigated 5.5-kW induction cage machine. The
locations of thermocouples are described in Table I. The ther-
mocouple location in the stator of FSg 100L-4B (TSg 100L-4B
equipped with the additional system of foreign ventilation) is
presented in [24].
The vital part of the laboratory stand is the three-phase pro-
grammable power source Chroma 6590. This ac source supplies
the machines with the voltage of the arbitrary programmed
waveforms (injection harmonics of the programmed magnitude
and phase) to set up the magnitude or phase unbalance, as well
as the deviations of frequency and rms voltage values. This way,
it is possible to reproduce the waveform of voltage recorded on
a ship. The maximum power of the source is 9 kVA (3 kVA per
phase).
VI. VERIFICATION IN LABORATORY CONDITIONS
To verify the temperature factor of power quality, the authors
carried out several thermal tests. Exemplary results of investiga-
tions are presented in Figs. 7 and 8. In Fig. 7, the temperature-
rise distribution is given for supplying a sinusoidal balanced
voltage of the rated frequency and rms values, whereas in
Fig. 8, the temperature-rise distribution is given for supplying
a voltage frequency equal to 105% of its rated value (maximal
permissible frequency deviation) and with a fan-type load. The
lowered quality of the supply voltage caused an increase in the
winding temperature rise (in the hottest measured point) from
93 K to 120 K (129% of the value for nominal work condi-
tions). For the case under consideration, the temperature factor
of power quality is equal to 1.34. More comparisons of the
measured normalized windings temperature rise (related to the
temperature rise for supplying a sinusoidal balanced voltage of
the rated frequency and rms values when fpq = 1) and values
of the calculated temperature power quality factor are presented
in Table II. It should be noted that for voltage unbalance, a
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NSKI et al.: POWER QUALITY TEMPERATURE FACTOR AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION 1655
Fig. 6. Diagram of the laboratory stand.
TABLE I
LOCATION OF THERMOCOUPLES IN Sg 132S-4, AS DESCRIBED IN FIG. 6
thermal test was performed for the angle between the positive-
and negative-sequence voltage components corresponding to
the worst case of unbalance [25]. Furthermore, for the increased
frequency, some tests were carried out for the operation of
the motor with a fan-type load. It is also worth mentioning
that the results of the measurements were presented for those
of the machines that were most sensitive to a particular distur-
bance (see Section III).
The comparison given in Table II shows that the temperature
power quality factor is generally higher than the measured tem-
perature rise, which results from the fact that during the deriva-
tion of the factor, the worse parameters of the machines rather
than the investigated ones were assumed. For example, the nor-
malized leakage inductances were assumed to be equal to 0.15,
whereas for the investigated machines, they were equal to 0.17
0.18. Additionally, it was assumed that the magnetic circuit can
be more saturated than that for TSg 100L-4B. As a result, for
case 4 (see Table II), the temperature factor of power quality is
signicantly higher than the measured temperature rise.
Fig. 7. Measured temperature-rise distribution in Sg 132S-4 in the nominal
work conditions (T = T
rat
, f = f
rat
= 50 Hz, and U = U
rat
= 380 V).
Fig. 8. Measured temperature-rise distribution in Sg 132S-4 supplied with a
voltage frequency of 105% f
rat
, working with a fan-type load (f = 52.5 Hz
and U = U
rat
).
1656 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2008
TABLE II
COMPARISON OF THE MEASURED NORMALIZED WINDINGS TEMPERATURE RISE AND VALUES
OF THE CALCULATED TEMPERATURE POWER QUALITY FACTOR
To sum up, the new temperature factor of power quality en-
ables estimation of the windings temperature rise of induction
machines with an accuracy that is satisfactory for industrial and
marine applications.
VII. EXEMPLARY RESULTS OF THE MEASUREMENTS
IN SHIP POWER SYSTEMS
The authors have carried out research of electric power qual-
ity in ship networks for quite a few years. The measurements
of power quality parameters have been carried out on several
ships of different designs and assignments. For the purpose of
this paper, the measurements worked out on the following kinds
of ships have been chosen:
1) chemical tanker;
2) research vessel (all-electric ship);
3) ferry;
4) navy ship.
The registration records have been carried out by means of
a data acquisition board, and the obtained results have further
been processed by means of dedicated software implemented
in the Mathcad environment. The analysis has been worked
out on the basis of the methods recommended by the IEC
61000-4-7 [20] and IEC 61000-4-30 [17] standards. The only
exceptions have been the methods of frequency and spectrum
measurements. The frequency has been estimated as a product
of the number of cycles in the basic measurement window
and a reciprocal of this window duration. The duration of the
measurement window has been equal to ten cycles for 50-Hz
systems and to 12 cycles for 60-Hz systems, according to [17].
The signal spectrum has been evaluated on the basis of the
method recommended by the IEC standard [20], but the discrete
Fourier transform has been used instead of the fast Fourier
transform. Eventually, the value of the power quality temper-
ature factor has been calculated on the basis of the simple
power quality factors calculated for the aforementioned basic
measurement window, and furthermore, the results have been
aggregated for a 3-s aggregation time [17].
The analysis of power quality parameters has been carried
out during different ship operation processes. In this paper, two
typical operation modes have been chosen. Namely, the power
quality parameters have been calculated over the seagoing
period (a chemical tanker and a ferry) and the ship maneuvering
(research and navy ships). These values of the respective power
quality parameters have been aggregated for a relatively short
time, i.e., 3 s. The aim has been to present the inuence of
