CLASSROOM PROCESSES FOR UNDERSTANDING OF ENGLISH UNIT VI GRAMMAR Functional Grammar Parts of Speech Types of Sentences Mechanics of Letter

etter Writing (Official/personal) Telegrams/Notice etc. Sentences of Everyday use. Importance of Dictionary. Model Lesson Plan

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Sh. Bhupinder Singh Lect. English, GSSS (B) Lalpani, Shimla. Neeraj Mahajan Lecturer Eng. DIET, Shimla Smt. Sushma Sharma Lect Eng. DIET Shimla

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3.

J.B.T PART 1 SYLLABUS UNIT 1 UNIT2

YASHWANT SINGH DIET KULLU

UNIT I
NATURE OF LANGUAGE 1.1 DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE Different linguists have defined language differently, stressing its various characteristics. We all know that language is a means of communicating thoughts and feeling. Man alone uses language for communication. O.Jesperson defines language as, a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings; and especially to impart them to others. In the words of Edward Sapir, language is a purely human and known instructive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntary produced symbols. According to Bloch and Trager, language is the system of arbitrary vocal symbols by mean of which a social group co-operates and communicates. These definitions are fully explained in the treatment of linguistic principles though with help of analysis of these definitions, we find many things about the nature of language, which further have implications for language learning .It is also important to maintain here that while talking of language, it is useful to know certain terms. The mother tongue of a person is his first language that is L1. He may also learn a second language called L2 or still a third language called L3.

The language being taught and learned is known as target language. Hence in the context of India English is a second language or target language.

NATURE OF LANGUAGE: It is very important for all those connected with the teaching of English to its nature and the way it is taught and learned .Good teaching and sound educational policy will depend on proper understanding of the nature of language and how it is learnt. Language teaching and learning has greatly influenced our understanding of the nature of language. For example, the finding that language is a system has led to selection and grading of structures and vocabulary. From the various definitions given above, we can find following things about the nature of language. 1. LANGUAGE IS LEARNT: The child knows no language and she/he hears it over a long period of time .She /he begins learning of language by making various isolated sound like Ma-Ma, Pa-Pa etc .And finally learns the speech sound of his group by imitation. 2. LANGUAGE IS A SYSTEM: Just as various system of human body are different but still work in co-ordination with each other .In the same way system of language function through sound, words and structures .These are integrated and forms the language.

3. ARBITRARINESS OF LANGUAGE : 4

There is no relation between any language item and what it indicates. It is not essential to have any relationship between the words and object for which it is spoken. We use different words for the same objects in the different languages for example, Book in English, postak or Kitab in Hindi etc. 4. SYSTEM OF SYMBOLS: The system of language works through symbols, the symbols beings words. Symbols represent things and are not the actual things themselves. The word Table is not a table, it stands for table. Language functions effectively when the symbols used are known to the speaker and listener, the writer and reader. 5. LANGUAGE SYMBOLS ARE VOCAL Language is basically a speech and speech is the fundamental thing in language learning: reading and writing are secondary. Compared to the thousands of years since speech has been in existence, writing appears to be a matter of yesterday. There are many languages in the world which exist only on the tongues of people and do not have any written symbols. But there is hardly any language which has written symbol, but no spoken form. 6 LANGUAGE IS BASED ON COMMON CULTURAL EXPERIENCES Every language is product of particular society and culture.Human language is a transmitted from one individual to anther not by physical inheritance, but by leaning .It has meaning only in relation to a particular culture and society. We do not find two exactly equal words in any two languages. This is so because cultures are different. 7 LANGUAGE CHANGES:

Every language is a living language. No language is static. The language is constantly undergoing a change and developing according to the need of speaker. New words are borrowed and absorbed in a language from time to time. 8 LANGUAGE IS UNIQUE Each language is unique. No two languages in the world have the same set of patterns of sounds, of grammatical signals, of syntax or vocabulary. Each language is the result of the arbitrary classification of experience of its speakers.

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE OF NATURE OF LANGUAGE TO A LANGUAGE TEACHER It is very important for a language teacher to know the nature of language and the way it is learnt. For effective teaching of language it is essential that the teacher knows the nature of language and how it is learnt. Any satisfactory approach to the teaching of a foreign language like English is based on the nature of language. Our understanding of the language has changed tremendously in the last few decades. The finding that language is a system, has led to selection and gradation of structures and vocabulary. The understanding that language is primarily speech had underlined the importance of oral work in class room teaching. The realization that language changes has resulted in teaching descriptive rather than perscriptive grammar. Importance for the Teacher The knowledge of nature of language can be learnt through drill, practice, exercise etc. A skill has been described as knowledge put to 6

active use. An English teacher who has the knowledge of nature of language will not waste any time in teaching rules of grammar and would organize language drills so as to give his students a mastery over basic structures of English. Again the knowledge that English is an arbitrary language will motivate the English teacher to teach English as the educated native speakers of English use is now and not as they ought to use it. Emphasising the role of oral work Prof. Kitson writes, Book work introduces passivity whereas oral work introduces activity. A teacher familiar with this aspect of nature of language adopts audio-lingual approach of teaching English and does not hurry for reading book. He provides his students with practice in listening and speaking English. He gives new material in spoken form before his students come across it in reading. A teacher well conversant with the nature of language as a system places equal emphasis on all the three elements of language i.e. sounds, words, structures. It also helps teacher to avoid the translation method of teaching. MISCONCEPTION ABOUT LANGUAGE :Most of us have certain

misconceptions about language. Some of these are as follows: (i) Languages are Logical It is misconception because the symbols are languages are arbitrary and English language is all the more arbitrary because of its illogical spellings and anomalous pronunciations e.g. the sound f in words enough, lieutenant, far, philosophy etc. Though Hindi is much more logical yet it cannot be called completely logical. (ii) Languages are Unlearn able

It is also a misconception because if we have will and time we can learn any language of the world. Since all of us are having the same vocal organs so we all can learn any language produced by the same vocal organs. (iii) Some Languages are Better than Others Misconception is prevailing that some languages are better than others but actually every language represents its culture in the best possible way. The best way to represent English culture is through English language; however English will be a poor way for representing Indian cultures. To represent the Indian culture the best way is to use the regional language. (iv)Exact Equivalents Between Two Languages It is again a misconception to think that there are exact equivalents between any two languages. Because language is based on history, tradition and culture of its people so its words can not be exactly translated into another language. (v) Exact Equivalents within a Languages It is another misconception to think that exact equivalents exists within a language. No two words in a language have same meanings, they may have similar meaning but there must be a delicate shade of difference in their meaning e.g. truth and verify, ill and sick. (vi)Writing is Language It is another common misconception that prevails. However, speech is the primary form of languages which are only spoken and not written e.g. Haryanavi, Konkani etc Language is Ever Changing

Language is a living phenomenon and like other living things it also changes. Change in language does not reflect individual variability, but seems to be a massive, uniform and gradual alteration. --Prof. Bloomfield Since language is the outcome of the culture where it exists so it must develop with the development of culture. The changes in language are thus dependent upon cultural changes. Any speedy change in the culture of a community brings speedy change in the language of the community. This is especially true in the case of English. The change in language is more visible in living languages than in the dead ones. English is a living language. We find structures and vocabulary of old English to be different from those of Middle and Modern English. English language is about 1500 years old and has undergone a change almost beyond recognition from the form it had in 500 A.D. In the writings of Bede, the Anglo-Saxon historian, we find: Old English: Breten is gar-seeges iegland, that waes geogeara Albdon haten. Modern English: Britain is an island of the sea that was formerly called Albion. Just a few centuries back choice was written choyce and said was written as sayd. The name Shakespeare was spelt in as many as 4000 different ways. The Bard himself spelt his name in his will as Wilm Shexpr. Because of the changing nature of language it is desirable for us to teach descriptive grammar that describes the current use of

grammar and not prescriptive grammar that lays down the rigid rules about its behavior and use.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE: Some of the important characteristics of English are as follows:

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

It is a progressive language. Any language that has a past, present and future is called a progressive language. It is an ideal language. It has its own system of words, phrases and sentences. The phonemes, morphemes and syntax, which are part of language structure, are its own. It has its own grammar. It has its own scripts. It has vast treasure of literature which touches every part of life. It is a living language as it is subjected to a change in the process of achieving ideal. Moreover with the level of its development it grows richer in power of expressing abstract ideas or general ideas.

ix. x. xi.

In English language, any number of delicate shades of meanings can be expressed with equal ease. English is a language of immense international importance. It has its own phonology. Phonology is the science of sounds. In English there are 26 letters but 45 sounds. Vowel sounds are divided into two- consonant sounds and consonant clusters.

xii.

The salient characteristics of English grammar are as under: a) A sentence can either be of a single word or a group of words.

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b) A sentence has two parts that is a subjects and a predicate. c) Subject usually precedes the verb and is always in the nominative case from the grammatical point of view. d) Sentences have the following grammatical structures: Subject- verb (S-V) Subject- verb-object (S-V-O) Verb-Subject-object (V-S-O)

e) Some suffixes have no meaning e.g. the f) Verb in English has no gender. IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE Language plays an important part in human life. Everyone makes use of it, be he a beggar or a king. Right from birth to death we are surrounded by it. Language is a means of communication. It is the medium by which thoughts are conveyed from the one person to another. It is means of social control. No society can function without it. Nor is it possible to think without language. When we think of anything, we give shape to our thinking with the help of language. There will be little communication among people except by sign and gesture. Most of the activities will stop and all teaching and learning will come to end. The progress of mankind will be blocked. We shall be deprived of what was best in human civilization in the past A persons speech gives us some idea of his age his education and his social background. Ben Jonson is right when he says, Language most shows a man: speak that I may see there. A persons voice serves at least two functions in communication. One is linguistic. The other is non-linguistic. Similarly language serves many more

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functions like informative function, expressive function and directive function.

IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH We shall also examine the importance of study of English in India under the following heads. 1) English as an international language. 2) English as a window on the world. 3) English as a library language. 4) English as a means of communication 5) Role of English language in India 6) Importance of English language in India 1) English as an international language: It has already been pointed out that English is one of the major languages of the world. The U.N.O. has given English the status of having an official language. English is the mother tongue of more than 300 million people in the world. The countries where English is the used as first language is the United Kingdom, the united state of America, Canada, Australia, Newzealand and South Africa. In addition it is spoken and read by many million Europeans, Africans, Chinese, Indians, Japanese and South Americans as a second language. This number can also

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reach around 400 million so this language is spoken or read by more than 700 million people in the world. If we look at the media we find that over 55% of worlds newspapers, over 60% of worlds scientific and technical periodicals and more than 65% of world radio stations use English as a medium of communication. From all these facts it can be easily concluded that English is an international language in the sense that it helps in interlinking the people in the other countries of the world. In addition to this English is also the link language of the common wealth countries. English is also the language of international politics, trade, commerce and industry. It is the language of law, medicine and scientific discoveries and inventions. So no longer is English the language of Great Britain only, it is the language required by the world for greater understanding. Hence it deserves the status of international language. In the words of F.G.French, No language ancient or modern can be compared with English in number of geographical distribution of the homes, factories and offices in which the language is spoken, written or read. These days every country needs other countries help in political, social, economical and cultural matters. There comes English as a rescue. In this connection Gatak says, It would be rash to cut ourselves from the English language which keeps us in continuous contact with the latest thought in Europe, in every field of life and culture. To quote Pt.J.L. Nehru, English is our major window on modern world. English is being learnt and used all over the world not out of any imposition but through the realization that it has

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certain inherent advantages. Today the compulsions of learning English are no longer merely political but scientific and technological. And no longer is English the language of Great Britain only, it is the language required by the world for greater understanding. It is the most of international language.

2) English as a window on the world: English has been rightly described as a window in the rapid progress of technology and scientific knowledge that is constantly taking place in the world. It has been described as a pipe-line for the stream of knowledge in all branches of learning. Emphasizing the importance of the knowledge of English, The Radhakrishnan University Education commission observed, It is a language which is rich in literature- humanistic, scientific and technical. If under sentimental urges we should give up English, we would cut over selves off from the living stream of ever growing knowledge. From this it becomes clear that English helps us keep in touch with the worlds ever increasing explosion of knowledge and technological advancement which is an important factor for a developing country like India. For bringing about revolutionary changes in various fields such as that of agriculture , medicines, industry ,transport , telecommunication, etc it is essential for us to be in touch with the outside world and it is possible only with an adequate knowledge of English . It is only through English that we can bring various scientific discoveries to our country. Discarding English will hence amount to closing a window on the world of technology we will fall back

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hundreds of years and will never be able to catch up with the developed world . We cannot think of taking India into 21st century without capitalizing on English. The study of English will continue in our country for the progress of the country. It is only with the help of knowledge of English that we get information about the advancement taking place throughout the world. Emphasizing the importance of the knowledge of English The Radha Krishanan University Education Commission observed, It (English) is a language which is rich in literature humanistic, scientific and technical. If under sentimental uses we should give up English, we would cut ourselves off from the living stream of ever growing knowledge. F.G.French observes that it is only through this language that we have distilled essence of modern knowledge in all fields of human activity. Any one who can read English can keep in touch with the whole world without leaving his own house. From above it becomes clear that English helps us keep in touch with the worlds ever increasing explosion of knowledge and technological advancement, which is an important factor for a developing country like India. If we just look up at space technology we can find that without adequate knowledge of English we cannot understand and absorb the developments in the field. Any attempt of translating technical terms into regional languages will be disastrous and will have an adverse effect on the Indian space programme which will come to a stand still in the

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absence of English educated scientists, technicians and engineers. For bringing about revolutionary changes in various fields such as that of agriculture, medicines, industry, transport, telecommunication etc. it is essential for us to be in touch with the outside world and it is possible only with an adequate knowledge of English. It is only through English that we can bring various scientific discoveries to our country. English is very rich in scientific and technical knowledge and so the knowledge of English is the only means of preventing our isolation from the world. Discarding English will amount to closing a window on the world of technology. We will fall back hundred of years and will never be able to catch up with the developed world. We cannot think of taking India into 21st century without capitalizing on English. The study of English will continue in our country for the progress of the country.

3. English as a library language English is the key to the store house of knowledge. Most of this knowledge is not as yet available in Indian languages. It is in this context that the role of English as a library language becomes important in India. For maintaining the standard of education and getting higher knowledge, the graduate students and scholar need to consult libraries. Good reference books are found in English especially in Science subjects. English is the key to the store house of knowledge. In fact English as an important library language plays a vital role in higher education. Thus we find that English as library language is very important.

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4. English as a means of communication Language is a means of communicating thoughts and feelings. We can also communicate through cries, signs, gestures etc. but these modes of communications are totally different from human language. The human language is a signaling system which uses vocal sounds. It is based on mans ability to speak. The written language is derivative and secondary; it is derived from the spoken language. The basis of language is speech which in turn means the production of meaningful sounds according to a system. Man alone uses language for communication. In the words of Dwight Bolinger, Language is species specific. It is uniquely human trait, shared by the cultures so diverse and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike one another. Language has always had a place in human affairs. One of the greatest achievements of the man is his ability to use language. Language in fact is a great tool which has made human civilization possible. Language is also the most important tool for thinking. Edward Sapir in An Introduction to the Study of Speech says, Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system, of voluntarily produced symbol. These symbols are, in the first instance auditory and they are produced by the so called Organs of 17

Speech. There is no discernible instinctive basis for human speech as such, however, much instinctive tendencies, motor and other, may give a predetermined range or mould to linguistic expression. Such animal or human communication, if communication it may be called, as is brought about by involuntary, instinctive cries is not, in our sense, language at all. Capacity for speech is a characteristic of the human race and of the human race alone. The seven characteristics of human speech are duality, productivity, arbitrariness, interchangeability, specialization, displacement, and cultural transmission. The structure of language is dual as it has system of significant units of sound (phonemes) and significant units of form (morphemes). By productivity is meant the structural elements of language that enable a speaker to produce new utterances. Since there is no inherent or necessary relation between any given feature of a language and its meaning so it is considered as arbitrariness of language. By interchangeability of language we mean that it can both send and receive messages. Specialization signifies that each human language is a special system and has its own framework of structure and meaning and that the system is suitable for convening message within the framework. Displacement means that the human language can be used both denotatively and connotatively (i.e. extensionally and intentionally) and not only in the direct

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context to which reference is made but also when the context referred to is absent. Cultural transmission refers to the fact that, human language is transmitted from one individual to another not by physical inheritance, but by learning. The purpose of language is communication, it involves encoding and decoding and both these processes take place simultaneously. It is possible because both sender and receiver of the code are familiar with the vocal sounds, the words and phrases which these sounds constitute, the structural arrangement of the words and phrases, their semantic imparts etc. Neutral English is Standard English which is acceptable for international communication. Lawrences Hilda considers that kind of English which draws least attention to itself over the widest area and through the widest range of usage. The standards of English are determined and preserved to no small extent, by great printing houses. Standard English is basically an ideal, a mode of expression that we seek, when we wish to communicate beyond our immediate community. Intelligibility and acceptability both in spoken and written English are the basic requirements. Sometimes what is intelligible may not be acceptable and actually acceptability is much harder to determine than intelligibility. It is rather impossible to draw exact border line between acceptability and intelligibility. It is while speaking and writing that the problem of intelligibility and acceptability arise. Here too the question of pronunciation, grammar usage and vocabulary comes in. If English has to be used for communication by Indian

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student, he should achieve the competence to suit the language to the occasion and also to listen with understanding to other speakers and interpret them to the full.

5. Role of English language in India In India English continues to be the medium of instructions in Colleges and Universities and is also the language of the administration. Emphasizing the role of English one of the Education Commissions has emphatically asserted, For a successful completion of the first degree course, a student should possess an adequate command of English, be able to express himself with reasonable ease and felicity, understand lectures in it and avail himself of its culture. Therefore adequate emphasis will have to be laid on its study as a language right from the school stage. English should be most useful library language in higher education and our most significant window on the world. For over a century and a half Indian intellectuals have been studying English and now it has entered the fabric of Indias culture. It plays an important role in various fields. (i) English is an official language of administration; have been studying English and now it has entered the fabric of Indias culture. It plays an important role in various fields. (ii) (iii) English is the Court language. English is the language of international trade and

industry.

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(iv)

Important role in social life; the highly educated and sections of our society find it more

sophisticated (v) world. (vi)

convenient to talk in English. English is considered to be a window on the modern English is a link language: It is the only language

which is understood in all Indian States. In addition to being a unifying force in our country it also links us with other countries of the world. (vii) It is a library language. From the above it may be easily concluded that English plays an important role in our national life. English was of great importance in the British India. It is more important today than it used to be in British period in India. 6 Importance of English language in India Different educationists and great leaders of India have given different opinions about the importance and role of English in India. The importance of English in India is to be viewed in the context of the part it played before independence and after independence. Place of English before Independence The history of English in India goes back to pre-independence days when this country was ruled by the Britishers. The English system of Education was introduced in 1835. In the administration English was used as the main language. Thus English became a politically superimposed language and also played a vital role in school education. English was taught as a compulsory subject. Before Independence, English played a significant role in bringing together our national leaders from various regions of the country by enabling them to share their thoughts in it and the correspondence between the 21

union government and the state government is mostly conducted in English. Speaking on the role of English as a link language Jawaharlal Nehru once said, If you push out English, does Hindi fully take its place? Hope it will .I am sure it will. But I wish to avoid the danger of unifying factor being pushed out without unifying factor fully taking its place. Place of English After independence

After independence drastic changes came regarding the place of English in India. However, even after independence we could not ignore English language because of its importance at the administrative level. The various Education Commissions appointed by Government of India have recommended progressive switch over to the mother tongue. Yet the importance of English to the Indian students cannot be ignored. The importance of English for Indian students should be realized on the fact that it is an international language, a link language, a library language and is considered to be a window to the rapid progress of science and technology. If we give up this language then our nation will not keep pace with other countries. English is the language of international conferences; it is the language of UNO. A knowledge of English helps to make a person a citizen of the world. Now in India it is a general recognition that even if the national languages replace English as the medium of instructions, French will have to be taught.

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PRINCIPLE OF LANGUAGE LERANING In India, English is taught both as a foreign language and as a second language .There are certain basic principles common to all language teaching and learning. Since these principles are fruitful for the teaching all the language, they are called general principle of language teaching. Principles of linguistics Linguistics is a systematic body of knowledge and theory. Charles C. Fries defines, linguistics or linguistic science as a body of knowledge and understanding concerning the nature and functioning of human language, built up out of information about the structure, the languages by means of those techniques and procedures that have proved most successful in establishing verifiable relationship among linguistic phenomenon.1 It becomes quite clear from this definition that linguistics is an autonomous discipline and that it is not about language teaching. But both linguistics and language teaching are concerned with language. So it stands to reason that each can learn something from the other. 23

Language is a system. A system is a complex whole. It is a set of connected parts of things. As the human body, a system, functions through different organs such as heart, lungs, brain etc. In the same way the system of language functions through sounds, words and structures. These are integrated with one another and constitute the complex organic whole which is language. It is not possible to communicate by use of only one of the elements of a language i.e. sounds words or structure. It should be taught and learnt as a system. Language is a system of systems Language is a system of phonetics, grammar and vocabulary which in themselves are systems. These systems are: 1. Phonology The study of the actual sounds of the language is called phonetics and the way in which these sounds are used, put together and organised is called phonology (or more usually phonemics in America). Every language has a set of sounds peculiar to it. The sounds stand for words, the words stand for object, ideas, process etc. E.g. pen, selling, singing etc. The sound system is called phonology. Phonemes are important because it is difference in sound between them that accounts for the distinction between/t/and/d,/p/and/b/etc. Accurate statements about the phonological aspects of English are made in linguistics. So linguistics helps correct certain misconceptions about pronunciation and chart the changes in the sound system. According to Wilkins, phonetic transcription is, a useful tool for indicating the pronunciation of new words in class or more importantly in a dictionary. 2. Morphology

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Words, what they are, their information and various changes in their form is called morphology. 3. Semantics Words and their meanings in a systematic way is called semantics. 4. Syntax Constructions, arrangement of words into definite meaning conveyed i.e. phrases, formulas and sentences is called syntax.

