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Organisation of the animal body; Transmission of messages/materials within the animal body
No. 3 - Protection No. 4 - Support & Locomotion No. 5 - Locomotion (Flight) No. 6 - Sensing the environment, Feeding; Other adaptations
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Objectives
Sources: various.
Animals protect/defend themselves by: 1. Physical means 2. Chemical means 3. Behavioural means
1. Physical Defense
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Physical Defense
1.1 Skin coating 1.2 Body Armour
1. 3. Animal Armament
Arthropod Vertebrate
1. PHYSICAL DEFENCE
Skin coating (epithelial tissue) Can be thickened for protection Secretory cells produce secretions to help with protection:
Invertebrates
Secretory cells produce cuticle or poisonous chemicals for protection Larvae of some insects produce silk for protection
Vertebrates
Skin glands produce mucus to help reduce moisture loss Some secretory cells produce poison to deter predator
BODY ARMOUR Soft-bodied animals retreat into shelter/ protective structure. E.g.: - Tubes of tube worms or keel worms - Corallite of hard coral polyp - Mollusc shells
tube worm
keel worms
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Molluscs
Thick shell of calcium carbonate Opening sealed with protective plate (operculum) carried on foot of animal Torsion in gastropods - Mantle cavity behind head - Quicker retreat for head
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WildSingapore
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These external structures and thickened shells - reduce predation success - by whom? Shell-crushing, shellcutting, drilling and aperture-intruding How else to avoid? Cf. freshwater snails
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Dimorphism and the functional basis of claw strength in six brachyuran crabs
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The crushers of the three molluscivorous xanthids consistently proved to be morphologically 'strong,' Ocypode quadrata exhibited an extreme dimorphism - suggesting that factors unrelated to a speedstrength dichotomy (e.g. sexual selection) have shaped dimorphism of that species. Claws of crabs specialising on heavily-armoured molluscan prey have claws that are slower but more powerful. Complex shell opening behaviour or specialised claw morphology can sometimes compensate for limited crushing power.
http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261+defence
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Fish - jaws or pharyngeal teeth of wrasses (Labridae), damselsh (Pomacentridae), parrotsh (Scaridae) and the surf- perches (Embiotocidae).
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Herichthys minckleyi,
Trophically polymorphic
Cuatro Cinegas Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
Lower pharyngeal jaw with papilliform teeth, specialised to shred plants (Hulsey, 2006)
Mexipyrgus churinceanus
Lower pharyngeal jaw with molariform teeth, specialised to crush molluscs (Hulsey, 2006).
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Schematic drawings of the pharyngeal jaws and associated branchial musculature in the molluscivores P. cromis (left) and its non-durophagous relative, S. ocellatus (right)
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Integument forms protective layers in arthropods Chitinous exoskeleton, fused or jointed with thin, exible joints Plus calcium carbonate in crustaceans Any problems associated with nonliving exoskeleton?
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Vertebrate Integument
Integument serves a protective function in all vertebrates: is the largest surface area for any organ. Same structure in all groups:
Epidermis (skin, ve layers): closely packed cells with little intercellular material. Barrier to chemical, radiation or microbial attack. Dermis (two layers), thicker and tougher, mainly extracellular material manufactured by scattered cells. Physical protection a major function. Hypodermis (subcutaneous fat storage)
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Fish Mucous (Agnatha); denticles (Chondrichthys); scales (Osteichthys), no keratin Amphibians - naked skin (thin keratinised layer); mucous secretions Stratum corneum become thick, lack glands! Reptiles keratinised scales, scutes, plaques, beaks; is renewed. Crocs/alligators have dermal bones; Turtles: growing shell Birds feathers Mammals hair/fur
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FISH scales How else can scales confer protection besides as armour? Cartilaginous sh (sharks, Most bony sh have overlapping scales (ctenoid or cycloid). rays) have placoid scales.
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REPTILES scales How else can scales confer protection besides as armour?
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BIRDS - feathers Evolved from reptilian scales. Epidermal structures. Moulted. How do feathers confer protection?
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http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/polar-bear.html
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French pachyderme, from New Latin *Pachyderma, sing. of Pachydermata, obsolete order name, from Greek pakhudermos, thick-skinned : pakhus, thick + derma, skin;
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Mathew Grimm/Flickr
MAMMALS: Armadillos
Bony plates develop in skin and covered with horny scutes. Plates arranged in rings around body. Complemented by behaviour and design of rolling into a MAMMALS: Pangolins. ball (sphere) for protection. Scales are actually hairs fused tightly together. Complemented by behaviour and design of rolling into a ball (sphere) for protection.