the respective factor uctuations on the power quality temper-
ature factor value. However, the thermal effects on electrical
machines should be considered over a considerably longer
time. Finally, the mean values and standard deviations of
the considered factors have been calculated for longer periods
and laid down in Table III. Additionally, the maximum and
minimum observed values of the respective factors have been
shown.
The exemplary changes of the simple factors, as well as the
power quality temperature factor over 5 min of a chemical
tanker sea voyage, have been depicted in Fig. 9 to show the
inuence of the basic parameter deviations, namely voltage
and frequency deviations, on the discussed new power quality
temperature factor. The easy discernible changes of voltage
and frequency deviations have been caused by switching a
large electric power receiver on and off. The corresponding
power quality temperature factor changes have been apparently
caused by these factor deviations, since virtually any unbal-
ance and distortion factors have changed during the considered
processes. It is worth underlining a visible correlation between
U and f changes and corresponding fpq values.
Eventually, it can be stated that the values of the majority
of the presented simple factors have been within the limits
laid down in the IEC 60092-101 standard [18]. There has
been only one exception, namely, harmonic distortions in the
chemical tanker network. The THD factor has been above 10%
(permissible value: 5% or, in some cases, 10%), and harmon-
ics of orders fth, seventh, 11th, 13th, and 19th have been
above the permissible limit of 3%. However, surprisingly, the
corresponding power quality temperature factor has assumed a
relatively insignicant value in this particular case. It can be
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NSKI et al.: POWER QUALITY TEMPERATURE FACTOR AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION 1657
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF THE MEAN VALUES , STANDARD DEVIATIONS , AS
WELL AS MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF THE CHOSEN
POWER QUALITY PARAMETERS IN SHIP SYSTEMS IN
DIFFERENT EXPLOITATION STAGES
observed in Fig. 9 that the power quality temperature factor
assumes relatively low values (below 1.03) when the frequency
value is in the proximity of the rated one (although the THD
remains relatively constant). The worst value of this factor
has been observed for a ferry ship, although all simple factors
have remained apparently safe within their permissible limits.
The apparent culprit is the signicant frequency deviation. Its
inuence is augmented by the minor voltage deviation. As a
result, the mean value of the power quality temperature factor
assumes a value of 1.231.
The analysis of the calculated power quality temperature
factor deviations during different exploitation processes reveals
that the factor values can signicantly change during load
changes, whereas they remain relatively constant in other cases
(see a ferry while seagoing).
On the basis of the fpq values, the expected operational
lifetimes of motors can be assessed because the temperature
is the main agent causing degradation of the insulation system
[1], [5]. The estimated operational lifetimes of the induction
machines most exposed to overheating, corresponding to the
mean fpq values laid down in Table III, are shown in Table IV.
For simplicity, the estimation was based on the following
assumptions: 1) that fpq has a constant value, which is un-
changeable in time; 2) that the end-windings temperature rise
in the nominal work conditions is equal to 100 K; and 3) that
the halving interval is equal to 10 K.
In the case of a chemical tanker and a navy ship (see
Table IV), the thermal loss of life is not very signicant. Fur-
thermore, in the case of a research ship, the power quality dis-
turbances reduce the estimated operational life by almost half,
whereas for the ferry, the fpq value equal to 1.231 corresponds
to a ve-times reduction of the operational life. This particular
value should be considered unacceptable in the long run.
VIII. CONCLUSION
In the authors opinion, this paper has conrmed the neces-
sity of introducing a new and more complex method of power
quality evaluation based on certain kinds of synthetic factors,
such as the exemplary factor presented here. The current meth-
ods can be misleading, particularly where a less-experienced
user is involved. As a result, it causes an increase in a ships
operational costs and endangers safety.
The proposed solution, namely, the new temperature factor
of power quality, is appropriate to estimate the effect of the
lowered voltage quality on the windings temperature rise of ma-
rine induction motors. It is based on the measurement of simple
factors that are usually applied for power quality evaluations.
Thus, its measurement can be carried out by the currently used
or the proposed power quality analyzers for ship use.
In future works, the authors intend to present a concept on
how to dene a reference level of the analyzed power quality
temperature factor. The ultimate aim is to advise a ships crew
on how to use the obtained results to protect the induction
machines against thermal overloading and damage.
APPENDIX
The normalized end-windings temperature T of an induc-
tion machine working with the nominal load and supplied with
voltage of lowered quality can be expressed as [13]
T =w
0
(1+p
wU
)+k
c
(1w
0
+w
x
)
k
t1
k
t2
k
c
(k
t3
+k
t4
w
x
)
(6)
1658 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2008
Fig. 9. Exemplary changes of power quality parameters in the ship network of a chemical tanker with the rated voltage equal to 440 V and the rated frequency
equal to 60 Hz. (a) Voltage deviation U (bold line) and frequency deviation f from their rated values. (b) THD factor and fth harmonic U
5
(bold line).
(c) Unbalance factor VUF. (d) Power quality temperature factor fpq.
TABLE IV
ESTIMATED OPERATIONAL LIFETIMES OF THE INDUCTION MACHINES
MOST EXPOSED TO OVERHEATING (IN PERCENT OF THE OPERATIONAL
LIFE FOR THE NOMINAL SUPPLY), CORRESPONDING TO THE
MEAN fpq VALUES LAID DOWN IN TABLE III
where
w
x
=w
wU
p
wU
+ w
wV
p
wV
+ w
r
p
r
+ w
Fefund
p
Fe
(7)
p
wU
=(i
1+
+ i