Language is a System of Symbols Language is a system of symbols and it works through symbols, the symbols being words. Language functions effectively when the symbols use are known to both the speaker and listener, the writer and the reader. The symbolic language are varied and complex. Language symbols represent things that are not things themselves. The word Table is not a table, it stands for a table. There is no logical connection between the symbol and the referent. Symbols get their meaning by convention. There is nothing in their nature which gives them a specific meaning. Languages use words essentially as symbols and not as signs for the concepts represented by them.

Language is for Communication Language is a means of communicating thoughts and feelings, though not the only means. Communicative aspect of a language is very important. Without it a language can not be called a language. In the prehistoric days signals made by various body parts were used for communication, afterwords signals were used. 25

Then cries, gestures etc. Were used and gradually speech sounds were developed and language came into use for purpose of communication. The purpose of language is to give expression to thoughts and feelings especially to impart them to others. -Jasperson Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a voluntarily reduced symbols, --Edward Sapir Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answers to ideas and thoughts. --Sweet Language is expression and communication to and fro from human beings within a given community by means of speech and hearing. --Louis H. Gray From all the above definitions of language the communicative aspect of the language becomes quite clear. We clothe our thoughts and feelings in a language to express ourselves and communicate with others. For the purpose of communication we can use either oral language or the written language. For communication through speech (oral) we require right pronunciation and intonation. Communication through writing involves the ability to arrange words systematically so that the idea is communicated clearly.

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Following are the general principles of language teaching and learning (1)PRINCIPLE OF NATURALNESS :- The mother tongue is learnt more easily because a natural environment exist for the learning it .It is spoken in family and neighborhood but learner of foreign language has some special problems as learning a foreign language is a process .It is not the same as the natural process by which the child learns its mother tongue .However ,an effort should be made to provide the child with a natural environment for learning this foreign language .For this following points be considered: (a)Talking to the student in foreign language in the class, play ground etc. (b)Encouraging students to converse only in this language. (c)Arranging for group discussion.

(2)PRINCIPLE OF EXPOSURE:- A child learns this mother Tongue more rapidly because he is exposed to it all through the day. For teaching a foreign language we should devote to as much time as possible with in the frame work of time-table .We must try to expose students to an environment loaded with the foreign language. For this the teacher can take the following steps; (a) Distribute pamphlets in foreign language. (b)Form a foreign language speaking club in the school (c)Display charts with slogans written in English on walls etc. (d)Show slides in English. 27

(e)Take students to watch English movies. (f) The use of mother-tongue in class-room be minimised to give students maximum exposure to English,

3. PRINCIPLE OF HABIT FORMATION; Language learning is a skill like learning cycling, swimming etc. Language is the instruments of all symbols. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits. In language teaching following habits should be formulated in students; (a)Habit of listening sounds and distinguishes between sounds. (b) Habit of speaking with proper intonation and stress. (c) Habit of imitation. (d) Habit of repeating. (e) Habit of spelling. (f) Habit of reading about with exact articulation. (g) Habit of silent reading. (h) Habit of using correct-grammar. (i) Habit of using words in proper context. (j) Habit of correct pronunciation. (k) Habit of consulting dictionary. (l) Habit of going to library.

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(m) Habit of reading newspapers, journals, story books etc. (4) THE PRINCIPLE OF USING MOTHER TONGUE:First language is learnt

by the child by facing the universe directly but when it comes to the learning of second language , we tend to filter the universe through the language already know . So we can use mother-tongue in teaching a second language. Hence teaching of mother tongue and the teaching of a foreign language can support and assist each other as they are complementary and not contradictory to each other. (5)PRINCIPLE OF PROPER ORDER AND PROPORTION Natural order of leaning is made up of learning of the fair basic skills. These are listening, speaking, reading and writing and the classical order involving in teaching these skills First Listening Second Speaking Third Reading Fourth Writing In addition to the above principles of order is also desirable to follow the principle of proper proportion i.e. While teaching a language due and equal emphasis be put on each aspect . No skill should be over emphasized or neglected.

(6)PRINCIPLE OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE VOCABLULARY To increase vocabulary is one of the objectives of teaching English. There are two kinds of vocabulary;

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(a)PASSIVE VOCABULARY: - It consists of those worlds which are recognised and understood but seldom used in speaking and writing. (b)ACTIVE VOCABULARY:- It consists of those words which are under stood and constantly used by the learner while speaking and writing . The teacher of English should make a conscious effort to bring the words from passive vocabulary to active vocabulary of the child. (7) PRINCIPLE OF MOTIVATION: - Motivation to learn a learn a language plays very important role in learning a language. Motivation is the core of learning. But to motivate the students to learn a foreign language is an uphill task as there is no internal force for learning this language .Therefore, teacher should use special techniques to motivate students to learn foreign language. (8)PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION:- These principles are based on the assumption that it is not possible to teach the whole system of language within a short period, as only limited things can be taught with in a limited period so the teaching matter has to be selected. While selecting the teaching matter. The following point is kept in mind:(a) FREQUENCY:- Frequently used words should be used. (b)RANGE:- Range shows the no. of situations in which a word can be used. For example: word has has wide range than word sky. (c)AVAILABILITY:- Teacher has to see if word is convenient to teach due to its availability in classroom . For example: -Table, chair and book are words which are easy to teach because they are available in the classroom. (d)COVERAGE :-It refers to a words capacity to display the number of words .e.g. the words cereal has capacity to display wheat , rice and pulse etc . 30

(e)TEACHABILITY :-Words differ in teach ability .We can easily teach the word flower by showing or sketching a flower or even by showing a picture of flower . However it is difficult to teach the word affection. While making use of various devices. (f)LEARNABILITY:-according to child psychology it is desirable to teach things in accordance with age of the child. A word that can be easily learnt by a class 12 student may not be learnt so easily by a class 6 student. While making a selection of matter to be taught the age of the student be kept in mind. (10)PRINVIPLE OF GRADATION:-Practice alone enables the learner to acquire the habit of speaking the language .Out of the important maxim of teaching is, proceed from simple to difficult. And from more useful.Selected words and structures are put in suitable order for teaching them .that is called gradation. (10) PRINCIPLE OF PHONOLOGY:- TO remember written symbols it is always desirable to attach them with spoken symbols. Therefore, teaching a foreign language should start with learning sounds and speaking the language .Beginning should be made with a speech lesson and in no case it should start from writing oral speech is the quickest way of learning a language. (11)PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST:- To arouse interest in the students teacher can make use of the following techniques:(a) Audio- visual aids- pictures, charts, records, gramophone etc. (b) Relating the material to everyday life. (C) Undertaking various activities such as speaking, reading, writing etc (12) PRINCIPLE OF LEARNING BY DOING:- It place more emphasis on acquiring the skill by doing . For example:language acquisition

31

written work, pronunciation , reading ,activities. Student should be given a good practice of these. (13)THE PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLE LINE OF APPROACH: - Teacher should adopt many approaches judiciously and rationally selected, to reach the goal of teaching. The various approaches are social, functional, culture, phonetic, situational and structural.

(14)THE PRINCIPLE OF CORRELATION WITH LIFE :-Teacher should make efforts to relate the subject matter to life, customs ,tradition, peculiarities and characteristics of the society to which the student belong this will make the teaching more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situation . (15) PRINCIPLE OF IMITATION :- Good speech is always the result of imitating good models of speech the good models of reading and writing . teacher must provide a good models of speech before the students the learner should get

ROLE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN LANGUAGE

One of the most debated questions in teaching a foreign language is whether to make use of pupil's mother tongue in teaching the target language. Two extreme viewpoints are represented by the advocates of the direct method who like to inhibit the use of mother tongue to establish a direct bend between thought and expression and also by the advocates of structural approach who wanted to eliminate the mother tongue from English classrooms and favored the situational approach in explaining the meanings of new words. The reality of the situation, however made them revise their opinion and now they feel that occasional use of the mother tongue in teaching English is helpful. 32

Advantages of use of the mother tongue in learning a language :The following advantages are there if we make a judicious use of mother tongue for teaching and learning English.
(1) Explanation in the mother tongue save tune. It is clear, full and

avoid confusion where as explanation in English can be long and confusing.

(2) It is a matter of sheer necessity to use the mother tongue as it

provides a mean to convey exact meanings. Sometime, similar appearing adjectives like beautiful, lovely, charming etc do not became fully clear while explaining meaning through contextualized oral presentation.
(3) Providing a mother tongue equivalent as meaning of a new

word in English is easier for the teacher than contextual oral presentation. The teacher must be an expert to build appropriate verbal situation, but since many teachers of English do not have this expertise, they are not successful at contextualized oral presentation.
(4) Mother tongue cannot be wholly kept out from the English

classroom.
(5) The mother tongue can be profitably used in giving instructions

to beginners, explaining meanings of words and phrases, testing comprehension, teaching grammar etc.
(6) But there are certain disadvantages of continuous use of mother

tongue in English classroom, the students will have less opportunity to listen and speak English and they will find it difficult to acquire habit of thinking in English.

RELATION OF LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

33

Language is expression and communication to and fro from human beings within a given community by means of speech and hearing. Louis H. Gray From the above definition, it is clear that language is a means of communication thoughts and feelings though not the only mean. Communication aspects of languages is the most important as the purpose of language is to give expression to thoughts and feelings especially to import them to others. Language is closely related to society. Every language is a product of particular society and culture. Human language hence has meaning only in relation to a particular culture and society. As we do not find two different cultures the equivalent words are rare.

As society is dynamic and constantly changes as a result of growth and development. Similarly every language keep on developing and changing. Every language is growing and changing according to the need of the speaker. New words are borrowed and absorbed in a language from time to time. Since language is the outcome of the culture where it exists so it must develop with the development of culture. The changes in language are thus dependent upon social and cultural changes. Any speedy change in the culture of community brings speedy change in the language of the community. This is especially true in case of English. The change in language is more visible in living languages than in the dead ones. English is a living language. We today find the structures and vocabulary of old English to be different from those of Middle and Modern English. So language is the reflection of contemporary society and civilization. 34

NATURE OF MULTILINGUALISM:
India is a multilingual country and 18 languages are recognized provided in constitution of India. According to census of India more than 380 languages or dialects are spoken in India. Hindi is spoken by maximum number of people in India. Other languages spoken are Bengali, Telagu, Marathi and Tamil in that order. Different states of India are linguistic states. In a multilingual country total literacy can be achieved only through mother tongue. English is a link language in India. It is only language which is understood by the educated people all over the country. The trade correspondence from one state to another is mostly conducted in English. Without knowledge of English, there will be no dialogue between persons from different states. In the absence of English a person Mysore will not be able to communicate with a person from Kerala, nor will a Bengali share his thoughts with a Punjabi. English thus is a unifying factor and helps national integration in the struggle for independence; English played a significant role in bringing together our national leaders from various regions of the country by enabling them to share their thoughts in it. Moreover, the correspondence between the Union Government and the state Government is mostly conducted in English. So English is the most important link language in a multilingual country like India.

Multilingualism in Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh also does not have a common language or dialect. Hindi is spoken and understood throughout Himachal Pradesh. English is also understood and spoken by a large number of people in all towns and most of the villages. Generally, both Hindi and English are used in milestones, signposts and signboards. 35

Western pahari, which is commonly known as pahari, is spoken by over 90% of the population. It is a Hindi dialect derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit. The main dialects of pahari have been enumerated as Mandiali (Mandi Distt.), Chambiali (Chamba Distt.), Sirmouri (Sirmour Distt.), Kulvi (Kullu Distt.), Kangri (Kangra, Hamirpur, Una Distt.), Mahasuvi(Solan and Shimla Distt.),Pangwali(Pangi), Gaddi (bharmour), Kalhuari (Bilaspur). Formerly Pahari was written in Tankari script but at present, it is written in Devnagri script. People of Kinnour, Lahul and spiti speak the dialects that match the Tibetan and Bhoti language. There are different Pahari dialects spoken in different regions of the state. However , Hindi is our National language and hence it is the official language in our state. Though English is also cannot be underestimated. understood through its use in offices. So importance of English in Himachal Pradesh

UNIT 2 SPEAKING
36

It is already been emphasized that practice in listening should precede practice in speaking. The practice in speaking may be started by the teacher with dialogues. For such a practice dialogue on simple, contextualized situations may be tried between pair of students. In this the teacher should play the role of a guide and must not curb the freedom of expression. In this way enough opportunities are provided to the students to practice certain phonological, grammatical and lexical items. Another technique that can be used is reading aloud, however this technique is objectionable on both psychological and pedagogical grounds as it provides practice only to a few students and bores every body else. Some other objectives to it are as follows: (i) It can be embarrassing to the reader in so as it tends to make himself-conscious. (ii) It interferes with the proper business of the reading lesson i.e. to increase the reading speed. (iii) The practice is random and not specific. (iv)The material chosen from the book is following not connected with situation. While giving a practice in oral English the following points be given due consideration: (i) Teacher should write down the correct transcription for any mispronunciation that he hears. (ii) Teacher should pay particular attention to the following: (a) misplaced stress on syllabus and words or absence of stress at all. (b) confusion between sounds with meaningful contrasts. (c) failure to discriminate between long and short-diphthongs. 37

(d) interference of the phonological system of the mothertongue of the learner. (e) failure to aspirate initial /p/, /t/ and /k/. (f) a tendency to aspirate /h/ when not required. (g) production on the harsh sounds /r/ in words like wonderful, far etc. (h) misapplication of lexis and idioms. For development of the skill of speaking English in his students it is desirable for an English teacher to speak English correctly and he should ensure that his own spoken English is good.

INTERDEPENDENCE OF LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS:Practice in listening comprehension should precede speaking practice. Ear training facilitates speaking as articulation depends upon hearing sound accurately, discriminating among them, establishment of proper auditing images, and development of a feeling for new languages. We cannot develop speaking skill unless we develop listening skills. To converse in English, pupils must understand what is said to them. The ability to understand spoken English becomes important for listening to lectures and talks, listening to the Radio, studying, understanding people from other states and countries etc. Listening to spoken English helps students to acquire the language that is, picking up structure and vocabulary. Listening comprehension is generally neglected in schools. It is treated as incidental too speaking, rather than a foundation for it. Listening and speaking are intimately related to each other; though listening is recognition skill and speaking is a production skill .Both listening and speaking skill depend almost entirely on learners knowledge of pronunciation of words and articulation of sounds in the language. 38

Development of skills of listening and speaking ha an important role to play in the teaching of a second language. To actively participate in ordinary conversation we need ability to understand spoken English.

DEVELOPMENT OF LISTENING SKILL:-

Though listening is

considered a passive skill and speaking an active skill but listening is not totally passive skill. It is also an active skill because it involves decoding a message and understanding it the skill of listening can be developed through systematic teaching. To ultimate listening ability it is desirable to give a good practice in listening Both extensive and intensive listening. Extensive listening implies exposure to a wide variety of structures and sounds. Intensive listening is concerned with just one or two specific points. Similarly we must inculcate the habit of development both casual and focussed listening. We must be able to recognise the English speech sounds in isolation as well as in combination, Similarly children should be given a good knowledge pronunciation, stress, intonation patterns and thei ability to understand fast speech sounds should be developed. 1 .The teacher speaks pairs of words or sentences and asks the pupils to say whether they are the same or different. Teacher Student Teacher Student Teacher : : : : : Wine/vine Different Shame/Shame Shame Give me same paper/Give me same pepper

2. The teacher writes minimal pairs of word of word or sentences using such words on the black in two columns. He speaks a word and asks the pupils to identify whether it is from column 1 or column 2.

39

Column 1. Rice Show Ship

Column 2. Rise Sow Sip

3. The teacher gives various commands and the pupils perform the activities. Open the window. Point to the ceiling. Take out your pen.etc 4. The teacher displays same pictures on the flannel board, makes a statement about one of them and the pupil identify it. 5. Listening comprehension can be developed by using dialogues. The procedure is as follows: Let the teacher introduce the topic, and then s/he can give one or two guiding questions. Then teacher reads the dialogue. The pupil listens for the main idea and answers the guiding questions. The same procedure can be repeated with other parts. Audio cassettes tapes are available for some of the text books used at school level. They should be used by the teacher. The use of tape recorder has certain advantages. First the pupils get a chance to listen to voices other than that of the teacher they may even listen to the native speakers of English second , recorded material is useful for listening to dialogues, discussions etc. Where there is more than one person speaking. Third, the tape recorder is very useful for giving practice in enabling the pupils to catch words and phrases that they hear 40

because the cassettes can be stopped and a phrase splayed ever and ever again. Various other materials like language C.Ds and D.V.Ds can also be used as it gives visual images and clues such as gestures, lip movements etc. Nursery rhymes are also very useful listening TLM to be used in early classes as it gives children accurate pronunciation, stress patterns and rhythm and and intonation.

Listening skill is the counter-part of speech. Without listening the speech has no, meaning. Listening skill is related to audio-sense. The speech generates sounds which reaches to audio sense. The sound makes sense or meaning by mental organization. It the listener is attentive to the sound, he understands it listening means that audio-sense makes sense to the sound which is created by speech. CHARACTERIISTICS OF LISTENING:1. The sound created by the speech must have some sense or meaning. 2. The person is attentive to the sound which reaches to his audiosense. 3. Recognition of English speech sounds in isolation as also in combination. 4. Ability to understand the lexical meaning of words in context and grammatical meanings of structures. DEVELOPMENT OF SPOKEN ENGLISH:-

41

Speaking skill is the base of good learning of the language .In fact it strengthens the foundation of language learning. A student who is good at reading and writing .Listening and speaking are important not only in the first year or in the early years of language learning but are important throughout. FUNCTION OF SPEAKING:Spoken and written language have very

different societal function . It most societies, spoken language are primary. Every community has its own language that it uses for the purpose of communication. It is significant that while most communities use the spoken form of language, not all communities have written form .Language such as Nago and Mizo , in India had no script for a long time unit they adopted the Roman script The basis function that spoken language performs is to establish and maintain the communication between members of the same language group.

TECHNIQUES FOR DEVLOPEMENT OF SPEAKING SKILLS:-The following are the main techniques for speaking skills. (1)REPRODUCTION TECHNIQUE:At early stage, the pupils should speak after the teacher. They should be provided a lot of practice in speaking in chorus, in small groups or individually. It is important that teachers own pronunciation is reasonably good because the pronunciation of pupils cannot be better than that of his teacher at this stage. (2)POINTING OUT MIS PRONOUNCED WORDS:-

42

The teacher should point out the mistakes made by a pupil in pronouncing a sound or word. Pronunciation drills should be conducted in the class. (3)READING ALOUD:Reading aloud by the teacher help the students to develop the habit of speaking with proper stress and intonation. (4)ROLE PLAY:The teacher should organize role play activities, e.g. one pupil imagines he is a farmer, the other pupils asks him question and his daily routine. The situation for role play should be within range of pupils experience. 5. USING A TAPE RECORDER: - The tape recorder is of great use in acquiring correct pronunciation. The tape recorder the pupil voice and reproduces it before him. He gets the necessary shock when he hears his own speech with mistakes. Another recording is done and still another till the pupil is able to speak correctly. 6. ORAL COMPOSITION- Pictures are useful aids to conduct oral composition. The teacher asks questions pertaining to a picture or a series of pictures and the pupils answer them. 7. DRILL:-Drill helps the pupil the pupil to form language habits they help him to improve his pronunciation, to speak English with proper stress and intonation to practice the basic sentence patterns and vocabulary and to speak the language fluently and confidently. The teacher should devote sometime to do drill work in the class.