)
2
+ p
har
1 (8)
p
wV
=(i
1+
k
ia
i

)
2
+ p
har
1 (9)
k
c
=1 k
f
_
f
[]
1
_
(10)
p
r
=
m
2
f
2
[]
u
2
+ k
rh1
N

h=1
_
f
rat
f
h
_
2

_
_
f
h
1 Hz
_
0,82
+ k
rh2
_
f
h
1 Hz
_
0,32
_
u
2
h
+ k
ru
u
2

_
1 k
rf
f
f
rat
_
1 (11)
p
Fe
=u
2
_
p
h
f
[]
+ p
ec
_
1 (12)
where
u =
U
1+
U
rat
. (13)
U
1+
is the rms value of the fundamental voltage harmonic (i.e.,
the positive-sequence component), and f
h
is the hth harmonic
voltage frequency. In addition
p
har
=k
h
N

h=1
_
f
rat
f
h
_
2
_
f
h
1 Hz
_
0,32
u
2
h
(14)
u
h
=
U
h
U
rat
(15)
where U
h
is the rms value of the hth voltage harmonic, and i

and u

are given as follows:

i

=k
i
u

_
1 k
if
f
f
rat
_
(16)
u

=
U

U
rat
. (17)
Note that w
wU
= 0.3, w
wV
= 0.3, w
r
= 0.18, and w
Fefund
=
0.07 are the assumed contribution of each power loss com-
ponent to the rated end-windings temperature rise. w
0
= 0.1,
k
t1
= 27, k
t2
= 36, k
t3
= 9, k
t4
= 10, k
rh1
= 1.6, k
rh2
= 5,
k
ru
= 93, k
rf
= 1.8, k
ia
= 0.44, k
f
= 0.3, k
if
= 0.9, k
i
=
6.7, and k
h
= 11 are the coefcients resulting from the as-
sumed electromagnetic and thermal machine parameters. p
h
=
0.75 and p
ec
= 0.25 are the assumed contribution of hysteresis
and eddy-current losses, respectively, to the total iron losses in
the conditions of sinusoidal supply [16]. i
1+
is the normalized
GNACI