2.4 Characteristics of Spoken English Language is primarily speech. But the emphasis has always been an equal weight age to be given to all the 43

four basic language skills viz. listening, speaking, reading and writing skill. Speech might serve as a foundation for the learning of a language. Nevertheless the general experience is that a large number of students, even at higher stage of language learning, are unable to follow normal spoken English at normal speed or to communicate effectively through speech. Hence the skill of speech becomes important and emphasis must be given to the spoken medium as a form of communication. The objective of the present topic is to provide students with exercise to practice English sound and distribution of these sounds in words. It also deals with basic rules and exercises in word stress, sentence stress rhythm and intonations patterns, fluency and pause normally used in English. English Sound- Drills for practicing English sounds i.e. consonant, consonant clusters, pure vowels and vowel glides, in isolation and in minimal pairs are found useful to help the learners use these sounds correctly in their normal speech. It is therefore suggested that the teacher should switch over to the utterance level practice at the earliest opportunity students must be given sufficient practice followed by rigorous ear training, in the phonemic system of the received pronunciation of England (R.P.) and the General Indian English. The emphasis must be laid on the students ability to produce the sound in context. Students should at first be introduced to the constant and vowel systems of English. For the trainees, sound must be presented orally and the phonemic symbols must be written on the black board with examples. Then there should be repetition of sounds in words and sentences after the teacher. Clear articulation of sounds; correct distribution of English vowels, vowel glides; consonants and consonant clusters; correct vowel length; weakening of vowels in unstressed syllables are some of the items which could be chosen for specific practice in class room. The English teacher should have adequate knowledge of phonetics to be able to hear mistakes in students pronunciation to

44

discover their faults precisely in terms of articulately position and movements and then to devise same useful remedial exercises when just imitation does not show desirable results. 2. Word Stress: - Word stress is marked in different ways in different dictionaries . Usually primary stress is marked with a vertical bar () above and in front of the syllable to which it refers. Secondary stress is marked with a small vertical bar (i) below and in front of the syllable to which it refers. Example: determination, preparation In an English word of more than one syllable one of the syllables is more prominent than the rest and this syllable receives the stress. A stressed syllable is articulated with relatively great breath effect and muscular energy. 3. Sentence Stress: - In sentence some words are more importance than others and this is indicated by stressing the words. Differences in the stress lead to difference in the meaning for example: He is my Uncle. (a) He is my uncle. (Not anyone else) (b) He is my Uncle. ( Not- anybody else) (c) He is my Uncle. (Why do you doubt?) (d) He is my Uncle. ( Not father) 4. Rhythm: - Rhythm is musical aspect of language. It makes pronunciation more appealing than it would otherwise be. When person plays upon a harmonium, his fingers on hands move from one note to the other at regular interval. This is rhythm in music. English has stress timed rhythm. It means equal time elapses between one stressed syllable and the next. It does not matter how many or how few stresses syllables may came in between for instance;

Jack and Jill went up the hill

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To fetch a pail of water. 5. Intonation: - Intonation refers to the rise and fall of pitch in voice or it is the variation in pitch. The variation in pitch is done by slacking or tightening our vocal cards and the sound. In pronunciation intonation is quite important. The meaning can be changed just by change of pitch. Generally intonation may be put in two tunes. Tune First: For example: Mohan is a good boy. Where is Meera? Tune Second: - In it the Pitch in voice acquires a high level at the end. It is shown by the sign For example: Is Ram going? I mean. He is your son, isnt he? This is not what 6. Fluency: - It refers to saying word groups with no gaps or hesitations in the middle. Thus the words must be spoken without stumbling over the sounds and sequences of sounds. 7. Pause: - It means to stop for a while. While speaking English a pause should be given after comma, full stop etc. The meaning of a sentence. For exampleBoys read nicely. Boys, read nicely. Activities for the development of speaking skill: Following are some of the important activities for development of speaking skill: 1. Telephonic conversation: for The teacher should create For this Pitch in voice is at a high level and falls down towards the end. It is shown by the sign

appropriate

situation

spoken

English

language.

46

artificial/contrived situation on various themes can be attempted following can be a few of them. (a)Telephonic conversation between a doctor and patient. (b) Telephonic conversation between daughter and father who is away /out of home. (c) Conversation between Shopkeeper and customer. 2. Panel Discussion: - Class can be divided into a few panels and

one panel of experts can be made to sit on dise. The meaning will act as audience with one of them as anchor. Any current topic can be taken for panel discussion. 3. T.V. News- Television news can be watched and notes can be taken of it. News thus noted down can be presented in morning Assembly. Sports Commentary: Sports commentary can be attempted to improve spoken English Acquisition of English Language Every language has three constituents. They are sound, structure and vocabulary. The main problem In acquisition of English language is to master its sound system i.e. to understand the stream of speech, to hear the distinctive sound features and to approximate their production. The second problem is to grasp the structure of the language i.e. the arrangement of words into sentences. The third problem is a minor problem as compared to the other two. The layman, however, wrongly equates the acquisition of a foreign language with the acquirement of vocabulary only. It is because the masters the sound system and the structure of his own language as a child and, like the ability to walk, cannot recall the learning process. Even before he goes to school, the sounds and arrangements of words have became unconscious and automatic 47

habits with him. The situation is different in case of vocabulary. The words we know depends upon over range of experience. Since a childs experience is limited, so is his vocabulary. As he grows in experience, he enlarges his vocabulary. It is for this reason that the common man, thinking about language, should consider vocabulary mastery only, that part of his language which he acquiring consciously and the arrangements of words which became unconscious habit so early that he cannot remember it. It must be remembered that one cannot learn all the words of language. We know only those words which fall with the range of over experience. Not even the editors of dictionaries know all the words in a language. So mastery of language does not mean knowing all its words. Language has to be acquired in totality with all phonological, morphological and semantic aspects. Its social implications along with cultural implication are necessary for any learner of language. Same is the case with acquiring our mother tongue. Although we know our mother tongue thoroughly, yet there are hundreds of words in it with which we had no contact and which are thus unknown to us. This means that vocabulary items to be taught at the school stage should be carefully selected so that language components can be systematically acquired. In acquisition of a foreign language, therefore, the first task before the learner is to understand and produce the sounds of the language, this second task is to master the way words are used in making sentences. Of course, he cannot learn the sound system or the structure of the language in a vacuum. He must have same vocabulary to operate them. The words to be taught in the beginning are to be the most useful words. They have to be limited in number. Our main task in the initial stages is with the teaching of

48

sounds and structures with in a limited vocabulary. Having mastered them the learner can expand his vocabulary to any extent he likes. In learning a foreign language, vocabulary alone is not of chief importance only but other important aspects like accuracy of sound, rhythm, intonation, structural forms and ability of expression must come first. The students are to be taught through oral practice. Speech is the language. The written record is only a secondary representation. The fundamentals of the language-the sound system and the structures with in a limited vocabulary-should be mastered through speech. It is through speech that the student is able to make the sentence pattern automatic habit. Even if one wants to learn the language only for reading; it is desirable that its fundamentals be mastered through speech. To master a language, it is not necessary to read it, but to read a language, it is important to first master it orally. Without mastering a language orally, the process of reading is reduced only to translation i.e. finding words equivalents. Such a reader never grasps the thought and spirit of the foreign language. Acquisition of language means mastering its four basic skills. Viz. Listening, speaking, reading and writing.

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50

J.B.T Ist year Syllabus Subject-ENGLISH UNIT III AND IV

28/06/2011

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------UNITS III SUB UNITS: READING SKILL

Mechanics of Reading . Teaching Reading to Beginners: Methods and Approaches. Types of Reading . Development of Reading skill (use of TLM and Activities). Reading for enjoyment. Reading with comprehension : Post Reading Activities Beyond the Text-Book. Activities for Pupil-Teachers. Activities for Development of Reading Sill.

By : Shabnam Arya DIET ,Sirmour at Nahan.

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Shabnam Arya Lect. English DIET Sirmour at Nahan (Unit III & IV)

English JBT 1 Year Syllabus

st

(Unit III)

1. Reading Skill
Introduction:Reading skill is a process of decoding. It is a complex process in which physical, intellectual and emotional responses and reactions are involved. In this skill it is important to recognize symbol. It is also important to co-relate these symbols. Thirdly it is most important to understand and interpret the meaning of the content. Mechanics of Reading:In mechanics of reading certain things are of great importance. For example while reading we do not look at individual letters of a word. Rather we look at once at whole word. Similarly while reading we do not look only at a single word but we move evenly on the entire sentence. This is called eye span. We can also say that the number of words read in one complete movement of the eye is the eye span of a reader. The eyes of a good reader move quickly taking long eye span as compare to poor-reader. So the teacher should try to increase the eye span of his students. Some times we use forefingers under every word. This habit should be discourage. This habit hampers the speed of reading. The natural way of reading is to read evenly and to read with understanding. The teacher should present a model reading to the students. Infact students learn through imitation. While taking up reading skill a model reading by the teacher is very helpful. This also develops listening skill of the students. In the beginning the teacher should read slowly. His voice should be clear and loud. He should pay proper attention to pronunciation, tone, stress and intonation. After this he should make the meaning of the passage clear to the students. This will increase their understanding. This will also create interest among the students for reading. Importance of Reading

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Reading is an important aspect of language learning. With the help of reading we come in contact with great minds. However reading a foreign language is difficult as compare to reading of the mother tongue. Infact there are certain stages of learning reading. For example prepatory reading symbols reading, reading of text books, reading printed material and free reading for enjoyment. Infact the real purpose of reading is to get information from the printed pages. Another purpose is to get pleasure out of reading. Some Definitions:In words of C.C. Fries:- The main purpose of developing reading ability is to gain pleasure and profit from the printed material. Professor Ghandhi Says, That education of a child is in perfect unless he attains the ability to read, to interpret and to understand the contents of a reading material. Hence reading opens the gates of knowledge. We read more than we write or speck. More over reading also provides entertainment. It is also a source of intellectual satisfaction. So it is the duty of the teacher to teach reading to the students in an enjoyable manner. Teaching of reading should be simple, easy and attractive.

Teaching Reading to Beginners

Preparatory Reading:Preparatory Reading means preparing the children for reading English. The students in the First week should be taught oral teaching of words and simple sentences. The students are taught to read words, pharses and simple sentences from the blackboard. In this way preparation for regular reading by the students is done in the class room. First of all the teacher writes the name of same common objects on the blackboard. For example a book, a pencil, a table etc. He will also read out the word from the blackboard. The teacher can also draw the picture of an object on the blackboard. He can also make use of flash cards, charts etc. The teacher will repeat the words several times. The students will also speak the word one by one many a time. In this way teacher prepares the students for regular reading. Starting Time for Reading:Prof. Gurrey opines that reading should be delayed for one year. Infact starting time for reading depends upon certain factors e.g. knowledge of the students, their ability to understand, some English, their ability to speak some English, their ability to recognize printed symbols etc.

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Methods & Approaches For Teaching Reading

1. Alphabetic Method Alphabetic method is also known, as ABC method, Spelling method or Letter Method. In this method the teacher teaches the name of the pupils in the beginning. Students are then taught to learn A to Z alphabets by heart. They are taught by combining two or more letters to form a word e.g. t-h-i-s this etc. Then words are combined into phrases and sentences. It follow the Letter Words Phrase Sentence pattern. Limitation of this method is that it is an unpsychological method. It neglects conceptual learning. It is also a lengthy method. 2. Look and say Method It is also known as Word-Method. In this method a whole word is presented to the students with the help of flash-card, Audio-Visual Aids, Picture, Charts etc. Read objects are also shown to the students. The students recognize the object and relate it with word. No emphasis is laid on teaching of spelling. After sufficient practice of repetition of the word sentences are formed by joining other words. Then practice of sentence reading is given. Inspite of certain disadvantages this method is very useful for foreign language teaching in India. According to unquestionably the means of inculcating the reading skill P.C. Wren says that is the one and only rational method. There are many advantages of this method e.g. it moves from known to unknown, it facilitates oral work, it proceeds from simple to complex. This method also lays emphasis on conceptual and contextual learning.

3. Phrase Method: In this method the teacher prepares a list of phrases. He writes one phrase on the black-board. The teacher then explains the meaning of the phrase to the students. He reads out the phrase and repeats it several times. Then the students are also asked to read the phrase and much practice is given. This method in a midway between word-method and sentence-method. It helps in extending eye-span.

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4. Sentence Method: In this method sentence is the unit of speech. The teacher selects a sentence and conveys its meaning to the students. He shows the sentence along with a picture or flash-card or chart. He then reads the sentence loudly and repeat it many a times. Then the teacher asks the students to read the sentence. The teacher may write the sentence on the black-board too. It follows the:Sentence ------ Phrase ------Words ------ Letters pattern Sentence method facilitates speaking. It is a natural method. It helps in self-education. However for this method specially trained teachers and properly graded text-books are required. 5. Phonic Method: This method is used alongwith Alphabetic Method. In this method the teaching units are Sounds of Letters. In the beginning vowel sounds are taken. The sounds of consonants are presented. After that combined sounds are taught. It is a complete method of English language learning. It is the method issued in England for teaching of English. However this method is not very suitable for teaching English in Indian conditions.

Choosing the Best Method:

Choosing one or more methods and approaches depends upon level of the students, classroom conditions, background of the students etc. The teacher may use a combination of many methods and approaches for teaching reading to beginners.

Development of Reading Skill

Introduction Language learning comprise of four basic skills Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. Reading skill is a passive skill but because it involves de-coding process, it is also an active skill. We can develop the skill of reading with comprehension and correct interpretation in our students by employing certain techniques :Causes of Retardation in English Reading There are many causes due to which Indian Students find reading English a difficult task. The main reason for his fallout are as follows:-

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i) ii) iii) iv)

Reading has no place in our examination system. Teachers do not realize the importance of reading. Reading do not have proper place in use of mother tongue also. Due to over crowdedness in classroom it is not feasible to give reading practice to all the students. v) The text-book are also not well graded for the purpose of reading. vi) Translation method is still used in our classrooms which allows no space for reading there is no place for reading. vii) Many teachers themselves are not efficient in reading of English.

Steps to Develop Reading Skill: i) Interesting material for reading should be developed. ii) Separate time should be devoted in classroom for reading. iii) Reading, competitions can be organized to motivate the students. iv) Efficiency of teacher can be improved by special speaking/reading courses. v) Bi-linqual method should be adopted by teaches for teaching of English. vi) A proper atmosphere for language learning should be created in the classroom. vii) A wall magazine board displaying news items related to sports, cultural events etc. will develop the interest of the students in reading. viii) Students should be encouraged to participation in discussions; this also credit interest in reading. ix) Creative activities such as dramatization poetry recitation, slogans etc. will motive the student to become avid readers. x) Loud reading and oral reading practice should be given regularly in classroom. xi) A collection of good library books will also encourage the students to read. xii) Proper pronunciation by the teacher will encourage the students to imitate because all language learning skills are inter related. xiii) Time to time guidance by the teacher will develop reading habit in the students Thus teacher can promote reading skill in his students.

Types of Reading
Introduction The main purpose of reading is to read with understanding i.e. to understand the meaning of words, relation between words and to grasp the ideas and relationship between ideas. The main point for the pupils is to be occupied with the text in such a manner that they do not loose sight of the meaning contained. They may so become familiar with the text that they understand it thoroughly.

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According to F.G. French, The teacher acts as a guide showing his class how to uncover all that is there in the subject matter. There are mainly six types of reading which lead to comprehension. There are:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Loud reading Silent reading Intensive reading Extensive reading Supplementary reading. Library reading.

1. Loud Reading:
Meaning Loud reading is also known as oral reading. It should be used after two months of class-room teaching i.e. the student must know the meaning of what they have to read aloud. Objectives:The main objective of loud reading is to enable the students to read with understanding, expression and with correct pronunciation. It also provides practice in use of proper stress and intonation. It prepares the students for effective silent reading. Process The first step is to give a model reading in the class, by the teacher. If repetition is required the teacher should give another model reading. However, formation of habit by students should be crubbed. The aim of model reading is to train the students and to develop their listening skill. In the second step loud reading is done by the students. After the student finishes reading, only then corrections should be made by the teacher. For junior students emphasis should be laid on accuracy and not on speed. During loud reading practice, the teacher should also check the students posture. Pronunciation drill should be given to the class before taking up loud reading. Advantages:Loud reading helps the students to learn by imitation which is the natural method of learning. It develops the skill of speech in students. Mistakes pertaining to pronunciation can also be corrected. It trains eyes, ears and mouth of students. Limitations:-

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There are some limitations of loud reading e.g. it does not help in understanding the meaning, it needs lots of correction. Moreveover, it cannot be practiced in library or reading rooms ect. But due to its many advantages, we have to ignore the limitations. Loud reading is quite beneficial for junior students.

2. Silent Reading:
Meaning In silent reading students are not allowed to make any sound while reading i.e. whispering, murmuring, moving-lips etc. are not allowed. Silent reading should be taken up after loud reading, but it should be started as early as possible i.e. when pupils are able to recognize words and are able to pronounce. They should also be able to understand the meaning of words and have knowledge of basic structures. Objectives: The main objective of silent reading is to enable the students to read with ease, speed and comprehension. It also expands the vocabulary of the students. According to Rybun the aims of silent reading are pleasure and profit. Process: First of all the teacher explains to the students the aim of silent reading. He selects only those passages which can be understood by the class. The paragraph for silent reading should not be too long. The teacher should take rounds of the class to check whispering sounds. The time duration for silent reading may differ from class to class. After completion of silent reading exercise, the teacher asks some questions to test the understanding of the students. The questions should be simple and direct. Advantages: Silent reading is time and energy saving. It develops the habit of self-study. It develops the concentration-span of the students. It also acts as a deterrent against the tendency of translation. Limitations: Silent reading is disadvantagious because mistake of students cannot be corrected. The teacher cannot check weather the students are actually reading or not. However, silent reading is a very helpful tool in foreign language learning where material for reading in literary. It is very useful for greater assimilation of information.

3. Intensive Reading: Meaning:

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Intensive reading mainly concentrates upon assimilation of language i.e. grasping the meaning, ideas, information, knowledge etc. in written material. It also focuses upon sentence structure grammar, word-order, phrases etc. Intensive reading extends command over language. Intensive reading is a type of loud reading. Objectives: The main objective of intensive reading is to develop full understanding of the text, along with its arguments, symbolism, emotional and social overtones, purposes of the author etc. Its objective is to enable the students to acquire understanding of foreign language. Process: First of all the teacher explains the social, cultural, political, scientific background of the lesson. Then the teacher reads one passage of the lesson. He motivates the students to read aloud one-by-one. He also corrects the mistakes of the students. The teacher explains the meaning of new words, concepts, phrases, sentence patterns etc. to the students. He should make use of a variety of examples to make his point clear. After this he asks simple questions to the students in order to elicit answers so as to check their level of comprehension. Advantages: Intensive reading increases the active vocabulary of the readers. It also helps to improve the power of expression of the students. It builds confidence and creates interest in self-learning and self-study. Limitations: The procedure of intensive-reading does not teach grammar systematically. It may lead to incomplete or faulty understanding of concepts. It is useful only for senior students. However, it covers all parts of the lesson.

4. Extensive Reading: Meaning

Extensive reading is also called rapid reading. It is a kind of independent silent reading. Extensive reading means to read rapidly, silently and without the help of the teacher. It means to understand the subject matter quickly and efficiently. Advantages: Extensive reading increases passive vocabulary. It develops a taste for reading. It develops the habit of concentration. Extensive reading provides pleasure. It helps in visualing what is read there by providing visual instruction. It helps in assimilation of 59

ideas. It keeps the whole class busy and active. Extensive reading provides high level of Transfer of Learning. It also paves way for self-education.

Limitations: In extensive reading the matter should be read with good speed or else it becomes boring. The reader must also understand the subject matter or else one looses interest. However, extensive reading is profitable for higher learning. It is an individual method of study.

5. Supplementary Reading
Supplementary reading and library reading are complimentary to each other. Supplementary reading is just like extensive reading. Its function is to supplement prose lesson contents. In schools it is in form of Supplementary Readers of middle stages of education.

6. Library Reading
Library reading is a formal kind of reading, carried out in a formal situation. It is not a supervised activity. Library reading and supplementary readings are very useful for gaining information, knowledge, enjoyment and mental-growth. Both supplement extensive reading.

Organizing A Reading Programmes

In order to cultivate a taste for reading in the students the teacher of enlisted should organize reading competition in the school. The teacher must provide a library period in the class-room itself. He should arrange for some beyond-the-text study material e.g. magazines, stories etc. Teacher should also make an occasional assessment of reading competence of his students.

Reading with Comprehension:Post- Reading Activities: Beyond the Text-Book

Meaning: Reading with comprehension means that the reader must be able to understand the content matter. For this he should be able to establish proper connectivity of words with in a sentence. He should have the ability to understand the meaning of words, relation between words and the idea these reflect. He should also be able to infer the gist of the thought contained in the written material. 60

Procedure: Many types of activities can be carried out in the class room to develop a taste for reading in the students. For this text-book can be a good source for the teacher. However, beyond the text-book material will be much more interesting for the students e.g. a simple story may be selected b the teacher for providing beyond the text-book reading experience to the students. Similarly some experience, event, occurrence may be selected from newspaper, magazine, periodical or collection or a paragraph for reading. The teacher should see to it that the material for reading is suitable to the level of the class. He should also explain tell the meaning of the content so as to create interest in the students. Each student should be provided with an opportunity to read. Post Reading Activities beyond the Text book The teacher can then carry out the following activities so as to judge the comprehension level of the pupils. Asking simple questions requiring mono-syllable answers-viz - Yes/No The teacher may ask the theme of the story/passage etc. Students may be asked to discuss the characters presented in the story. To ask the students if they can offer a different ending of the story. The teacher may also ask the students to draw the characters or scene presented in the material. vi) The students may be asked to express their views on the material read e.g. likings, disliking etc. vii) In case of a poem, pupils may be encouraged to recite the poem with tone, intonation, expressions, use of body language etc. etc. viii) A discussion on the Title can also be initiated in the class. ix) Discussion on illustrations and pictures in text should be carried out. i) ii) iii) iv) v) Advantages The teacher will be able to judge the comprehension level of the students. Beyond the text-book material will inspire the student for self-reading and reading for pleasure. It will also develop divergent thinking in the students and will create in them an interest for library-reading. Reading habit may also be developed in this manner.

Activities for Reading Skill

The Picnic
Five friends lived in a forest. They were Monkey, Mouse, rabbit, Squirrel and Bear. The forest had a Lovely garden. 61

One day, they all went for a picnic. They played hide and seek. They played cops and robbers. They played and played till they were tired. Soon, it was time to eat. They all ran to bring their share. Rabbit brought carrots. Monkey got apples. Bear brought a cabbage. Squirrel got tomatoes. Mouse pulled up a juicy radish. They washed everything. They cut the fruits and vegetables And mixed them well. Bear looked at the food and claimed he had never eaten something like that! They all decided to call it wonder-mix The wonder-mix was so.o.o delicious. We will always eat well and grow strong, They decided.

Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Who were the five friends? Where did they live? What games did they play? What did the bear get? What did they decide to call their food?

A Box of Love
Mini was a little girl. She lived with her Nani. Nani made clay toys and sold them so Mini could go to school. Crow, parrot, deer, tiger, farmer with his cow, girl on a swing, boy with his school bag Nani made many beautiful, unusual toys. She would pile them up in a straw basket and go to the weekly market to sell them. It was a lot of hard work. She painted very fine designs on the toys. So now, she Had to start wearing glasses. 62

Day after tomorrow is Nanis birthday. What should I give to her? Mini asked herself. Should she give her a shawl? Should she give her a new glass in which She can have tea? Should she get her a new basket to put her toys in? Oh, but Mini did not have any money. What should she do? Mini thought and thought and thought. And then she got a really good idea! Mini danced her way back home. Before reaching home, she collected some fresh wet clay from the riverside. That night she made a clay box and left it to dry. The next day, she painted many tiny flowers on it. It took her a lot of time. But finally, she finished it. The next morning, Mini ran to Nani. She kissed her Nani and sang - Happy birthday to Nani, Happy Birthday to you. She gave Nani her birthday gift. Now Nani would not forget where she put her glasses. She could simply put them in the box, Mini said. Nani was so surprised when she saw this. And Mini was thrilled to see that look on Nanis face. Thank you dear, said Nani, and gave Mini a warm, warm hug.

Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Who did Mini live with? What did Nani do? When is Nanis birthday? What did Mini make for Nani? What use was the box?

Reading for Enjoyment

Introduction 63

Reading is an activity which can be carried out almost everywhere; either in a group or individually. It does not require any paraphernalia. It can be carried out of ones own leisure time. It does not require elaborate planning or time management. It does not require special place or space. It is a par-excellence activity for development of the intellect. Reading is a self-developing activity i.e. the more we read, the more we want to read. Once one gets caught up in the habit of reading, one simply cannot do without it. There are endless numbers of topics and books to choose from. Everyone can find something interesting for him to read. Hence reading is an activity which is simple, profitable, cost effective, relaxing and entertaining. Reading at leisure for Enjoyment A taste for reading in students can be developed by the teacher with ingenuity and insight. Once the students get in the habit of reading, it would be worth the effort. Although one can gain knowledge and information from study material, but reading merely for the purpose of enjoyment too will lend heavy dividends in the long run. It will be extremely beneficial for over all development of the child in future. i) ii) iii) iv) Reading gives immense pleasure. It sooths disturbed minds. It develops imagination and one can roam in strange unknown lands. While reading for pleasure ones own creativity too can come to fore e.g. he who in a good reader can also become a good writer. v) One can be in the company of great minds and intellectual satiation is possible. vi) Various open ended stories can put the readers mind to think of other than presented endings. There by allowing them a chance to create practice divergent thinking. vii) Students can refresh their brains by reading poems/stories/jokes/personifications etc. viii) Animal analogy in literary works of art can be immensely entertaining to children. ix) Essays with unusual titles to can provide entertainment to children i.e. If I had a tail, Monkeys as pets, Life without school etc. x) Many a times students can find answers to there queries and doubts while reading something. xi) Written material accompanied by elaborate drawings and coloured pictures can also provide much joy to children. xii) Fable reading will sensitize the children a part from providing lots of enjoyment. xiii) Autobiographies of objects e.g. Sitar, Tabla, Roads, Cell-Phone etc. can be informative and entertaining both. xiv) Reading stories to one another can be a good activity for spending time constructively and co-operatively.

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xv) Group discussion on something which had been read by group too can provide divergent thinking as also entertainment. xvi) A small piece of literature can be a source of immense pleasure, entertainment, relaxation and knowledge. xvii) Material for reading should always be age-specific. xviii) Whatever we read has great impact on thinking, so only good literature should be read. Thus habit of reading may turn one into a bibilophil. One may become a compulsive reader or an avid reader but, excess of every thing is bad . Teachers & Parents should be alert lest the habit of reading for enjoyment becomes an addiction with the students, moreover only profitable literature should be given to the students because whatever we read has great psychological impact on our thinking . Lastly recommendation of good works would go a long way in developing a habit of reading in the students . In this way we can become free from the lable of being a country of non- readers .

Reading Skill:
ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL TEACHERS P.Ts. will be given some common place material for loud reading in the class room e.g. newspapers, articles, stories ect. ect. Afterwards discussion on the topic will be conducted in English language. Some topics will be given to S.Ts and group work will be conducted e.g. views on topics like Fashions, Nationalism, Nature, Professions ect. ect. will be exchanged within groups using spoken English . P.Ts. will be divided in groups. Same topic will be discussed within a group and group-wise presentation will be conducted in the class by means of paper reading. Same material will be given to each group to read. Then each group will develop it in their own language. Some material will be distributed for silent reading. Then its expression in way of presentation will be voluntarily invited. P.T. will be shown a chart and they will read it in a paragraph form. Some skit will be selected. per requirement of the role. Students /P.T. will be asked to deliver the dialogues as

Practice in Tongue Twister will be given to students e.g. they will be asked to read out loudly from the B.B.

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 She sells sea shells on the sea shore How much wood would a wood pecker peck, if a wood pecker would peck wood? Six sisters sell silk to six sickly seniors Individual loud reading and fast repetition or drill will be encouraged. Text books and English Reader of Class IV and V will be given to P.T. for loud reading in the class room paying proper attention to the use of stress, intonation, rhythm ect. ect. A Book- Bank of English literature will be collected by the P.T. for reading and exchange of ideas. Paper Reading competition can be conducted for Pupil teachers.

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English J.B.T. 1st Year Syllabus Unit III 27/06/2011

Reading Skill: ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL TEACHERS 1 P.Ts. will be given some common place material for loud reading in the class room e.g. newspapers, articles , stories ect. ect. Afterwards discussion on the topic will be conducted in English language. 2 Some topics will be given to S.Ts and group work will be conducted e.g. views on topics like Fashions ,Nationalism, Nature, Professions ect. ect. will be exchanged within groups using spoken English . 3 P.Ts. will be divided in groups. Same topic will be discussed within a group and group-wise presentation will be conducted in the class by means of paper reading. 4 Same material will be given to each group to read. Then each group will develop it in their own language . 5 Some material will be distributed for silent reading . Then its expression in way of presentation will be voluntarily invited. 6 P.T. will be shown a chart and they will read it in a paragraph form. 7 Some skit will be selected. Students /P.T. will be asked to deliver the dialogues as per requirement of the role. 8 Practice in tongue twister will be given to students e.g. they will be asked to read out loudly from the B.B. i) She sells sea shells on the sea shore
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ii)

How much wood would a wood pecker peck, if a wood pecker would peck wood?

Six sisters sell silk to six sickly seniors Individual loud reading and fast repetition or drill will be encouraged. 9 Text books and English Reader of Class IV and V will be given to P.T. for loud reading in the class room paying proper attention to the use of stress, intonation, rhythm ect. ect. 10 A Book- Bank of English literature will be collected by the P.T. for reading and exchange of ideas. 11 Paper Reading competition can be conducted for Pupil teachers .

iii)

DIET Sirmour

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UNIT IV WRITING SKILL SUB UNITS: Mechanics of writing. Teaching writing to Beginners: Methods and Approaches/Transcription. Types of scripts . Good Hand-writing Dictation : Problems ,Techniques and Importance of dictation . Writing as a total : Gathering Information, Compiling and Reporting Events, Creative Writing. Activities for Development of writing skill . Activities for Pupil Teachers. Focal Points for Development of LSRWskills.

BY: Shabnam Arya DIET Sirmour.

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Unit IV Writing Skill

Introduction:Writing is different from speaking in that it aims at compactness and precision in expression. Learning to write is learning to use grammar with ease in some sequential order. Composition of writing involves both accuracy and fluency. Importance of Writing:Writing is of immense importance. According to Bacon, Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man. Emphasizing the importance of writing Mahatma Gandhi says, Fair and legible hand writing makes a man perfect in all walks of life. In the words of Bell, Writing is a tool used to enable us to express what is in our mind. S.S.M. Gandar says, Writing has an instrumental value in schools. According to Bell, Writing is a difficult art: it requires complete control of muscles of the hand and wrist and this control a small child does not neutrally possess, so there is need to teach writing. It initially writing involves the following:1. Teaching to develop the skill of controlling the small muscles of the finger and the wrist, while writing. 2. Teaching co-ordination of hand and eye. 3. Getting students to do exercises in written work. The main aim of teaching writing English is to train the student in expressing himself effectively in good English. He should be able to take up business communication, write a friendly letter, write a report to teacher for an article for publication. The course of writing may include all kinds of letter writing, report writing etc.

Teaching Mechanics of Writing:Mechanics of writing includes the following:71

i) ii) iii) iv)

Make letters of the right shape and size. Giving proper spacing between letters, words and lines. Using capital letters and other punctuation marks. Controlling the small muscles of the fingers and wrist to have fluent movement in writing.

Teaching writing involves manual skills the skill of controlling the small muscles of the fingers and the writs and recurring co-ordination of the hand and eye. Writing helps the organization of thought. Without the help of writing, it is very difficult to keep in mind the various aspects of a subject. The skill of writing is known as the mechanics of writing. The mechanics of writing includes the following aspects:i) To know how to use the movement of hand. ii) To know how to make strokes with proper hand movements. iii) To learn how to make letters of the right and appropriate size. iv) To learn the proper use of capital letters. v) To learn the proper use of punctuation. vi) To learn how to make the right shapes of letters. vii) To learn how to write in cursive writing. viii) To learn how to give proper spacing between letters, words and sentences.

Teaching Writing to Beginners

Preparation for Writing: According to Bell Writing is a difficult art. It required complete control of the muscles of the hard and wrist and this control, a small child does not naturally possess. Free hand Writing The writing work should begin as an exercise in art. The students should think that they are having practice in art work. The teacher should allow them to draw on chalk board on large sheets of paper etc. Fairly large shapes of various sizes and directions should be drawn by the students. Controlled Drawing After this, the above shapes should be drawn within lines on the paper to give controlled practice to children. Acquaintance with Written Forms

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Students must be quite familiar with written forms before they begin their writing practice. To familiarize the students with written forms the teacher may write the names of the students on their books, note-books etc.

Teaching Writing Skill

A teacher should follow the stages of teaching writing discussed below: 1. Training of Penmanship Training in penmanship should begin with training in muscular control through fairly large movements using finger in tray of sand or chalk or brown paper. The movement should include drawing of lines of various lengths and directions, half- circles loops etc. 2. Letter writing :- While teaching letters formation, the teacher should take capital letters first. It is because these are easy to make by the students. The small letters should be taught afterwards. It will be more convenient if the different letter are taught category wise. First of all those letters should be taught which can be written with one or two strokes. E.g. I, L, T, Y, X, V, etc.

TEACHING WRITING AT THE EARLY STAGE

By Over Writing The teacher writes something with a pencil on the notebooks of the students. The students are asked to over-write it. It can also be done by prescribing English writing notebooks in which letters A words, A or sentences are written with dots. In this way, the students can have over writing practice. With the help of Flash Cards :Something is written on the flash cards, the students are asked to write down the same in their note books. With the help of Black board The teacher writes something on the black board. Then he asks the students to observe it carefully and copy it in their notebooks. Limitating the line written by the teacher The teacher writes the first line in the notebooks of the students then the students are asked to complete the whole page by imitating the first line. By using substitution table The teacher prepares a substitution table on the blackboard or on a chart. He makes them understand how they have to use it for speaking or writing purposes.

LEARNING TO WRITE
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a) Script writing After having some practice in drawing, the child starts learning to write the letters of the alphabets. He learns small letters first and capital letters afterwards. Generally he learns letters in graphs of four or five letters of similar shape and not in their proper order. For this the teacher should demonstrate the shape and form of the letters on the chalkboard. b) Learning the alphabetical order :- At about the end of first year the order of letter in the alphabets can be taught as follows :i) Capital letters group one round letter based on circle e.g. O, C, Q. ii) Capital letters group two Letters formed by strokes e.g. A, I, L, E, F etc. iii) Capital letters group three letters based n curves e.g. B, D, P, R, S, U, Y etc.

Mastering a Mature Style of Hand Writing

It generally begins in third year and continues through out the remaining school period. It is expected that the students acquire the adult style of hand- writing in common use around them. Special attention be given to those items which directly influence the legibility of hand-writing. The aspect of letters formation requires special attention.

Writing scripts
The English letters have their origin in Roman script. At present English has mainly three kinds of scripts a) Print script (b) Cursive script (c) Rounded cursive script. 1. Print script This type of script the students come across in their text books. In it the letters of a word are not joined together. It is easier to write. This kind of script has the following advantages : i) It is easier for children. ii) It is considered easier even by beginners. iii) It follows the maxim, form easy to difficult. iv) It has beauty, cleanliness and clarity. v) No strokes are needed to join the letters. vi) This is the script which the students find in their books etc. So the children can compare their letters and find their mistakes. vii) It involves less eye and physical strain. viii) It is suited to the muscles and motor development of the young students. ix) It needs practically no supervision. 2. Cursive Script Cursive script is also called Running writing in which letters of a word are joined together by curves etc. It is uniform, rhythmic, natural and speedy. It is used by most 74

of the English knowing people all over the world. Pre-primary school children find it difficult and so it is better to teach them in print script. 3. Rounded Cursive Script It is also known as Marion Richardsons script. In it only some letters of a word are joined together since it combines some characters of both the scripts (i.e. print script and cursive script) it has advantages and disadvantages of both.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE TEACHING WRITING

Following considerations must be kept in mind while teaching writing.

1. Choice of script:The beginning be made with print script and then change over to cursive writing.

2. Choosing the Style:There are two main styles of writing (a) Vertical (b) Slanted. In vertical style letters are written in vertical fashion (/). It is best style of writing. the slanted style is of two types (i) Forward slant (/) and (ii) Backward slant (\). Forward slant is better than backward slant because the later hinders speed. The teacher must emphasis the vertical style. The teacher should see to it that students do not write letters in more than one style. The letters necessarily should have uniform style. 3. Writing Material For teaching writing the following material is main by needed: a) b) c) d) e) f) Black-board and chalk. Tray of sand Kinder-garten box Paper and pencil Exercise book Flash cards

The children can start writing with soft chalk and at the later stage they should learn to write on paper. Large sized soft lead pencils may be used. Pencil writing should be followed by writing in ink. Special writing inks and good ink and glazed paper should be used. 4. Posture Posture is an important consideration that has to be kept in mind while teaching writing; Students should be made to adopt good postures during writing. At their desk 75

they should sit comfortably in erect position. Both their feet should rest on the ground. The body should lean slightly forward from the hips but should not touch the desk. The head should be so held so that his eyes are about 13 inches (30m) away from the paper. The chest should be clear of the edge of the desk. Both forearms should be with in 2 or 3 inches of the elbows and should rest lightly on the desk.

Methods of Teaching Writing

There are four methods of teaching writing or penmanship. 1. 2. 3. 4. Kindergarten Method Tracing Method Free Limitation Method F.G. Frenchs Method

1. Kindergarten Method
It is based on the principles of Kindergarten method of education. In this method, a Kindergarten box is used. In this box, there are pieces of wood or plastic of different shapes. By joining these pieces, the letters of English Alphabet (both capital and small) can be formed. Students are given practice of constructing letters of the alphabets by joining those pieces. It has the following qualities. a) b) c) d) It is interesting. It is easy. It is based on play way method. It suits the nature of little children.

Demerits of this method:i) In India, teaching of English generally starts from class VI. Students of Class VI belong to (10-13) age group. So, it is not appropriate to use Kindergarten box at this stage. But where English is taught from Class I, this method can be used. ii) Pupils might have learnt writing their mother tongue through this method, they may not now take interest in this method.

2. Tracing Method
This method requires the learner to make movements over the printed or written letters with a pen or pencil held in his hand. The letters of English alphabet are either written in dotted lines or in a frame like this. The teacher writes letter in this manner in the note-book of the students and asks them to pass their hands over the letters. Exercise books for this are also available. There are certain merits of this method as follows:-

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i) Children learn by imitation and this method follows the principle of learning by imitation. ii) Motessori has also recommended this method and asked students to pass their finger over sand paper letters. iii) There are no chance of wrong learning. Demerits of this Method:i) ii) iii) It entirely depends upon learning by imitations and in this way, it hinders the development of the ability of free writing. It discourages the habits of hand work. It does not handle properly individual differences. All students reach up to the same level of development.

3. Free Imitation Method

Under this method, pupils copy in their note books the model letters written by teacher on the black-board or note books or written in books. Bell suggests that the model letters should be written on flash cards. Since students imitate or copy the model letters with the help of their own imagination and retention power, it is called free imitation method. Merits of Free Imitation Method i) ii) iii) Pupils get a chance to show their ability and skill. They become self-dependent. Individual difficult can be traced and removed easily.

Demerits of Free Imitation Method i) ii) iii) iv) In copying, there are chances of mistakes. Due to mistakes, there is slowness in development. Sometimes the children copy, some words incorrectly. The teacher has to work hard to correct the mistakes of copying.

4. F.G. Frenchs Method

French has suggested that beginners should not be taught writing letters straight way. Instead, they should be first taught to do some hand movements either with finger in a tray of sand or with chalk or on a brown paper like these After giving hand movements practice, the following procedure should be followed: 1- Teaching strokes: pupils should be asked to draw these strokes.

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From these strokes they should be lead to write these words ; A, E, F, H, G, L, M, N, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, I, l

4. Teaching circles : Pupils should be given some practice in drawing circles :

5. Teaching combining strokes and circles : Now strokes and circles should be combined :

These lead to practice of these letters : c, d, o, p, q, f, G, H.

6. Teaching curves : Students should be asked to make curves like these : This should be followed by teaching letters : s,t, u, v, x 7. Teaching combining strokes and curves : The strokes and curves should be combined like this 8. R, n, m, n, t, f, h, v, r These lead to the letters as : h, g, I, m, n, p, u, s, t, u. One point to note is that the small letters should be taught according to their shape. French has grouped them as follows : o b c d f gm p m , t, f, j, I, t, x, z w, s, y, k, s h This method has all those merits and demerits which free imitation method has because in this method, too, the learner imitates the teacher.

Good Handwriting
Introduction A good handwriting is an asset. It attracts the reader. A good handwriting can be consciously developed at early stages of writing. Importance of Good handwriting: 78

By good hand writing, we mean legible and fully clear type of writing. The importance of good hand writing may be shown in the following points:1. A good hand writing of an motivates the examiner and thus it may ensure more marks to that student. 2. A good handwriting impresses other especially the reader for whom it is meant. 3. A good handwriting communicates the thought and ideas accurately. 4. It is easily understandable. There is no scope for any type of misunderstanding. 5. It helps in creating interest of the students in language learning. Good handwriting once acquired becomes an asset with the learners. 6. Hand writing of a person is the index of his personality. One can judge a writers mind and attitudes by judging from his handwriting. 7. A good handwriting of a person becomes a living example for others. The student whose handwriting is very good feels pride in it. 8. The teacher whose students have got good handwriting consider it a matter of pride and previlege.

Characteristics of Good Hand Writing:The following are the main characteristics of good handwriting:1. Distinctiveness Each letter of a word stands distinct from the neighboring ones. It is legible Bell says, Illegible handwriting in a young man or a woman is a sign of an untidy and careless mind. 2. Proper Spacing The different words of a sentence are placed at a suitable distance. Some space is also left while starting a new sentence. 3. Uniformity The size of the letters is neither too big nor too small. It is moderate in proportion. Moreover the same proportion is maintained throughout. 4. Simplicity The different letters used in writing are simple. There are no unnecessary strokes. 5. Correctly Spaced There is always some space left with a new paragraph when started. 6. Four lined Notebook 79

The principle of writing on four-lined note book is always kept in mind. 7. Proper Slant The different letters of a word have erect positions. These may be in forward slant, but backward slant should always be discouraged. 8. Proper use of Punctuation There is proper use of punctuations marks. The different punctuation marks are put properly.

Causes of Bad Hand Writing

Some of the cause of bad hand writing are as follows:1. Some times bad handwriting results due to imitation of bad examples. 2. The use of ball pens or fountain pens at very early stages of writing also spoils handwriting. 3. Lack of good sitting arrangement. 4. Bad sitting postures. 5. The not-so-good quality of paper and ink. 6. Faulty ways of holding pen or pencil. 7. Lack of freedom of hand movement. 8. Lack of practice in writing. 9. Physical defects in the students.

Improvement of Bad Hand Writing

Following measures are likely to help the students in acquiring good hand writing. 1. Use of four-lined note books. 2. Sitting in proper posture. 3. Having the proper position of desks. 4. Use of calligraphy note books. 5. Arranging handwriting competitions. 6. Showing model hand writing. 7. Checking mistakes. 8. Holding the pen properly. 9. Using black boards for difficult words. 10. Motivating pupils to find their own mistakes. 11. Use of proper writing material. 12. Paying individual attention to the students. 13. Sympathetic treatment. 14. Adequate written practice should be given to the students. 15. Display of model handwriting also encourages the students. 80

For improvement of hand writing it is desirable to give adequate exercises in writing viz. transcription, dictation and composition should be given to the students.

Dictation
Meaning Dictation word has been taken from the word dictate which means to tell or guide or speak out for a purpose of taking notes by the listeners. Dictation is used in classroom, offices, institution etc. as a means of planning and implementation of ideas. It is an important tool in language learning. Objectives In Indian Schools, dictation has two objectives:1. To Educate 2. To Examine The main aim of dictation can be stated in the words of Wein. The aim of a dictation lesson is to produce in the class a one hundred percent accurate passage of writing, also to install into their minds the idea that correct spellings and punctuation really matter and that that nothing less than absolute accuracy is good enough In fact dictation produces a spelling consciousness in the students. Steps of Dictation While giving dictation the teacher should go through these steps:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Getting students to prepare to take dictation. Selection of paragraph. Model reading of paragraph. Telling spellings of the difficult words of the paragraph. Dictating the paragraph. Correlation i) by the teacher (ii) by the student himself and (iii) mutual correction 7. Supervising the writing aids. 8. Practice of the corrected words. Merits of Dictations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It facilitates listening and understanding. It increases the ability to be attentive. It gives practice in taking notes. It initiates self activity. It follows the principle of learning by doing. 81

6. Errors of writing can be checked. 7. It improves the understanding of punctuation. 8. Co-ordination between hand and eye, hand and ear gets enstrengthened Techniques of Teaching Dictation Before starting dictation exercise in the class the teacher should keep certain points in mind. 1. First of al the date or time for dictation should be announced before hand by the teacher so that students should get a chance for preparation. 2. Secondly only those passages/excerpts should be taken which had already been taught in the class. 3. The material for dictation should not be too lengthy or difficult. 4. The teacher should speak out in a loud and clear manner. 5. Repetition of words/sentences should be avoided because this makes the students careless in listening. 6. Teacher should keep an eye on the students while giving dictation to rule-out cheating. 7. Correction work should be taken up shortly after dictation exercise. 8. The words which have been spelt wrongly by most of the class should be clearly written on the black board. 9. Improper sitting posture of the student should be corrected. 10. The teacher should ask the students to write down five times the correct spellings. 11. Dictation work should be carried out in the class regularly. 12. A separate copy for dictation work would enable the teacher to check periodical improvement. 13. At least two periods per week should be devoted for dictation.