NSKI et al.: POWER QUALITY TEMPERATURE FACTOR AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION 1659
positive-sequence component of the stator current fundamental
harmonic, which is determined for four different cases.
a) Induction machines with a strongly saturated magnetic
circuit and a comparatively high magnetizing current
value, working with constant load torque. For this case,
i
1+
is equal to i
ssmc
, which is calculated with (18).
b) Induction machines with a weakly saturated magnetic cir-
cuit and a comparatively low magnetizing current value,
working with constant load torque. i
1+
is equal to i
wsmc
,
which is calculated with (19).
c) Induction machines with a strongly saturated magnetic
circuit and a comparatively high magnetizing current val-
ue, driving ventilators, and centrifugal pumps (fan-type
load). i
1+
is equal to i
ssmc
, which is calculated with (18).
d) Induction machines with a weakly saturated magnetic
circuit, driving ventilators, and centrifugal pumps. i
1+
is
equal to i
wsmc
, which is calculated with (19).
It should be stressed that for cases c) and d), an increase in
frequency leads to an increment in the normalized load torque
m (related to the rated value), which can be estimated with
(20). For the other cases, m is equal to 1. We therefore have
the following:
i
ssmc
=

_
k
rhs
m
2
f
2
[]
u
2
+
_
k
mhs
u
f
[]
1k
imhs

u
f
+
0, 1m
2
f
3
[]
u
3
_
2
(18)
i
wsmc
=

_
k
rls
m
2
f
2
[]
u
2
+
_
k
mls
u
f
[]
1k
imls

u
f
+
0, 1m
2
f
3
[]
u
3
_
2
(19)
m
f
2
[]
1 + 2s
rat
_
f
3
[]
u
2
1
_ (20)
where k
rhs
= 0.64, k
rls
= 0.8775, k
mhs
= 0.5, k
mls
= 0.25,
k
imhs
= 3, k
imls
= 1, and s
rat
= 0.03 are the coefcients re-
sulting from the assumed electromagnetic and thermal machine
parameters. Moreover
f
[]
=
f
f
rat
(21)

u
f
=
u
f
[]
1. (22)
To assess the effect of voltage quality on the windings temper-
ature, calculations should be performed for cases a) to d), and
the worst case is to be chosen.
It should be noted that all values of the parameters used for
T calculations result from the assumed machine parameters.
The assumed sets of parameters correspond to induction ma-
chines that are particularly sensitive to different disturbances.
It is also worth mentioning that in the presented analytical
formulas, the complex voltage unbalance factor (CVUF) [25]
angle does not appear, despite the fact that it signicantly
inuences the windings temperature of an induction machine
fed with unbalanced voltage [1]. It can be pointed out that for
any CVUF angle in the ship system, there exist machines for
which the worst case of unbalance appears. Thus, the formulas
correspond to the worst case of unbalance.
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Piotr Gnaci nski (M04) received the M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the
Technical University of Gda nsk, Gda nsk, Poland, in
1993 and 2000, respectively.
Since 1993, he has been on the staff of Gdynia
Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland. His research
and teaching interests are mainly in power quality
and electrical machines.
Dr. Gnaci nski is the Chapter Vice Chairman/
Secretary of the Polish Section of the IEEE Instru-
mentation and Measurement Society.
Janusz Mindykowski (M99) was born in Poland
in 1950. He received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
in electrical engineering from Gda nsk University
of Technology, Gda nsk, Poland, in 1974 and 1981,
respectively, and the D.Sc. degree from Warsaw Uni-
versity of Technology, Warsaw, Poland, in 1993.
He is currently the Dean of the Faculty of Marine
Electrical Engineering, Gdynia Maritime University,
Gdynia, Poland, where he has been a Full Professor
since 2005. His main research interests are concen-
trated on measurement aspects of technical systems
operation and diagnosis, mainly ships systems.
Dr. Mindykowski is a member of the IEEE Power Engineering Society and
the Chapter Chairman of the Polish Section of the IEEE Instrumentation and
Measurement Society.
Tomasz Tarasiuk (M02) received the M.Sc. de-
gree in electrical engineering from Gdynia Maritime
University, Gdynia, Poland, in 1989 and the Ph.D.
degree from the Technical University of Gda nsk,
Gda nsk, Poland, in 2001.
He was with Polish Steamship Company from
1989 to 1993. He has been with Gdynia Mar-
itime University since 1994. His research interest
is focused on problems of electrical power quality
estimation.
Dr. Tarasiuk is the Secretary of the Metrology
Committee of the Polish Association of Measurements, Automatics, and
Robotics.