Writing as a Tool
Gathering Information, Compiling and Reporting Events, Creative Writing Introduction Pen is mightier than sword is a well known phrase. It is said that there is power is written word. When we read some written material the imprint of words creates images in out minds which gets transported to memory. Various images relate to oneanother and a whole picture or mental-image gets developed. In this way whatever is gained through the reading material gets retained. Gathering information Writing is a powerful tool for gathering information e.g. if one wants to gather information about a person one can adopt interview method. For this a tool or 82

questioner is developed in which such questions are incorporated as would elicit information on required person. The interviewee would answer the question which can be quickly penned downed by the interviewer. Later on the revelent information can be sieved out and the purpose attained. The same can be done to gather information about new gadgets, new discoveries etc. Another method for gathering information can be by taking down notes from T.V. or radio news-channels. One can make use of print media also to prepare notes which can be combined together and a sizeable information can be gathered. Notes taken down from lectures in workshops or seminars will also solve the same purpose of gathering information. All this can be done only if one is well-versed in writing skill. Thus, writing serves as a tool for gathering information. Compiling and Reporting Events: Many types of events keep, occuring in this world. If these events are planned in advance like sports competition, shows, exhibitions, festivals, functions, royalweddings etc. then one can compile all the aspects of the event and present it in form of a report. Sometimes events can continue for a long period e.g. Parliament Sessions, Trade fairs, IPL cricket matches, Olympics, Cann Film Festival etc. to name a few. Here in continuous compiling and reporting is required. The reports can be prepared and chart-list the events on daily basis. At the end of the session a detailed report on the event can be prepared alongwith references to special happenings. In this way, again writing helps as a tool for reporting events of local, national or international events. Many a times all of a sudden some happening captures the minds of the people e.g. natural clamaties like earth quacks, hurricans, floods, cloud-brustes, Sunami ect. For giving proper coverage to all this this events a sound knowledge English language and writing skill is required. Creative writing Creative writing requires a higher level of writing skill. In fact in creative writing generation of ideas is required. These ideas may relate to the one or diversified fields of life viz-sports, politics, society, medicine, nature, childhood, economics etc. etc. to name a few. Secondly in creative writing compiling and proper arrangement of ideas too is important. One idea may get developed and then it should be sequentially related to the next idea. Thirdly in order to express ones ideas exactness in language use is required e.g. for creatively writing a piece of prose dexterity, compactness and terseness in writing will lend a good finish to creative art.

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Similarly for poetry writing faculties of imagination human sensibility, sensitivity to surroundings and connectivity to characters is indispensible. But again use of proper language would serve as a crux here. Proper word at proper place lends unparallel beauty to creative writings. Same is true for writing skits, plays, biographies, auto-biographies, travelogues etc. ect. Hence writing serves as a helpful tool in compiling and reporting events, gathering information and for creative writing. Focal Points for Development of LSRW Skills 1. A language can be learnt best is context of the culture to which it belongs. 2. Teaching of language is for removed from teaching of other subjects, in class room situation. 3. A text book serves as a guiding force both for the teacher and the student. 4. Language is best acquired when attention is focused on meaning, not on form. 5. Language comes alive when presented in meaning-making contexts. 6. Words/phrases that are used to accomplish many useful purposes follow a certain system. 7. Learners become familiar with this system through continuous exposure to the language in meaning-focused situations. 8. Interaction, discussion and sharing of ideas among learners provide language learning opportunities. 9. Encourage learners to work in pairs and small groups. 10. Design more and more tasks/activities in keeping with learners interests, needs and surroundings. 11. Promote reading habits through story reading story retelling, choral reading, shared reading, etc. 12. Create class libraries for exchange of books. The library may also move with children to the next higher class. 13. Encourage learners to tell new stories, narrate anecdotes, compose short poems in English talk about pictures, illustrations in the book and cartoons in newspapers/magazines. 14. Encourage children to write down other new words they find difficult, along with their meanings. 15. Let children express their own views, even if their observations do not reveal any understanding of the nature of events. 16. Encourage even a small participation by student in language class. 17. Motivate students for self-study and pleasure reading. 18. Use bi-lingual method in the class as far as possible. 19. Refrain from use of translation method for teaching of English language.

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Activities for Writing Skills

THIS IS
This is Abhishek. This is a water bottle. This is a long story. This is a blue shirt. This is an apple. This is a jeep. This is a sparrow. This is a blackboard. This box is empty. This shelf is clean. This note book is neat.

IS THIS
Is this burning? Is this a doctor? Is this Kartik? Is this a spoon? Is this a parrot? Is this a kettle? Is this a lion? Is this moving?

THERE
The table is there. Tanvi is sitting there. The king is going there. Dhruv and Suraj are sitting there. Shambhu is studying there. Tanya is there. We are coming there. Sanjay is going there. The children are playing there. The dog is barking there. We pray there. I get ready there. I take the bus from there. The teacher is calling the students there. 85

Woman bring water from there. Is she sleeping there? Are you sitting there? Is Abhineet jumping there? Is she singing there? Is it snowing there? Is the school there? Are we going there?

I AM
I am eight years old. I am very tall. I am a good girl. I am not dancing. I am a teacher. I am not going to school. I am playing with Rahul. I am teaching in the class.

AM I?
Am I a policeman? Am I not playing? Am I Ritika? Am I looking good?

I LIKE
I like to read books. I like singing songs. I like mangoes. I like my teacher.

I
I study in class 3. I live in Shimla. I drink milk.

WE ARE
We are going to the fair on Friday. We are working in the farm. We are cutting wood. We are clapping. We are washing our hands.

ARE WE?
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Are we crying? Are we laughing? Are we going to see the movie? Are we making paper boats?

WE LIKE
We like sleeping early. We like to wear shirts. We like roses. We like our teacher.

WE
We wash our hands with soap. We get wood from trees. We see with our eyes.

IT IS
It is a desk. It is a dog. It is not a duster. It is not moving. It is not crying. It is barking. It is raining. It is a silver spoon. It is lying on the table.

IS IT?
Is it a desk? Is it breathing? Is it a pen? Is it working? Is it big?

IT LIKES
It likes sleeping in the sun. It likes to play with a ball. It likes to swim.

IT
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It barks at strangers. It helps in cleaning the house. It smells nice.

HE IS
He is six years old. He is a painter. He is not fighting. He is reading a book. He is Shekhr. He is swimming in the pond. He is climbing a tree. He is taking a bath.

IS HE?
Is he swimmer? Is he Ashok? Is he going to school? Is he unwell? Is he driver?

HE LIKES
He like to write. He likes playing. He likes blue shirts. He likes puppies.

HE
He works in a farm. He dreams all day. He drinks milk.

YOU LIKE
You like juice. You like coffee. You like watching movies. You like to play in spring.

YOU
You wash clothes. You play together. You are making noise.

YOU ARE
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You are Indians. You are children. You are riding bicycles. You are reading books. You are studying together.

ARE YOU
Are you going home? Are you flying kites? Are you teachers? Are you musicisns?

SHE IS
She is Neetu. She I cooking. She is 14 years old. She is walking. She is nurse. She is playing in the park. She is running in the classroom. She is sitting under a tree.

IS SHE?
Is she Tanya. Is she standing outside? Is she studying? Is she a good girls?

SHE LIKES
She likes Reena. She likes animals. She likes talking. She likes to cook.

SHE
She drinks milk. She lives in Kashmir. She eats in the kitchen.

WHO
Who is he? Who is she? Who is late for class? 89

Who is she talking to? Who is he walking with? Who is laughing? Who is painting? Who is dancing? Who is sleeping? Who is writing? Who has my book? Who has his pen? Who has a pencil? Who has a big bag? Who has dirty shoes? Who are they? Who wre you? Who are we talking to? Who are your friends? Who are you playing with? Who can climb the tree? Who can read this book? Who can tell me the name of this animal? Who can ;dance well? Who can jump high?

WHEN
When are you coming here? When are they reaching your work? When are you eating? When are you eating? When are they dancing? When are you travelling? When is her exam? When is his bus? When is the sun setting? When is the bus stopping? When is your turn? When is your mother coming home? When is your father leaving? When is she leaving? When is he singing? When is she sleeping? When is it going?

HAS/HAVE
He has a pencil. She has a bag. It has four legs. She has three dresses. He has my favourite shirt. 90

He has a big box. She has two ribbons. He has a pink pen. She has many toys. It has wings. I have many friends. They have many friends. They have lots of shoes. We have fun playing. You have my book. I have two brothers. You have long hair. We have a lot of work. They have a lot of free time. I have many books.

CAN
Can you dig a pit? Can he shout? Can she jump? Can you cry? Can we play? Can it fly? Yes. I can jump. Yes, I can dance. Yes, he can sing. Yes, they can run. Yes, we can play. No, you cannot play. No, you cannot sing. No, she cannot eat that. I can jump and skip. He can climb a tree. They can all run fast. We can sing. It can cut vegetables easily. When are we going to Jammu? We are going to jammu in January. How is the weather there? It is very pleasant. Whe is tara going to the park? Tara is going to the park at 7 o clock. Can I go with her? You can go after finishing your homework. When are they coming home? They are coming home before sunset. Where are they now? They are in the market. When can we meet Varun? You meet him after two weeks. Where is he now? 91

He is in Agra How is the dress? The dress is very beautiful. How is the bag? The bag is blue and bib. How is Neetu? She is very tired. How are you? I am unwell.

MA! HURRY UP!!

My name is Sunny. I wake up in the morning. I rub my eyes. I cannot see my mother. Ma, where are you? I call out to her. Ma is busy. She tells me to get up and go wash my face I wash my hands and face. I brush my teeth I have a bath. I want to get to school soon. So I tell ma to hurry up. Hold on, 92

I am coming she says. But she just hands there to boil the milk! I comb my hair and button my shirt. Now I am ready. I tell Ma to hurry up again. Ma gives my sister her clothes. She helps my sister get ready. There is so much work in the morning. But I am is a hurry. I am getting late. I pick up my water bottle and school bag. I wear my chappals. I tell Ma to hurry up again. She says she has to comb my sisters hair. Five more minutes and then we can go! What is this? Why is Ma not hurrying up? I want to go to school now. I do not want to wait. My sister has gone to school and I am still here! I feel like crying. I tell Ma that I am going. I hold her hand and start puling her. Finally, we are out of the house. Ma locks the door. Why are you impatient she wants know. But its alright now. She is walking with me to school, and like that!

Rainy Day
It is raining. Sometimes it is windy and the rain comes poring down hard and loud.

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Sometimes the rain is slow. Salma asks Nani if she can go out and play in the rain ? Salma wants to get wet! Nani makes Salma promise she will be careful of the lightning. Salmas dog Pillu is curled up under the chair. He sees Salma with an umbrella and comes out from under the chair. He licks her hand and wags his tail. Salma pats him and takes him out in the rain as well. As they reach the end of the verandah, s sudden gust of wind starts to blow. Salmas umbrella flies out of her hand and out on to the grass. There is a streak of lightning in the sky. Salma stops. A few seconds later, there is a very loud clap of thunder. Pillu runs back to the house and hides under the chair. Salma runs back and hides in Nanis lap.

Three Friends
Once upon a time there were three friends. Their names were Little Lamp, Little Star and Little Sun. All three of them were very little. One evening they were playing together, when they got into a fight. Little Lamp said he was the brightest. Little Star said he was the brightest. Little Sun said he was brightest. A man was passing by. He was very old. He had white hair and a long, white beard. This wise, old man heard the Little Lamp, Little Star and Little Sun. He heard them and stopped. He stopped and he started laughing. He laughed so much that Little Lamp, Little Star and Little Sun stopped fighting and looked up at him. Why was the wise old man laughing? The three friends wanted to know. The wise old man stroked his white flowing beard. He said he laughed because he saw no reason to fight. Only Little Lamp could light houses at night. Only Little Star could make the night sky twinkle. Only Little Sun could make the world a bright, happy place. 94

And all three were very bright in their own special way. The three friends heard the wise old man and smiled. They stopped fighting and went back to playing together.

Play-Way Learning
JUMBLE WORD PUZZLES Parts of the body
F E E P R K A A L I S R R O F H S R A R L N C M E G E C H E S V T Y D P M E R R U S P

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L B N E C K

P S O R A L

R O S P M H

N L E G S E

K E D Y H I

M V H B A R

T M X H N A

O A W I D Z

R D L A S K

E B M R N M

Things at the home

DD R J U G K A

UU D O M E I M

SS C S B O T K

TT P L A T E C

BB S C B U L B

II T F E Y M F

NN B A D C A R

A E N S U R I

P I G L P T K

R N O A Z G L

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N F P

B R N

U I R

C D M

K G O

E E A

T T S

P O R

O R M

A S S

Fruits and Vegetable

P P E E A A S S P P B L P B

R M P D Q E R S O Z

L K P G U A V A T T

O R L R B R G H A O

M T E A O K R D T M

I S G N R B A O O A 97

N I K P A E P U M T

O N I O N A E V E O

R S T L G N S L A R

T A R O E S R K R A

Numbers

S S B M L A S P L O C

E E R T K E E F I V E

V V K H M I V O S S T

E E O R N G E U R I S

N N S E I H N R E X R

T W E N T Y T W O E

Y L E E O K E O M G

O R N T E L E V E N

N O U Y M R N E Z Y

E N P S K A L R B U

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Animals

T G M R R H O R E F

Y O R A A S P A D R

R A P B B A Q E O K

S T I B B E L O G S

U R G II B I T L O

K C A T T Q O F V M

E L P L T N L Y H

L M O N K E Y C O

F B O W L Y B O R

I K N Z S R A W S

WRITING SKILL: ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL TEACHERS

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P.T.will be given a topic to develop it in their own words. P.T.will be asked to write a short story on a given title. P.T.will be given some words and will be asked to make five sentences on each word. A picture /chart will be shown to the class to develop. They will be encouraged to write short stories /poems which will be displayed on the notice board. P.T will prepare a report on some topic of current news. Teacher will provide the students with some trigger-sentences on which they will develop a story /essay /paragraph etc. e.g/ Two friends police old women.dog Dictation period will go a long in developing writing skills of the students. Handwriting competition and display of same /model handwriting on the notice board will motivate P.Ts Punctuation exercises should be given to P.Ts.

Thanks

Shabanam Arya Lect. English DIET Sirmour at Nahan

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UNIT IV WRITING SKILL ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL Teachers 1 P.T.will be given a topic to develop it in their own words. 2 P.T.will be asked to write a short story on a given title . 3 P.T.will be given some words and will be asked to make five sentences on each word . 4 A picture /chart will be shown to the class to develop . 5 They will be encouraged to write short stories /poems which will be displayed on the notice board. 6 P.T will prepare a report on some topic of current news. 7 Teacher will provide the students with some triggersentences on which they 8 will develop a story /essay /paragraph etc. e.g/ Two friends ..police 9 Dictation period will go a long in developing writing skills of the students . 10 Handwriting competition and display of same /model handwriting on the notice board will motivate P.Ts 11 Punctuations exercises should be given to P.Ts. BY: Shabnam Arya DIET Sirmour.

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English J.B.T. 1st Year Syllabus Unit III 27/06/2011

Reading Skill: ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL TEACHERS P.Ts. will be given some common place material for loud reading in the class room e.g. newspapers, articles , stories ect. ect. Afterwards discussion on the topic will be conducted in English language. Some topics will be given to S.Ts and group work will be conducted e.g. views on topics like Fashions ,Nationalism, Nature, Professions ect. ect. will be exchanged within groups using spoken English . P.Ts. will be divided in groups. Same topic will be discussed within a group and group-wise presentation will be conducted in the class by means of paper reading. Same material will be given to each group to read. Then each group will develop it in their own language . Some material will be distributed for silent reading . Then its expression in way of presentation will be voluntarily invited. P.T. will be shown a chart and they will read it in a paragraph form. Some skit will be selected. per requirement of the role. Students /P.T. will be asked to deliver the dialogues as

Practice in tongue twister will be given to students e.g. they will be asked to read out loudly from the B.B. She sells sea shells on the sea shore How much wood would a wood pecker peck, if a wood pecker would peck wood?

Six sisters sell silk to six sickly seniors Individual loud reading and fast repetition or drill will be encouraged.

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Text books and English Reader of Class IV and V will be given to P.T. for loud reading in the class room paying proper attention to the use of stress, intonation, rhythm ect. ect. A Book- Bank of English literature will be collected by the P.T. for reading and exchange of ideas. Paper Reading competition can be conducted for Pupil teachers .

DIET Sirmour

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UNIT IV
WRITING SKILL ACTIVITIES FOR PUPIL Teachers P.T.will be given a topic to develop it in their own words. P.T.will be asked to write a short story on a given title . P.T.will be given some words and will be asked to make five sentences on each word . A picture /chart will be shown to the class to develop . They will be encouraged to write short stories /poems which will be displayed on the notice board. P.T will prepare a report on some topic of current news. Teacher will provide the students with some trigger-sentences on which they will develop a story /essay /paragraph etc. e.g/ Two friends ..police Dictation period will go a long in developing writing skills of the students . Handwriting competition and display of same /model handwriting on the notice board will motivate P.Ts Punctuations exercises should be given to P.Ts.

Shabnam Arya DIET Sirmour.

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Activity
Find out hidden words in the trigger- word given below using the each letter only the number of times it appears in the words. e.g. DICTIONARY has : Action , Idiot etc. etc. Note: You can find as many as 150 or more words hidden in Dictionary .

Some other trigger words are : BEAUTIFUL, DEVELOPMENT , PRECIOUS , HEADMASTER, TREASURE etc.

Shabnam Arya DIET Sirmour.

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Brainstorming Brainstorming is an important strategy of small group activites for communicating knowledge in the students .Some trigger-points are written on the BB and with the help of these, ideas are generated in the minds of the students . Here-in we do not impose any views on the students but focus upon process of generation of ideas in their minds . After that we generalize the knowledge constructed brainstorming in a kind of challenge to the students. e.g. any statement /proverb /idiom/ saying clinches /or concept can be given to the students as a trigger in the brainstorming session. The group leader will let loose the discussion, welcome all types of idea /view opinions /attitudes of the participants . Keeping a close watch on the entire process the discussion goes hay-way ! The group leader will also keep a record of the proceedings and the not down all the important /focused opinions . The group leader will summaries all the important in the conclusion , dropping all that is irrelevant to the topic . In this manner a collective understanding of the concept would be formed .

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UNIT 5 APPRECIATION OF LITERATURE

SUBMITTED BY :
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BINTI MANUJA LECTURER IN ENGLISH, DIET NAHAN

EXTENSIVE USE OF DICTIONARY

Definition:

A dictionary is a book containing alphabetically arranged words with some information about them.

Importance:

Learning words, meanings help the students to become independent and responsible for their own learning. Dictionaries are like passports to students independent learning.

Bilingual Dictionaries:
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Initially the students may use Bilingual dictionary; but Bilingual dictionaries are generally not very helpful as they do not give all the meanings of a word.

Learners Dictionaries:

Such dictionaries prove to be very helpful to learners as they give descriptions, definitions, synonyms, pictures etc. They provide examples too which are helpful. The following eg. will make the difference clear between the two dictionaries: The word to be explained : drown

Learners Dictionary time. Standard Dictionary

To die by being under water for a long

To be suffocated by immersion in water.

Every dictionary has introduction containing information which helps us to use it. One should read the matter on the inside back cover as well as the note on how to use the dictionary. One must know all the abbreviations and symbols used in a dictionary. e.g. : adj Adjective
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adv

Adverb

Pres t Present tense Pl Plural

How is a Word Looked up in a Dictionary:

Words are arranged according to their first letter : angel, busy, cash, equal.

Words beginning with the same letter are arranged according to their second letter. e.g. address, attack.

When both the first and second letters are the same, words are arranged according to their third letter & so on.

Guide Word:

At the top of every page in a dictionary you will find one word in dark black ink.

The word on the left top is the first word on the page. The word on the right is the last word on the page.

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Information Contained in a Dictionary:

Dictionaries vary in amount and kind of information they give. They generally contain:-

Pronunciation including syllable stress Meanings of words Example sentences Phrasal verbs Compound words e.g. Postman, post office, post pad Synonyms & Antonyms Borrowed foreign words

Thus, the use of a dictionary is mainly learnt through practice. Study of dictionary must become a habit with your for it helps us to clear our doubts and enhance our confidence by using the right word. Activities : Preparing a dictionary as per the class. Findings antonymous and synonymous and making a project Finding or learning five new words alongwith their meaning as per the level of students.
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USE OF LITERATURE FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING

Literature is a great way to learn a language. Studying the literature of any language is one of the best, if not the best, ways to learn it and to get a feel for it. Language is obviously all about words, and words are the way we communicate with each other, verbal and written.

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Literature is the written language and contains all the various styles of expression involving:-

imagination mood thoughts and ideas

It also helps to relate everything that makes up the human condition. It is characterized by the culture of any society. Once one acquires all the rudimentary knowledge of English language construction your level of competence is bound to improve and you can enjoy the vast amount of English literature from the classical authors of the past to all the fantastic modern writers. You can also concentrate on those whose style and subject matter you enjoy the most. For eg :- Liliana as the name suggests in the name of a female. One of the famous female writer in English language is Jane Austen and her works are just as popular today as they have been. In India, we have famous writers as Khushwant Singh, Kamla Das, Anita Desai, Shashi Desh Pandey, R.K. Narayan etc. Their works are just as popular today as they have ever been. Their use of English language is superb and easy to read. R.K. Narayans works have serialised on T.V. Their works are well known and people enjoy reading such authors.

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No one speaks as they write, but it gives a solid grasp on stylistic writing. Once a person develops the skills of Reading and Writing, Communication becomes easy.

Finally, we come to a conclusion that literature is useful in learning a language.

Literature is taught for the promotion of:-

Vocabulary Structure Language manipulation Puts the students in touch with the subtle and varied creative use of language.

Thus, Literature is intellectually stimulating because a book allows a reader to imagine the world they are not familiar with.

Activities Read short stories and explain. Narrate short stories in your own words and summarizing
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TEACHING OF LITERACY GENRES

Introduction:

A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even length. Genre should not be confused with age category by which literature may be classified as either adult, young-adult, children. The distinction between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined.

Use of Various Genres / Types of Literature for Language Learning

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Poetry

Instead of talking straight about poetry, it is good to ask students to differentiate between the way a story is written (its use of lengthy descriptions about persons / places / situations) and how a poem is composed (using figures of speech such as similes and metaphors and observing tremendous economy in expression). Poetry offers a great scope for language learning. Besides developing sensitivity to sound, rhythm and musicality in language, the learner also leans about the evocative use of language which may have layered meanings. Poetry also takes the learner beyond the established rules of grammar and usage thereby opening up possibilities of varied interpretations. As regards the reading of poetry, the learner may be sensitized about the various aspects of phonology such as intonation, stress, etc. Other than linguistic aspects such as poetic idiom and vocabulary, poetry has a cultural dimension as well. The learners may be especially sensitized about this.

Activities / Tasks for Learning Language through Poetry

Lets take up the poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree by W.B. Yeats (prescribed for Class IX in the book titled Beehive by H.P. Board of School Education) to develop some activities / tasks so as to facilitate not only its understanding on the part of the learners but also to ensure improvement in their LSRW skills:
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Task A :

Rather than talking about the poem, talk in general about

the beauty of islands. Ask if the students have seen the island in some movies, magazines, newspapers, etc.

Task B :

To encourage learners participation at the outset, make at

least two / three students read the poem aloud in the class. Now the teacher may take over briefly with a view to underscore the difference between the way the students pronounced / mispronounced the words in the text and the way they are correctly pronounced. He may also bring forth its delicate lyrical quality.

Task C :

Ask someone else to read the poem again. Tell the entire

class to listen intently. It is only after they have paid a serious ear to the reading of the poem by their classmates that its explanation may be initiated. Explain how the poem is different from the preceding prose piece entitled A Truly Beautiful Mind (which is factual, descriptive and informative) and also the story titled The Snake and the Mirror (which is an interesting and humorous narrative). Only then may the teacher talk in particular about the expressions such as bee-loud glade, evenings full of linnets wings, lake water lapping with low sounds and peace comes dropping slowfrom the veils of the morning thereby emphasizing their rich poetic as well as lyrical quality. He may also dwell briefly on the importance of the literal and the suggestive meaning in poetry.
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Task D :

Now the group activity can be carried out by dividing the

learners into three groups. Ask each group to respond to the ideas contained in each stanza. Let them think about the lake isle of Innisfree and describe it their way. Also make them respond to the different between the poets state of mind and the place he is yearning for. Why does he feel impelled to go to Innisfree now? Ask the if they too yearn for a beautiful place like Innisfree and how often they are able to visit it.

Task E :

Make sure that each learner writes her / his response to the

poem. Assigning them some questions in the form of home task can be a nice strategy to engage them even beyond the classroom situation.

From the tasks and activities devised above, it is evident that the teaching of poetry helps multifariously in inculcating LSRW skills through learners participation and group activities. The Master Trainers may devise the innovative tasks from time to time to make teachinglearning process as interesting as possible.

Short Story

Short story is doubtless the most popular genre of literature. It has remarkable appeal for young learners. Like novel, story also represents real life situations. Its charm lies in its simplicity. Other
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than developing the capacity to develop their narratives at the oral as well as written levels, the learners also get the opportunity to know about different peoples, climes, cultures and societies. Short story not only assures a vast socio-cultural exposure to the learner, it also sharpens their creative as well as critical faculties. In a classroom situation, short story may serve as the best connecting thread binding the entire class together. Every child is exposed to short story pretty early in life. Therefore a learner at the elementary level can easily understand the whats, whys and hows of a story. S/he can identify with it and relate it to identical situations / experiences in life.

Activities / Tasks for Learning Language through Short Story

Having gone through the unit on Story Telling, the trainees certainly know that they have the capability of story telling inherent in them, rather they could be the greatest story tellers in a classroom situation. Interestingly the learner likewise has an intrinsic potential not only to tell it but to comprehend it as well. Nevertheless, short story as a literary genre needs to be approached a little differently. Reading being germane to any meaningful activity pertaining to learning language through literature, it is equally important in learning language through short story. Let us take up the teaching of a story namely The Monkey and the Crocodile (prescribe for Class Vi in A Pact with the Sun by H.P. Board) and work out some tasks / activities / strategies to make its

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learning interesting as well as engaging to effect concrete language learning.

Task A :

Talk about animals in general and monkeys and crocodiles

in particular in a friendly way as they are really important in our lives. Never let the sense of awe creep in also talk about the importance of friendship and sharing in our life.

Task B:

Gradually move on to the story via asking questions such as

do you think a monkey and a crocodile can ever be friendly? By doing so, the teacher will show the learners the possibility of an alternative version of reality as we know it. Respond to the question by dropping few interesting hints about the story.

Task C :

Assign them roles and make the reading as dramatic as

possible. The learners can also be made to understand as to how the fictional and the dramatic blend in such short stories especially when the conversations between the monkey and the crocodile and the crocodile and his wife are read.

Task D :

Next thing is to ask them read the story one after the other

in the class. Rectify their pronunciation, explain the words which are new to them (rather than giving only one-word meanings to them), and explain situations by arousing the learners interest in them. All this
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needs to be done simultaneously as reading cannot be made an isolated activity. It has to be learner-centered as the teachers have to understand their role of facilitators rather than that of imposers.

Task E :

Make them talk about the role of wife in messing up this

beautiful relationship between the monkey and the crocodile. Also make them respond to monkeys cleverness. At 6th standard, the learners can decisively tell which character they like / dislike, and why. Make them speak about the characters in the story. Also talk about fable which is story with animal characters in it.

Task F :

Make them write answers to simple questions. See if they

can spell the words correctly thereby making them write their meanings.

Short Play (Drama)

One-act / short play falls within the ambit of drama which is the liveliest of all genres of literature. It has characters, dialogues and action. It presents a real life situation. That is why in a classroom situation, the teachers do not have to put in much effort to make learners participate in using a short play as source material to improve their LSRW skills. Assign them roles and the rest will happen all by itself provided the trainees are watchful and willing to allow students their space to grow via mutual sharing. The learner is inherently imaginative
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and creative and the teachers need to give her/him a mere paddle push. The learners participation in a group situation enables her/him to develop her critical faculty. S/he learns how to listen, simultaneously perceive and respond in the most appropriate manner. The reading of the dialogues with feelings and emotions benefits the learner multifariously. For instance, s/he develops the spirit of accommodating others by being tolerant, sympathetic and mutually co-operative. One also develops a sense of identity characterized by individual sense of self-respect. It also inculcates sensitivity, innovativeness, adaptability, self-confidence, communication skills along with sense to appreciate literature. Reading of a play and subsequent discussion of it make students aware of varied contexts thereby increasing their capacity not only to perceive the adapt in accordance with new situations but also develop new perspectives about life.

Drama serves as a powerful tool to facilitate the improvement of LSRW skills in the learner. It helps her / him learn language more holistically. By and large the teachers (consciously / unconsciously) take recourse to drama in a classroom situation. They are actors and cannot help it. They only need to be innovative, participative, and creative during language learning sessions.

Activities / Tasks for Learning Language through Short Play

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Task A :

Introduce the learners to the genre of drama (short play /

play) by differentiating it with story or poetry. Tell them as to how drama is closest to life as it portrays real life situations comprising action, dialogue, characters, events, atmosphere, etc. Also as to how drama can transform the whole atmosphere of the class thereby taking the form of a theatre full of vivacity and liveliness.

Task B :

Tell them the importance of role playing, improvisation and

voice modulation and how crucial they are in drama.

Task C :

If there is no access to a short play, the trainees must select

stories / sections of stories / novels / or sections of novels ensuring beforehand that there are ample conversations / dialogue sequences. If the teacher is creative enough, s/he may help the learners write their own scripts (in the form of plays / stories / poems with two or more characters) and use them as source material for language learning in the class.

Task D :

Once the roles are assigned, the teacher has to vacate the

floor for the learners giving them complete freedom. Just observe how they read their parts (expressions / gestures may be noticed especially) intervening only if the activity gets hampered at any point.

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Task E :

Let them clear their doubts as to how a particular word is

pronounced and what it means. Tell them the importance of intonation and stress in reading / articulating an utterance.

Task F :

Involve all the students in role-playing which is necessary

for developing self-confidence in the process of learning language. Each student should be made responsible to contribute her / his bit in group activities such as enactment of a scene of a short play in the class, and later, if possible, the staging of the short play before the entire school. Task G : Ensure hundred percent participation of the learners in all

classroom activities thereby monitoring carefully their growth from the view point of LSRW skills as it is extremely crucial.

BIOGRAPHY & AUTOBIOGRAPHY:

A Biography is the account of the life of a Person written by someone else e.g. : Southeys Life of Nelson.

An Autobiography is the story of the life of a Person written by himself e.g. Mahatma Gandhis My Experiments with Truth.

Task A :

In writing the autobiography of an animal or an inanimate

object one must put himself in the position of the object or animal he is
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writing about and imagine the things which it would see, feel and say if it were alive or could speak.

Task B :

When you have formed a mental picture, write as that

animal or object might be supposed to tell its story.

Task C :

Make the story as interesting as possible and tell its simple

language such as is used in everyday speech.

Task D :

Students would be well advised to read The Jungle Book by

Rudyard Kipling.

Task E :

Writing of an Autobiography should be in first Person.

Certain Pitfalls should be avoided e.g. The autobiography of a dog Till at last one day I died or I died in harness. How can a dog write after his death? Thus, animals should be made to act, hear and say things which are natural and possible.

Conclusion:

Summing up it can be said that if the tasks / activities mentioned above are carried out along with one the spot strategies that teachers devise and employ in classroom situation, the learners may
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certainly benefit. Moreover, the learner may learn to appreciate not only texts representing different genres but also the viewpoint of the author as well as that of their fellow beings. That the classroom is an opportunity to mould and motivate the learners and facilitate their growth should serve as beacon light for the trainees. All our efforts should be centered on the learner. S/he must understand that language has a living context reflected in literature and that its understanding is important for any meaningful growth of the language learner. Acquiring basic LSRW skills through literature may lead the learner not only to master effective communicative skills but writing as well. Moreover, the learners exposure to literature from various nooks and corners of the world besides their own may help them grow in a rounded manner.

Activities: Poetry Asking students to recite the poem by maintain its beauty . Thought process of the poet must be given importance. Short story Asking students to narrate short stories in their own works . Students may collect relevant pictures and develop short story on the basis of picture . They may develop a story as per their observation Play
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One act play should be conducted by the students in the class . Role of different character should be played by the students . Writing which character appeals to them and why? Biography Knowing complete information about any personality /character and writing it in your own words. Collecting their pictures

TEXT TYPES IN ENGLISH

There two types of category of text types which students must be competent in using Literary text types and factual text types.

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Every text type has structural and language features. An outline is provided below:

Text Type

Purpose

Structural Features

Language Features

Narrative

To entertain, Orientation amuse instruct or complication

Noun

groups

to

describe characters

series of events and settings time coda words Action verbs Technical language, simple tense, Terms present Generalised

Factual (Report)

To

classify General statement Description

and/or describe

Explanation & To

explain Phenomenon

Technical language use of words such as because, as a result, to establish cause and sequences effect

Interpretation how or why identification something occurs Explanation sequence

Exposition

To persuade Thesis Arguments Words that qualify, by arguing Reinforcement of eg usually, probably Words that link

one side of thesis an issue

arguments eg firstly, on the other hand

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NARRATIVE TEXT IN TEACHING ENGLISH

Narrative text is one of the genres taught for the eighth and ninth grade students at Junior High School. According to Rebecca (2003), a narrative text is a text, which relates a series of logically, and chronologically related events that are caused or experienced by factors. In addition, Anderson and Anderson (2003a) explain that a narrative is a text that tells a story and, in doing so, entertains the audience. It has character, setting and action. The characters, the setting, and the problem of the narrative are usually introduced in the beginning. The problem reaches its high point in the middle. The ending resolves the problem.

In narrative, the incidents that make up the story are usually told in the order in which they would really happen. A narrative
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text usually contains with features of characters, main character(s), setting, time, problem(s), solution, and a plot (structure). According to Diana (2003), a narrative text usually has description of features and rhetorical steps.

a. b. c.

Plot Characters Setting

Five steps in constructing a Narrative text:-

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Orientation Complication Sequence of Events Resolution, and Coda In orientation, the narrator tells the audience who is in the

story, when it is happening, where it is happening, and what is happening. These events will affect one or more of the characters. In this step, the feelings of the character and what they do are included. In addition, the events can be told in chronological order (the order in which they happen) or with flashbacks. Coda is an optional structure in a narrative. In this part, the narrator includes a coda if there is to be a moral or message to be learned from the story.

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Narrative can be presented as written or spoken texts. Written narratives often take the form of novels. The story is usually told by a narrator. If the narrator is one of the characters in this story, the story is said to be told in the first person. If a person outside the story is the narrator, then the story is being told in the third person.

In addition, narrative text may take many kinds or forms. They are myths, fairytales, aboriginals, science, fiction, dreaming stories/bedtime stories, and romance novels. Among those forms, fairy tales or fairy story has lots of sub-forms : fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, giants, and talking animals.

The primary rule for developing a sequence for introducing stories is to progress from simple stories to more complex stories. Factors to consider are (a) the number of characters, plots, goals, and sub-goals, (b) the number of attempts by characters to achieve the goal, (c) the length of the story, (d) the readability of the story, and the amount of background knowledge required by students.

The purpose of a narrative, other than providing entertainment, can be to make the audience think about an issue, teach them a lesson, or excite their emotions. In well-written narration, a writers uses insight, creativity, drama, suspense, humor, or fantasy to create a central theme or impression.

EXPOSITORY
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Expository kinds of writing explain, describe or argue a case. Exposition is an impersonal form and the 3 rd rather than 1st person tends to be used. Writers & Readers are sometimes distanced from one another and an impression of objectivity given by use of passive voice.

What is an Exposition?

An exposition argues for or against a certain point of view based on a certain topic. An exposition is a well-structures argument or persuasion. The point of view must be supported by facts and relevant information on that topic.

An Exposition needs to:

Clearly state the point of view Use research to support that view Address other points of view Defend that point of view from others.

Examples of an Exposition are:

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Newspaper editorials Letters to the editor Political speeches Advertisements Debates

Structure of an Exposition

Exposition can be either written or spoken. Often, an exposition is first written down before being presented orally.

An exposition should have a title or heading. This will introduce the topic of the text and may even show the writers point of view on the topic.

The first paragraph is the introduction. This is where the writer states the topic that is addressed in the text. The introduction is important because this is where the writer establishes the point of view of the exposition.

The following body paragraphs are used to make different points, called claims, about the topic. Each paragraph addresses one part of the exposition topic. Each paragraph will make a point, give the reason for that point and then provide evidence for that point.
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The conclusion is used to re-state the writers point of view on a certain topic. This is where the writer sumps up the ideas discussed in the text. A conclusion can also address and respond to another point of view on the topic.

To help support the point of view, visual elements can be used. These elements include charts, photographs, drawings or graphs. Visual elements often help the audience to better understand the topic.

Many expositions use evidence from other sources. If you do any research or use any facts, figures or quotes in your exposition it is important to list all these resources in the bibliography.

Preparing your own exposition

Before writing an exposition you must first establish a topic and a point of view on that topic. It is then important to research that topic and find evidence and facts to help support your point of view.

The structure of an exposition is important. Each body paragraph should have the following:

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A main point Your reason for that point Evidence to support that point

Always check your text for correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

FACTUAL TEXT
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The class of text which purport to reveal facts about the world. Such text are often known as information or as non-fiction. Something can be an instance of factual text even if it is wholly inaccurate. Whether something is a factual text is determined by the beliefs of the agent creating the text. A factual text is used as a way to gain a better understanding about a living or non-living subject. A factual text is:-

Uses facts to explain something Gives details about a topic Does not contain personal views Is usually written, but can also be presented orally

Examples of Factual Text

Topics, or subjects, found in information reports can be about one specific thing or a group of things. Some examples of topics might include:

Cars Ocean animals Rainforests

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Pollution Computers

Structure of Factual Text

Formal written information reports usually follow a very specific structure. The first part of an information report is the title, or heading, of the report. This will tell the reader what topic is covered in the report.

The

first

introductory

paragraph,

known

as

the

classification, explains the aspects of the topic that will be covered in the report.

The following information is contained in the body paragraphs. This is where the topic of the report is covered in more detail. These paragraphs use factual information to give the reader a better understanding of the topic. Often, these paragraphs are broken up by sub-headings to help organize the information.

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The conclusion of an information report gives any final details or facts about the topic. It may also be used to review what the report was about.

Visual elements are important because they help the reader to understand the topic better. Visual elements can include drawings, photographs, graphs, maps or diagrams.

A glossary is often put at the end of an information report. A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and their definitions.

The bibliography is a list of resources like books, magazines and websites, which were used to help write the information report.

Creating Factual Text

The first step in preparing a factual text is to choose the topic of the text. Then you will need to research the topic. Textbooks, websites, an encyclopedia and other information reports are good places to gather information. You might also want to look for pictures and diagrams to use in your report.
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Once you have the information, you will need to organize it into the structure of an information report. It is also important to make a list of any important words to use in the glossary. Information reports are generally written in the present tense.

When you have finished writing the report, read it again to make sure that it uses facts, gives details, and does not contain personal views. Always check your text for correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

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INTERPRETATION OF TEXT

Steps / Procedure of Interpretation:

1. 2. 3.

Read or reread the text with specific question in mind. Marshal basic ideas, names and events. Think though your personal reaction to the look : identification, enjoyment, significance, application.

4. 5.

Identify and consider most important ideas. Return to the text to locate specific evidences & passages related to major ideas.

6.

Use your knowledge following the principles of analyzing a passage.

Principles of Analysing:

1.

Offer a context for the passage without offering to much summary.

2. 3.

Cite the passage. Discuss what happens in the passage & why is it significant to the work as a whole.
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4. 5.

Consider what is said especially the ideas expressed. Assess how it is said, considering the word choice, the ordering of ideas, sentence structure etc.

6.

Explain what it means.

According to J.Carter Too often writing is seen as unimportant, something done in a spare half-hour. Writing which commands attention and is memorable is hard work.

As a guideline, an interpretive panel should contain a maximum of 200 words. Publications can contain more text, but no page should have more than half its space taken up with writing.

Writing Style

It is very important that your text relates to your audience. This is one of the key things that differentiates interpretation from visitor information.

There are a number of writing techniques that will help your text relate to your audience:

1.

Address the reader in the first person.

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2.

Use active rather than passive verbs for this makes the text sound more natural and lively.

3. 4.

Use metaphors, analogies and comparisons. Use humour for it can be a very effective way of relating to and engaging your audience but be careful use humour, but with care.

5. 6.

Ask questions and engage your audiences imagination. Use first person narrative : it can be very effective to adopt a character to narrate your story. This means your interpretive text is written in the first person.

7. 8. 9.

Write in short sentences and paragraphs. Avoid jargon and technical terms, please use plain English. Finally rewrite, edit ruthlessly and rewrite again. Always end up with fewer words than you started with. And above all dont just communicate facts and figures let your writing tell a story.

Activities Asking students to classify different types of text in their text books and after understanding is developed to summarize its as per its classifications

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Unit -6

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR INTRODUCTION: In the teaching learning of a language, functional grammar or applied grammar occupies an important place. It helps the teacher to teach the language well, and also helps the learners. At the initial stages of learning the language, it is not of great help. Its ability is seen in the later stages of learning of the language. Grammar is the sum total of rules and regulations of the language. It is, therefore, necessary for us, to whom English is a second language, to learn the grammar of the language. Functional grammar means knowledge of grammar. The science of language: it is the analytical and terminological study of sentence. DEFINITIONS: Grammar has been defined differently by different scholars, some definitions are as follows: 1. Champman: Grammar is the study of language by specialists made in order to establish the rules and principles which underline the correct speech and writing, rules and principles which are followed more or less unconsciously or instinctively by the native speakers. 2. W.N. Francies:- Grammar has three different meanings: i. It is the set of formal pattern in which the words of a language are arranged in order to convey larger meanings (ii) It is the branch of linguistic science which is concerned with the description, analysis and finalization of formal language patterns (iii) It is the linguistic etiquette.

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3. Thompson & Wyatt: It presents the facts of language under certain categories, and deals only with those which can be brought under general law and stated in the form of general rules. 4. Sweat: had defined grammar as the practical analysis of a language, its anatomy. 5. West: It is not a code of rules, it is, like etiquette and table manner, a statement of conviction, it summarizes what is done by cultured people and like etiquette, it is a state of constant change. 6. Ballard:- Opines, Etymologically it means the study of letters. It is the science that lies behind the heart of literature and composition. 7. Gordon:- A body of empirical rules which explain and regulate the structure of the sentence. Therefore, functioned grammar is strongly supported because of its practical value. As the pupils, when especially begin to write English sentences, the need of a formal study of grammar becomes obvious. MERITS OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR The merits of Functional Grammar can be enlisted as below:1. It is action based and so it creates interest in teaching. 2. It is totally based on the principle of Learning by doing. 3. It makes the class lively and interesting. 4. It makes the T-L easy and simple. 5. It emphasizes on learning through learning. 6. There is a scope for giving plenty of examples. 7. Students remain active learners and as well as active participants. DEMERITS OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR 1. 2. It is not suitable for the lower classes. Teaching of text-books in very tough through this.

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3.

It sometimes creates a monotony in the class due to over drilling and repetition.

4. 5.

Trained and competent teachers are required. It is tough to teach literature-prose, poetry and composition, through this.

PLACE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM:With the introduction of Direct Method in the teaching of English, grammar is disappearing from school curriculum. In spite of the demerits, the education of Functional Grammar is essential. The place it should occupy should have the following main features:1. The descriptive grammar which emphasizes on function of language should be taught, because in the words of Ballard, formal grammar fails to provide a general mental training does not enable teachers to eradicate solecism, does not aid in compositions and takes up time which could much more profitable be devoted to the study of literature. 2. It should occupy a secondary place. It should be a means to an end, not the end itself. 3. At the early stage it should be taught incidentally and informally. At the middle stage, inductive and deductive methods are useful. At the higher level, it can be taught in the traditional method. 4. Teaching of Functional Grammar should only start when the pupils acquire some command over the language. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR:The main objectives of teaching Functional Grammar are enlisted as below:-

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1. 2. 3.

To develop an insight into the structure of English language. To develop a scientific attitude about the language. To enable the pupils to express their ideas logically and correctly in speech and writing.

4.

To teach grammar as a rule governed behaviour and not as mere rotelearning.

5.

To enable pupils to develop their understanding about the rules of English Grammar through use and practice of its sentences.

6. 7.

To develop their mental abilities of reasoning and correct observation. To enable the students to assimilate the correct patterns of the language without rote memorization.

CONCLUSION: Thus, it is called as incidental grammar, for students learn it quite unconsciously while learning the language. Language learning is a first concern of the learners and knowing the rules and regulations is the secondary concern. Besides whatever grammar they are able to pick up, becomes an integral part of their knowledge. ACTIVITY

Correct incorrect sentences. Transformation of sentences. Parts of speech, voices, narration etc. Framing sentences on the basis of Substitution Tables.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

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Nearly every word in English language can be classified into its kind, the different kind of words being known as parts of speech. This classification having become crystallized through centuries of linguistic discipline. Various parts of speech are always firmly fixed and perfect yet we broadly classify them a follows. 1. Noun 2. Pronoun 3. Adjective 4. Verb 5. Adverb 6. Preposition 7. Conjunction 8. Interjection Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's meaning can change from one sentence to the next, following is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech, followed by an exercise. Books are made on ink, paper, and glue. In this sentence, "books" is a noun, the subject of the sentence. Dalip waits patiently while Ramesh books tickets Here "books" is a verb, an its subject is "Ramesh" We walk down the street. In this sentence, "Walk" is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun "we" The Mail carrier stood on the walk. In this example, "walk" is a noun, which is part of a prepositional phrase describing where the mail carrier stood. The town decided to build a new jail. Here "Jail" is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase "to build" The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediately he would jail us.
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Here "Jail" is part of the compound verb" would jail." They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night. In this sentence, "cries" is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb "heard" The baby cries all night long and all day long. But here "cries" is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, the baby. The Next few sections explain each part of the speech in detail. What is a noun? A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn, note the words in the following sentences which are nouns: Last year our neighbours bought a goat Archna is a playback singer The bus inspector looked at all the passenger passes. According to Historians the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C. Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving. A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an adjective or an adverb. Noun Gender Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender for example, a man was called an "author: while a woman was called an "authoress" but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences. Raj Kapoor was a very prominent actor and director. Nargis was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1950. The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress" Noun Plurals
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Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences: When Sanvi was small she rarely told the truth if she thought she was going to be punished. Many people do not believe that truths are self evident. As they walked through the silent house, they were startled by an unexpected echo. I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that return. He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway. Since we are moving, we will need many boxes. There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s" Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences. The harbour at marble Mountain has one wharf. There are several wharves in Halifax harbour. Life is very fast in big cities. The Children circled around the head boy and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?" The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice. Other nouns form the plural irregularly Possessive Nouns In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun charges its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and "s" as in the following sentences: The red suitcase is Shelja's The only luggage that was lost was prime minister's The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams. The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

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You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s" as in the following examples: The bus's seats are very uncomfortable The bus' seats are very uncomfortable You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples: The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch. The sheep's pen was mucked out every day. Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final. The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as the women's team is finished. The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon. You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe: The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling. Bhavyas room is downstairs and to the left. My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest. The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings. Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates. Using Possessive Nouns When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun: The miner's face was covered in coal dust. Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject. The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

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In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs'" Modifies "barking," "ducks'" modifies "quacking," and "babies'" modifies "squalling." The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs. In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed." My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest. In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels'" is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."

Types of Nouns There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalize some nouns, such as "Canada" and do not capitalize others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun) or the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun) and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete and countable or non-countable or collective.

Proper Nouns You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun In each of the following sentences, locate the proper nouns: Many people dread Monday mornings. Children Day is celebrated on 14th May, every year
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 Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran. Last year, I had Vinod, Rajesh and Dalip as roommates

Common Nouns A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense usually. You should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun. In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted: According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away All the gardens in the neighborhood were invaded by beetles this summer. The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road. Many child-care workers are underpaid. Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples. The tenants in the Mahajan's Apartments are protesting the large and sudden increase in their rent. The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants. The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history

Concrete Nouns A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns: The judge handed the files to the clerk. Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves. The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles. The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, c1oth-coveresJ board.
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Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns: Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought. Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood. Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp. Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically. Countable Nouns A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural' form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable 'noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns: We painted the table red and the chairs blue. Since he inherited his aunt's library, Vidhi spends every weekend indexing her books. Bharti found six silver in the toe of a sock. The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane. Non-Countable Nouns A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Noncountable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns: Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen. The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural. ~ Oxygen is essential to human life. Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural
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verb "are." . We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved. You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural. The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room. Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped." The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed. You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural. Gravel is more expensive than I thought. Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is." Collective Nouns A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognize collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun: The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture. The collective noun "flock" takes the singular verb "spends." The jury was failed to make a common indigent In this example the collective noun "jury" was The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon. Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets." The class was startled by the bursting light bulb. In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "Was startled." What is a Pronoun? A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the
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indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.

Personal Pronouns A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. Subjective Personal Pronouns A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they." In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence: I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the bag. You are surely the strangest child I have ever met. He stole the pen from Radha's pencil box When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner. After many years, they returned to their homeland. We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m. It is on the counter. Are you the delegates from DIET Shimla? Objective Personal Pronouns An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them." In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun: After reading the pamphlet, threw it into the garbage cane. The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw." The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."
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In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address." Nisha and Pankaj will meet us at the Indian Coffee house Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet." Give the list to me. Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to" I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you. Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to." Sandeep was surprised to see her Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see." Possessive Personal Pronouns A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "there." In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun: The smallest gift is mine. Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subiect complement. This is yours. Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement. His is on the kitchen counter. In this example, the possessive pronoun sentence. Theirs will be delivered tomorrow. In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence. Ours is the green one on the corner. Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence. "his" acts as the subject of the

Demonstrative Pronouns
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A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time. The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun. In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun: This must not continue. Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue." This is rose that IS the plant want. In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to

something farther; away from the speaker. Three customers wanted these. Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted"

Interrogative Pronouns An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what' Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun. You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals. "Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition

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The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun: Which book is yours? "Which" is the subject of the sentence. Who wrote the Hard times Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence. Whom do you think we should invite? In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite." To whom do you wish to speak? Here the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to." Who will meet the delegates at the train station? In this sentence, the interrogative -pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet." To whom did you give the paper? In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to." What did she say? Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say." Relative Pronouns You can use a relative pronoun to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns. You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun. You may invite whomever you like to the party. The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite" The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.
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In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote." This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate." In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual. In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers" Whoever broke the window will have to replace it. Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke." The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet. In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate." I will read whichever manuscript arrives first. Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."

Indefinite Pronouns An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives. The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns: Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
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Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited." The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor. In this example, "everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown." We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale. In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of the verb "donated." Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none. Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found. " Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws. In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws" Give a registration package to each. Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to" Reflexive Pronouns You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun. Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun: Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day. The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work. After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building. Richa usually remembered to send a copy of her e-mail herself

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Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves. Intensive Pronouns An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns: I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister. The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes. They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time What is a Verb? The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence. In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted: Dracula bites his victims on the neck. The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes. In early October I will plant twenty tulip bulbs. Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future. My first teacher was Miss Anita but I remember Mr. Verma more vividly. In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person and the verb "remember." describes a mental action. Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed. In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place in the past. The Verb As already stated, a verb is a word which tells us something about the subject. There can be no sentence without a verb a verb is the nerve of a sentence.
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Kinds of Verbs There are three kinds of verbs, as :a. Transitive Verb b. Intransitive verb c. Auxiliary verb a. Transitive Verb: Study the following sentences:i. Upasna helped the poor. ii. The boys ran a race. iii. They missed the rain In these sentences 'helped', 'ran' and 'missed' are transitive verbs because they have object after them to complete the sense in each case. Thus a

transitive verb takes an object after it to complete its sense: b. Intransitive Verb Examine the following sentences: i. The birds fly. ii. The teacher smiled. iii. The children laughed iv. He has failed. v. The cattle graze. In these sentences, 'fly', 'smiled', 'laughed' , 'failed' and 'graze' are intransitive verb. They have no object after them. They complete sense in themselves. Thus intransitive verbs do not need any object after them. c. Auxiliary Verbs or Helping Verbs

Look at the following sentences:i. I shall go to school. ii. The girls are dancing. iii. I have finished my work. iv. You may come now. In these sentences, 'shall', 'are', 'have', 'may' are helping the principal verb, 'go', dancing 'finishing' and 'come', they are termed as Auxiliary verbs.
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Auxiliary verbs may be listed as under:Be, is, am, are, was, were, shall, will, should, would, has, have, had, can, could, may, might, must, do , does, did, ought to, need, used to. Note: some of the auxiliary verbs can be used as Principal verbs as:1. God is omnipresent. 2. I have a pen 3. We do our work honestly In the above sentences, 'is', 'have' and 'do' are used as principal verbs. Conjugation of Verbs There are three form of verbs namely, present, past and past participle. They form the basis of tense changes and it is imperative that the students should gain a thorough mastery over them. To conjugate a verb means to give its three forms namely: Present, Past and past participle.

AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT (i) A verb agrees with its subject in number. If the subject is singular, the

verb takes the singular form. If the subject is plural, the verb takes the plural form. Example:(a) (b) The boy is intelligent. The boys are intelligent.

In the first sentences the subject is singular while in the second sentence, it is plural and hence subsequent change in the verbs also.

(ii)

It may be noted that a verb agrees with its subject in person also. The person of the verb is the same as the person of the subject.

Example :-

I write a letter. He writes a letter.

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It may be noted in the above two sentences that I and He are singular in number but I is a first person pronoun and He is a third person pronoun and therefore the change in the verb. (iii) A verb agrees in number and person with the subject and not with a

noun nearest to it. Example : The quality of these mangoes is good (not, are good) (iv) When two or more singular subject are joined by and, they take a

plural verb. Example:- (a) Kapil and Pranshu are class-fellows. (b) The head clerk and the cashier are busy. (v) When two nouns refer to the same person, of a thing, the verb is in a singular number. (a) The principal and my teacher is coming. (b) The head clerk and cashier is busy. Please note that the article the is not written with the second noun. (vi) When two subjects joined by and express a single idea, the verb is in the singular form, as:(a) Food and shelter is our immediate demand. (b) Slow and steady wins the race. (vii) When two subjects are joined by as well as and with the verb agrees in number and person with the first subject, as:(a) The principal as well as the members of staff has arrived. (b) The principal with the members of the staff has arrived. (viii) If two subjects are joined by not only , but also, the verb agrees in number and person with the second subject. Example:- (a) Not only the teachers but also the headmaster was praised. (b) Not only the headmaster but also the teachers were praised. (ix) Please note that structures such as, each, every, either neither, and many a, always take a singular verb:Example:- (a) Every student was happy. (b) Each of them was given a prize.
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(c) Neither of the two boys is intelligent. (d) Either of these two persons is guilty. (e) Many a sailor was drowned. (x) When two nouns are joined by, either or, neither nor, the plural subject must be placed near the verb and the verb must be plural. Example:- (a) Neither the boy nor his friends, were welcomed. (b) Either Vimla or her friends are in the wrong. (xi) When two subjects of different persons are joined by neither nor, the

plural must be placed near the verb agrees in person with the subject near to it:Example:- (a) Neither I nor he is to blame. (c) Either Mohan or you are at fault. (xii) A collective noun in the singular form may take singular verb or a plural

verb as the speakers may intend,as:(a) (b) The crowd has assembled in the ground. The crowd were tear gassed.

(xiii) Note the following sentences which deserve special mention:1. Fifty miles is not a long distance in these days. 2. Six dozen cost a lot. 3. Two scores do not cost much. 4. Mathematics is my terror. 5. Politics is a dirty game. 6. This news is too good to be true. 7. Fifty rupees is not a big sum. 8. Glimpses of a word History is a famous book. Exercise (a) Correct the following sentences:1. The last innings are over. 2. Measles are a dangerous disease. 3. His hairs are white. 4. Sandeep as well as his friends are at fault.
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5. Mathematics are my interesting subjects. 6. The teacher with his students have arrived. 7. A white and black horse are grazing. 8. He has left yesterday. (b) Use the following structures in the sentences of your own:Either or, Neither- nor, as well as, every, each, either, neither, many a, not only but also. (c) Fill in the blanks with the correct tense of the verb in brackets:1. He .. since morning (read) 2. I.. for two hours. (play) 3. She her matriculation examination. (pass) 4. The patient before the doctor (die, arrive) 5. My friend.. yesterday (leave) 6. He since Monday last. (ill) 7. If you. hard, you.. (work, pass) 8. Where he at Chandigarh (stay) 9. The teacher.. us a test (give) 10. I.. on going (insist)

Some special Verb and their usage 1. Shall and will: - 1. When 'shall' is used with the first person and 'will' with the second and third person, they express simple future tense, as:a. I shall go to Delhi tomorrow. b. They will come back today. c. You will stand first this time. 2. When 'will' is used with the first person and 'shall' with the second and third persons, they express promises, threat or determination as:a. I will work hard to win the scholarship. (determination) b. I will teach him his place. (Threat) c. He shall known the consequences of the this mischief. (threat) d. You shall have a tea- party tomorrow. ( a promise)
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3. It may be noted that in interrogative sentence, 'shall' with the first and the second person and 'will' with the third person express simple future tense as:a. Will you help me in this matter? b. Shall I ever forget those happy days. May, Can:- 'May' is used to express permission, wish, purpose or possibility, as: a. May I go out, please? (permission) b. May you prosper in life! (wish) c. We work hard so that we may pass. (purpose) d. It may rain today. (Possibility) 'Can' expresses power or permission, as:a. I can walk from morning till evening (power) b. You can take home my broom. (permission) Might, Could:- these are the past tense of 'may' and 'can'. Might : a. He might win the race. (possibility) b. We work hard so that we might win scholarship. (purpose) Could: c. He tried his best but could not pass. d. Could you lend me your book? (Request) Must: It denotes compulsion, as:The students must work of pass. Need: It expresses necessity, as:a. He need not go home. b. Need I see you in this connection? This special use of 'need' is in interrogative and negative sentences. Ought to: It expresses moral obligation as:-

a. We ought to respect our teachers. b. They ought to help us. c. You ought to have written a letter to me earlier.
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"Dare"

The verb 'dare' is used in the sense of venture or courage:-

a. He dare not oppose me. b. She dare not wander about. c. I dare not speak against you. d. How dare you disobey my orders? Should and would: 'Should' and 'would' are the past forms of 'shall' and 'will' 1. 'Should also expresses meaning of its own namely duty, obligation or propriety. a. Children should obey their parents. b. You should help the poor. c. We should have reached in time. 2. "Should" is also used to express supposition, as:a. Should you meet my friend, give him my message. b. If I should meet him, I shall give him a warning. 3. After the conjunction 'lest' irrespective of the tense of the verb:a. He ran fast lest he should miss the bus. b. I work hard lest I should fail. Would:It expresses determination, obstinacy or persistence, as:-

a. I would have my own way in this matter. b. He would not work however hard I tried. c. Habitual action:Ram would daily take bath. d. Willingness:The teacher said he would help me. e. Conclusion of a condition:i. ii. If I were you I would not let him go. If you had worked hard, you would have passed.

f. Polite form of question:Would you kindly give me your book? Causative Verbs There are three causative verbs a. have b. get c. 'help'
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They show that the subject is not the doer but someone else is the doer, as:Have: 1. I must have clothes washed. 2. He had his urine tested. 3. He must have his hair cut. 4. I must have my radio repaired. 5. You must have your house whitewashed. 6. I had put the rascal in jail. Get 1. 2. 3. 4. Get yourself medically examined. Get your clothes properly stitched. Get me an interesting book. Get someone prepare tea for me.

Help 1. Help the guests come in. 2. Please help me enter the hall. 3. Will he help you find a house? Gerund: as:Singing is an art. Here the work 'Singing' is a form a of the verb (sing). It also does the work of a noun as it is the subject of the verb 'is'. Hence a gerund may be called a 'Verbal Noun'. The most popular form of the gerund ends in (ing). The form of the Gerund is the same as that of a "present Participle". They differ in their function. A Gerund is a noun. a. Swimming is a good exercise. b. Barking dogs seldom bite. In the same way an infinitive also functions as a noun. Therefore, in many sentences either an infinitive or a gerund may be used without much difference in sense. A gerund is a verbal form which often takes the place of a noun,

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1. To sing is a good hobby. 2. Singing is his hobby. 3. The teacher taught him to count. 4. The teacher taught him counting. Use of Gerund:a. Subject of the verb, as:Reading made him great. Playing became his profession b. Object of the verb, as:He loves flying. She likes swimming. c. Complement of a verb, as:Seeing is believing d. Object of a preposition, as:He aimed at winning the game. I am fond of playing hockey. What is an Adverb? An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "Iy" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb: The cat jumped quickly over the wall In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "jumped" The midwives waited patiently through a long labour. Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited. We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously. Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."
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Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today. In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.

Conjunctive Adverbs You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon. The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs: The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased . He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else. The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately. The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the stadium were opened. Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door in the basement What Is An Adjective? An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives: The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops. Mrs. Gupta papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper. The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea. The coal mines are dark and dank.
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Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music. The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots. Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives. Possessive Adjectives A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences: I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook. In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase. What is your phone number? Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. The bakery sold his favourite type of bread. In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold." After many years, she returned to her homeland. Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases. We have lost our way in this wood. In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases, In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

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Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase "their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases. The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard. In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."

Demonstrative Adjectives The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences: When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books. In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over." This apartment needs to be fumigated. Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence. Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these . In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought." Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between an interrogative adjective and an interrogative .pronoun. Interrogative Adjectives An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives): Which plants should be watered twice a week?

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Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the object of the compound verb "should be watered": What book are you reading? In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

Indefinite Adjectives An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences: Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed. The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence. I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Kalka here the indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send." They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound. In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found": The title of Harshas favorite game is "All dogs go to heaven." Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" What is a Preposition? A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples: The book is on the table. The book is beneath the table.
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The book is leaning against the table. The book is beside the table. She held the book over the table. She read the book during class. In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time. A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "basic," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," from," "in," "inside", "into" "like", "near" "of""off", "on", "onto" "out" "outside" "over" "{'past " "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without." Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition: The children climbed the mountain without fear. In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed. There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated. Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing. The spider crawled slowly along the wall. The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the " and the prepositional phrase "along the wall is as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled. The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes. Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding." The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office.

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Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers What is a Conjunction? You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example: I ate the pizza and the pasta. Call the when you are ready. Co-coordinating Conjunctions You use a co-coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions. In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a coordinating conjunction: Lilacs and violets are usually purple. In this example, the co-coordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns. This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West. In this example, the coordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses. Marias uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish. Here the co-coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends." Subordinating Conjunctions A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while." Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction: After she had learned to drive, felt more independent.

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The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive." If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday. Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time." had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed. The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed." Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs. In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because." Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs n you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both and," "either ... or," "neither ... nor,", "not only but also," "so ... as," and "whether or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a cocoordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.) Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two infinitive phrases The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub. In this example the correlative conjunction "not only ... but also" links the two noun phrases ("the school" and "neighbouring pub") which act as direct objects. Note: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs. What is an Interjection? An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations. The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
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Ouch, that hurt! Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today. Hey! Put that down! I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?" I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

Activity (Part of Speech)

The teacher will mention different words on the BB and ask the class to use them in different parts of speech e.g. 1. Above:Adj The above rule is significant Adv God line above Noun All good things come from above. 2. Fair Noun A great fair takes place at Renuka. Verb Fair the better. Adv. He bid fair to be a great scholar Adj. She is a fair lady. And so on Asking the class to identity different parts of speech in the given examples of the sentences.

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THE SENTENCE

A sentence is an ultimate unit of language after sound, alphabet, words phrase and clause. In common parlance sentence is a group of words so arranged as to make a complete sense. It is basic unit of expression (systematically) of a thought. TYPES OF SENTENCES On the basis of sense the sentences are classified into following types: 1. Assertive sentence (Statement type): The sentences that make general statements and declarations about

something and generally and with a full stop are called assertive sentences. Examples: 1. Honesty is the best policy. 2. The sun rises in the east. 3. I play cricket. 4. The students are learning rules of grammar. The exemplified sentences generally state some facts. They assert, state or declare something. Hence they are called statements, assertive sentences or declarative sentences. 2. Imperative Sentences:

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The sentences which carry a sense of advice, polite request, desire, instruction, an order or command or a proposal are called imperative sentences.

Examples: 1. Let us work together. 2. Hold on. 3. Please open the door. 4. Have mercy on me. 5. Shut up. 6. Hurry up. 3. Interrogative Sentences: A sentence which asks a questions or enquiry, generally beginning with a word like who, what, when, where and why is called in interrogative sentence. Such sentences and with a question work. Examples: 1. What is your name? 2. Where do you live? 3. Why are you crying? 4. When did you quit from this course? 5. How do you feel? 4. Exclamatory Sentences:

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The sentences which express strong emotions, sudden feelings of pity, pathos or enjoyments and surprise are called exclamatory sentences. Such sentences end with the mark of exclamation (!). Examples: 1. What an idea! 2. Alas! She is no more. 3. Hurrah! We have won the match. 4. How beautiful the sight is! The light is too beautiful!

5.

Optative Sentences: The sentences which have wish, desire, blessings on part of the speaker

are termed optative sentences. These type of sentences too end with a sign of exclamation (!) Examples: 1. May he live long! 2. Wish, I were a king! 3. God bless you! 4. May his soul rest in peace! Another category of sentence which is not generally covered under above five kinds, is called conditional sentences, as there is a condition attached for the completion of the sense, e.g. 1. If you dont work hard youll fail. 2. If I go to Shimla, Ill visit Jahkoo. 3. Had you been in the team, we would have won the match. There is a condition to the complete sense of the sentences. Examples:
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1. Identifying the sentence type. 2. Using the structure 3. Making sentence.

AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES: All the five type of sentences discussed above are in affirmative form i.e. they affirm something or state something in a positive way they can be made negative by using the words like no, not, never, when the sentence conveyed in a negative way. Examples: Affirmative He is present today. He always speaks the truth. He is fit for this job. I am both singer and a dancer.

Negative He is not present today. He never speaks the truth. He is not fit for this job. I am neither a singer nor a dancer.

Activity (Types of Sentences)

The teacher will write different sentences on the BB and ask the class to identify their types. The teacher will write the type of the sentence on the BB and then ask the class to write the sentence based on that particular type. The teacher will ask the class to frame different sentences by using same word as noun, verb or adjective etc.
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LETTER WRITING INTRODUCTION A letter is a written message of a person to another. It is the index of the personality of the writer. Letters remain very important in our day to day lives. Even in the age of internet, when it comes to the bottom line on a situation, a formal letter will almost always be necessary. A letter is a direct reflection of the person sending it. Our goal in all letter-writing, regardless of the subject, should be to keep it short, factual and to the point. Although it has been a medium of information exchange throughout the ages, yet it remains the highest kind of expression of individual emotions, sentiments and inner recess of the writer. Some of the best literature has emerged out of letters exchanged between individuals. The Discovery of India by Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru is the pertinent example. It is an anthology of letters written by Pt. Nehru to his daughter Indira Gandhi from Prison. In conclusion, we can say that letter writing is an early mode of communication amongst the literary communities exchanged through written words. QUALITIES OF GOOD LETTER:

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Letter writing is an art. It needs persistent practice and training. A good letter must be clear, brief and to the point. In it different ideas should be arranged in different paragraphs. The opening paragraph should clearly state the aim and purpose of the letter. Politeness is the hall-mark of a good letter. There should be a ring of sincerity and neutrality in letters to friends and relatives. Therefore one should keep the following points in mind to write a good letter:1. Short and to the point: Letters should be concise, factual and focused. A typical letter should not exceed one page and this letter page should generally have 350 to 450 words. 2. Focus on the Recipients Needs: The main focus of the letter should be the information requirements of the recipients. What does he/she need to know through this communication? What will be their expectations when they open the letter? 3. Use simple and appropriate language: The language of the letter should be very simple and straight forward for clarity and precision. Sentences should be short and a paragraph should not exceed 3-4 sentences. Use of technical language and acronyms should as far as be avoided. 4. Re-reading and Revision: A very careful review and revision of the first draft of a letter is very important, because sometimes reading aloud is helpful. When we actually hear the words, it is easy to tell if they sound right or not. 5. Check spellings and Grammar:
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A letter is a direct reflection of the person sending it, and by extension, the organization that person works for, so one should be very careful of spellings and grammar while writing a good letter.

Kinds of letter Letters may be divided into two kinds or classes1. 2. Informal letters or Personal or Private Letters. Formal letters or Business Letters.

1.

Informal Letters: Personal or Private Letters including letters to relative and friends and notes of invitation. These are also called Informal Letters.

2.

Formal Letters: Business letters including letters of application, official letters and letters to newspapers. These are also called Formal Letters.

Parts of a Letter Every letter has the following six parts:1) The Heading 2) The salutation, the Greeting or the Beginning. 3) The Body of the letter. 4) The subscription or the Ending. 5) The signature or the Writers name. 6) Superscription or Address on the envelop or the postcard.
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LAY-OUT OF A PERSONAL LETTER The following outline shows the parts of a letter and their proper arrangement in case of a personal letter: Heading: 405 Model Town Ambala June 16, 2011 Salutation: My dear Father Body: ... Ending: Yours affectionately. Writers Name: Aradhana Address:

Prof. K.K. Sood 153 Ashok Vihar Gurgaon 122001

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1.

The Heading: It consists of the writers address and the date on which the letter is written. These are written at the top left hand corner of the first page of the letter. The number of the residence and the name of the street or bazaar are written in the first line. The name of the town is written in the second line. The date is written below the address.

2.

The Salutation: It is the normal way of beginning a letter. It depends upon the intimacy of the writer with the person addressed to. It is written a little below the date and on the left hand side of the letter. Its first and the last begin with a capital letter.

3.

The Body of the letter: It contains the message of the letter. Write in simple, clear and correct language. Write in a natural style, thinking all the while as if you were speaking to the addressee. If the message is long, divide it into paragraphs.

4.

The Subscription: It follows immediately the body of the letter and is written on the lefthand side of the letter. It begins with a capital letter.

5.

The Name of the writer: It is written just below the subscription.

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6.

Address on the envelope or the postcard: It should be complete and neatly written. The Pin Code should be mentioned.

Points to Remember:

While, writing letters, bear in mind the following points: 1. Do not start writing a letter at once. Think of what you are write in it. Jot down your ideas and arrange them properly. 2. Be brief and to the point. A letter should not certain any unnecessary matter. 3. 4. Divide a letter into paragraphs, if it is long. Be natural in writing a letter. Imagine as if the addressee were sitting beside you and you were speaking to him. 5. 6. 7. Write neatly and legibly. Be courteous in writing. Close a personal letter with some expression of regards or affection: With kind regards, With kindest regards, With best wishes, With love and best wishes, With love and everyone at home, 8. Do not use an apostrophic ( ) before (s) in yours. going to

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9. 10.

Revise your letter and correct any mistakes that you might have made. Use short forms, e.g. dont , wont, etc. in personal letters, but not in business letters.

Lay Out of a Business (Formal) Letter The following is the layout of a business (formal) letter:Kendriya Vidyalaya Chandimandir

The Editor Hindustan Times New Delhi 110001 16 June, 2011 Dear Sir Sub:

Body of the Letter

Yours faithfully

(Jyoti Mahajan)

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190

Official Letter Format SENDERS ADDRESS REF.

RECEIVER ADD.

SALUTATION

HEADING/SUBJECT BODY OF THE LETTER

SUBSCRIPTION

SIGNATURE

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PERSONAL LETTER FORMAT

ADDRESS

DATE

SALUTATION

BODY OF THE LETTER

SUBSCRIPTION

SIGNATURE First Name Only

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Activity (Letter Writing)

Asking questions regarding different parts of official or personal letters. Giving different topics on official/personal letters and ask the class to write on those topics, changing or giving pseudonyms and addresses. Free composition on letter writing.

TELEGRAMS

INTRODUCTION Letters are written messages, but they take time to reach their destination. Urgent and immediate messages are sent through telegrams. Messages of birth, death, success, failure etc. are conveyed through telegrams. We have to pay for each and every word in the telegram. We have to pay for each and every word in the telegram. So it is a very expensive affair. Strict economy should be exercised and no word should be wasted. Maximum

message should be conveyed in minimum possible words. The message should be clear, brief, complete and to the point. In the present hi-tech world where man is making the maximum use of computers (internet, e-mail, facebook, twitters etc.) the practice of sending telegrams is not so popular. But one should know the format and procedure of this mode of communication. Sample of prescribed telegram form INDIAN POSTS AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT IN LAND TELEGRAM A. Ordinary/Express/Reply/Paid/Telegram For Office use.. . ..... B. (Space for the Name and Address of the Addressee i.e. to whom the telegram is to be sent. C. (Space for the message).. D. Note to be telegraphed (Full name and complete Address of the sender)

PARTS OF A TELEGRAM Telegram is divided into four parts, as shown in the sample diagram i.e. A,B, C, D. Each part can be elaborated as below:-

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Part A:

This part is meant for office use. We can mention the type of telegram on this, that whether it is an ordinary express or reply paid telegram. An express telegram takes less time in reaching the destination than the ordinary ones, so it costs more. In case of reply-paid telegrams we make payment even for the reply. It is sent where we dont expect a reply and response.

In a telegram we have not to write date, place and time of sending the telegram. The telegraph office does it far us in part A of the telegram and we are not required to pay for it. Part B: This part is meant for the address of the person to whom the telegram is being sent. It should be brief and complete. We have to pay for each word of the address. Pin Code should always be mentioned, which is free of cost. Part C: It is the most important part of a telegram as it bears the message and name and address of the sender. It must be brief and clear. All words must be in capital letters. Punctuation marks, articles, prepositions, salutations should be avoided. Part D: In this part the sender is required to give his full name and complete address. He is not required to pay for the words in this part as this information is not transmitted to the addressee.

EXAMPLE Draft a telegram of birthday greetings to your friend Sushma Sharma SUSHMA SHARMA 20 CHHOTA SHIMLA LOWER MALL SHIMLA 171001 MANY HAPPY RETURNS OF THE DAY Senders Full name and Address
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SURENDER

(Not to be telegraphed) Surender Sharma, 2, Green Park, Lovers Lane Solan.

Standard Greeting Phrases for Telegrams 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Happy Birthday. Many Happy Returns of the day. Heartiest Diwali greetings. Happy New Year. Merry Christmas Best wishes for your success in examination. Best wishes for your success in AIEEE Congratulations on the new arrival. Best wishes for a safe and pleasant journey. Loving greetings.

Note: The above mentioned greeting phrases are only for ready reference and should always be in capital letters.

NOTICES Introduction: A short notice is prepared to put up on the notice board to give some important information to the persons concerned. It contains more details than an advertisement. Sometimes a notice is in the form of circular. But its proper place is on the notice board. Essentials of a notice: A short notice is certainly more detailed than an advertisement. As far as possible it should be brief and to the point. No important point should be left out, but no unimportant
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point should be included in it. It should be so striking, arresting and catchy, that people can not help taking notice of it. Maximum information is to be given in minimum possible words. It should be brief and to the point. No incomplete or broken sentences should be used. Language should be clear, simple and formal. A notice should bear the signature of the issuing authority. The data should be given either at the top or at the bottom. EXAMPLE You are Manan, the Editor of Gandhi Memorial Senior Secondary School Magazine. Draft a notice for your school notice board inviting contributions for the magazine. GANDHI MEMORIAL SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL DHARMSHALA (H.P) NOTICE The students of the school are invited to handover their contributions in the form of poems, stories and articles for the school magazine Surbhi. They should be original and decent. They should reach the undersigned by 20th October, 2011 October 8, 2011 Manan Editor

LOST AND FOUND NOTICES As we know a notice is a short composition intended convey information in a comprehensive manner. It is usually an advance information about An event An Inauguration A function A programme A happening General instructions

It may also be about something that has already happened e.g. LOST AND FOUND NOTICES
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In these types of notices we have to keep the following points in mind:1. Article/Item Lost or Found. 2. Where it was Lost or Found. 3. Details regarding shape, size and colour. 4. Whom to contact. 5. When to contact 6. Reward if any.

EXAMPLE Divesh of class X lost his library book on the playground of the school. He wants to put up a notice on the School Notice Board. Draft the notice. NOTICE LOST & FOUND 3rd September, 2011 Lost a library book on the playground of the school on 2nd September, 2011 in the recess. The book is covered with a brown sheet, and is authored by R.N. Mahajan. The finder shall be suitably rewarded. Please contact.

Divesh Class X A Activity (Telegrams, Notices & Lost /Found) 198

 Asking the class to prepare a list of some important Telegram Messages of their own. Practicing the class of Telegrams and different types of notices (also on the B.B.) Asking the class to go to the telegraph office of their area and collect information (form, messages, charges per word etc.) regarding telegrams. Ask the class to prepare notices on any function programme, inauguration, or general instruction on colourful charts. Asking the class to collect different notices e.g. matrimonial, sale-purchase, name change, property etc from the English newspapers.

SOME SENTENCES OF EVERY DAY USE 1. Make the bed please. 2. Unpack the luggage. 3. Thread the needle. 4. Button up your coat. 5. Unlace your shoes and sit at ease. 6. Peel off the orange. 7. Take off your shoes. 8. Switch off/ on the light. 9. Turn off/ on the tap. 10. Keep to the left. 11. Blow out the nose. 12. Blow out the candle. 13. Wring the towel. 14. Stitch your papers/ tie your sheets. 15. Squeeze the lemon. 16. Buzz off or get away.
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17. Settle your accounts 18. Beware of pick pockets. 19. Mind your own business. 20. Pare your nails. 21. Improve your hand. 22. Show the guests in. 23. Dont park here. 24. Do not spit on the floor. 25. Iron the clothes. 26. Inflate the tyres. 27. Look sharp, or hurry up. 28. Shut up. 29. Bolt the door. 30. Strike a match 31. Lay the table. 32. Hush up this matter. 33. Remember me to your father. 34. Do not beat about the bush. 35. Come to the point. 36. Add a little more sugar. 37. Sink your differences. 38. Talk sense. 39. Cork this bottle. 40. Comb the hair. 41. Feel at home here. 42. Do not bother me. 43. Be punctual. 44. Shake hands. 45. Take care of your health. 46. Darn my coat. 47. Trust in God and do the right.
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48. Winter is in full swing. 49. Examination is round the corner. 50. Crack a joke. 51. Narrate a story. 52. It is a forged note. 53. Serve tea to all. 54. Apple is a cash crop. 55. War is inevitable. 56. Cultivate the habits of cleanliness. 57. Respect the fair sex. 58. I desire to study law. 59. Wish you all the best. 60. Finish your home work. 61. Come on time. 62. Please take out your note book. 63. Show me your home work. 64. Please stand up. 65. Please sit down. 66. Please keep quiet. 67. Raise your hand 68. Be regular. 69. Be punctual/ keep in time. 70. Stand/ sit in rows. 71. Open your book at pg no. 72. Good/ wonderful/ excellent. 73. Well done 74. God bless you. 75. Close your books. 76. Clap your hands. 77. Happy Birthday. 78. Come here.
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79. Be careful. 80. Be quick 81. Why are you late today? 82. Always speak the truth. 83. May I use your pen? 84. Where do you live? 85. This road leads to Jaipur. 86. I shall fly to New York. 87. He is a wholesaler. 88. We do not sell on credits. 89. Wheat has come down. 90. Gold has gone up. 91. I have caught cold. 92. He is hard of hearing. 93. I am feeling nervous. 94. It is very pleasant today. 95. The sky is overcast. 96. May you flourish! 97. Set the alarm at five. 98. Strike the iron when it is hot. 99. Do not lose heart 100. I am dead tired

ACTIVITY

SENTENCES FOR EVERYDAY USE The teacher will make it a daily practice in the class that the students make maximum use of the sentences among themselves, in their conversation.

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 Ask the students to prepare their own list of sentences that they feel are useful for conversation followed by discussion. Hanging colourful charts showing such sentences.

IMPORTANCE OF DICTIONARY INTRODUCTION The essence of success in life is the ability to express oneself fluently and accurately. As the great Disraeli once said, with words we govern men And the ability to speak and write fluently can only be acquired through the acquisition of a large vocabulary. The ease and precisions of expression possessed by the leaders of various businesses and professions are familiar to everyone. A large vocabulary is an important element in success. Every person who wishes to succeed in life should develop the ability to express himself fluently and accurately. This skill may be perfected only through the acquisition of large vocabulary. One needs only to note the number of people among his own

acquaintances who occupy responsible position and, although they never attended college, have a strong command in English , to illustrate the practical advantage of an effective vocabulary. Vocabulary building is a subject of universal interest and it is a field that is open to any one who desires to speak well. Some subjects may never be thoroughly mastered by some students, even with intensive study. But anyone who will devote a small amount of effort for the purpose may acquire a forceful and enviable vocabulary in a short time.
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DICTIONARY: As source of Vocabulary There is no doubt that the single most important resource students have for learning English is their dictionary. There are very few students and teachers who cannot benefit from learning how to use dictionaries effectively. There are several reasons why we should teach dictionary skills: It will give students greater control over their own learning and shift the

responsibility of learning to the student. Students need to gain the knowledge and skills to get what they can from the dictionary effectively. Dictionaries naturally generate a great deal of thinking about meaning and language. If they can use dictionary well, there will be minimal classroom disruption because teachers can rely on students to get the correct meaning. Dictionaries can provide useful support not simply when teachers are in doubt but when they want students to confirm their own suppositions about something in English. Dictionaries can serve as a focus for communication and classroom interaction. Dictionary training can help the students to explore personal preferences and learning styles and may also lead students to new mode of study. Dictionaries are not only a tool for private or individual learning problems, but they can also become a spring board to all sorts of other communicative and interactive activities. By exploiting dictionaries as a source of interaction, we can help students to develop their confidence as dictionary users and language learners.

Activity (Importance of Dictionary) Every student of the class will be given an opportunity to look for a word and its phonetic transcription in the dictionary. Students will be asked to use a word in different parts of speech such as Noun, Verb, adjectives etc., with the help of the dictionary. Acronyms- Students should be asked to look for the acronyms in the dictionary.
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MODEL LESSON PLAN Roll No. Subject Topic : : : . English Pronouns Class Duration Date : : : V 30 ... minute

General Objectives (i) To develop interest of the students in the study in English language. (ii) To enable the students to speak English correctly. (iii)To develop the vocabulary of the students. (iv) To develop students reading and writing skills. Specific Objective Teaching Aids : To teach the students the use of different kinds of pronouns. : Black-Board, chalk, duster, and showing different kinds of pronouns. pointer, a chart

Previous Knowledge Testing Expected Questions 1. What is a noun?

: To test the previous knowledge of the students the pupil-teacher will ask the following questions. Expected Answers 1. The name of anything is called noun. 2. The word used in place of a noun is called pronoun

2. What is a pronoun? 3. How many kinds of pronouns are there? Announcement of The Topic :

3. Problematic question. Finding the students unable to answer the last question, the P.T. will say, well students, today we will learn the different kinds of pronouns and their uses in sentences.

Presentation
Teaching Points There are four kinds of pronouns (i)Personal Pronouns These tell about persons speaking, persons spoken to and persons spoken about. e.g. I, my, we, our, us, you, your, yours, etc.

:
PT Activities How many kinds of pronouns are there? This book is mine. That house is yours. This car is hers. He is a fighter. We love our country Students Activities The students will listen to the P.T. carefully. They will write the sentences in their note books. They will also try to answer the questions asked by the pupils teacher. Blackboard Work Singular /Plural

Mine yours hers he our

Teaching points

Pupil Activities

teachers Students Activities

Blackboard work

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(ii) Reflective Pronouns A reflexive pronouns is formed by adding self or selves to pro-nouns. e.g. myself, ourselves, etc. (iii) Demonstrative Pronouns It points out the object to which it refers. e.g. this, that, these, those, such, same, etc. (iv)Relative Pronouns. It not only stand for a noun but also sentences such as who, whom, which, that, what whose etc.

I myself did my work He himself came there. She did herself.

myself himself herself

This is a book. These are cows. Those are my friends. I have lost the book that he gave me.

This, these, those, same, such, that.

I know the boy who stood first. This is the book that I was reading. This is the boy whom I helped.

Who, Whose, that.

Whom, which,

Recapitulation: The P.T. will ask the following questions1. 2. 3. 4. What is a pronoun? Name different kinds of pronouns Give an example of reflexive pronoun. Combine the following pairs of sentences with the help of relative pronouns. (a) The boy stood first in the class. I know him. (b) This is a girl. She sang a sweet song. Home-work : Insert the pronoun in blank spaces. 1. This book is ___________________. 2. He was sitting between you and ________________________. 3. He is wiser than______________________________________. 4. Tell me _________________________ you met yesterday.

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