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Canines in ungulates?
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SPINES
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The burning sensation from contact with urchin spines suggest the incidence of envenomation. But the venom is usually mild and mechanical injury appears to be more serious except for particularly highly venomous species. The pedicillaria sting would require close contact to take effect so can be differentiated during diagnosis (in areas where such injuries are common).
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http://www.mare.hawaii.edu/urchins/hawaiianurchins/echinothrix-calamaris.htm
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From: Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals: A Medical and Biological Handbook, by John A. Williamson, Peter J. Fenner, Joseph W. Burnett, Jacqueline Rifkin. UNSW Press, 1996.
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HORNS
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Horns are mostly found in Bovidae (cloven-hoofed ruminants: cattle, goat, sheep, antelope, buffalo, wildebeest, etc.) Horns are permanent, unbranched and made of keratin sheath over a living, bony core. Usually absent in females of smaller species, why? What is rhino horn?
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CLAWS
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TEETH, BEAKS
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Tusks are long canine teeth Chinese water deer The Latin name (Hydropotes inermis
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ELECTRICITY Specialised organs generate electric current Modied muscle cells (electrocytes) arranged in layers
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2. Chemical Defense
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2. Chemical Defense
Venom spines and stings (some seaurchin, scorpions, sh, platypus; some insects) Venom fangs (some snakes, centipedes, spiders) Chemical secretions/sprays (some insects; some mammals; sea cucumbers; cephalopods)
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2. Chemical Defense
Bristles (reworms, some caterpillars) Stinging cells (cnidarians) Poison/distasteful chemicals (puffer sh, some arthropods, nudibranchs, some amphibians) Mucus production (corals, hagshes)
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Oral poisonspoisonous when eaten; believed to be small molecules. Parenteral poisons (=venoms)produced by a specialized poison gland and administered by a mechanical venom apparatus; large molecules, usually a protein. (*parenteral - other than mouth and alimentary canal=enteral / enteron=intenstine) Crinotoxinsproduced by a specialized poison gland and released into the environment, usually by means of a pore.
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Sea urchin
Platypuses are one of the very few mammals which are venomous (the others are some species of shrews)
Wasp
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Chemical secretions/sprays
bombardier beetle
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Stinging cells
Cnidocyte
Lid
Nematocyst (not discharged) Cnidocil (trigger) Thread All cnidarians have cnidocytes that use water pressure to shoot out a harpoon-like nematocyst whenever they are triggered.
Nematocyst (discharged)
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Nudibranchs
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Galaxea fascicularis Galaxea fascicularis sweeper tentacles stretched towards Alveopora colony
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Poison/distasteful chemicals
- In conjunction with aposematic colouration (warning colouration)
Nudibranchs Reef crabs
Poison dart frogs = poison arrow frogs Family Dendrobatidae, native to Central and South America diurnal, aposematic colouration lipophilic alkaloids bioaccumulated from insect prey
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Epipedobates tricolor poison = epibetadine analgesic (200x morphine), appears to have similar effect as nicotine.
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3. Other methods
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3.1 Avoid detection Camouage (form and colour): disruptive, mimetic, countershading False eye/head Rear attack Frontal attack
3.2 Avoid attack = warning Warning colouration (aposematic colouration) Mimicry Puff up size 3.3 Avoid consumption = distraction Autotomy; Puff up size 3.4 Avoid capture = evasion Run/swim/y away Hide
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a. Mimetic camouage
Stick insects mimic plant parts (owers, leaves, twigs) in both form and colour
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Stick Insect
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b. Background matching
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http://ickr.com/photos/paperglyphs/ 2315279189/
Kelley Kuhlman
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http://ickr.com/photos/ alex_and_terhi/2178306820/
Alexander Yates
http://ickr.com/photos/ 69919391@N00/2778741446/?
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Rodrigo Sala
http://ickr.com/photos/ rodrigosala/2459314107/
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William Dalton
http://ickr.com/photos/ bovinacowboy/469864374/
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c. Countershading
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Common in nekton; in many shes, whales and squid. (also terrestrial animals; warships; background matching) Darker green or blue pigmentation on dorsal surface.
Viewed from above, the pigmented upper surfaces blend with the darker background below. Viewed from below, difcult to distinguish from ambient light coming from the sea surface above.
Protection against predators. Sudden ash of silver sh bellies or dark backs possible alert signals.
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Countershading in ungulates?
Stoner et al (2003) compared 200 species of artiodactyls: colour, behaviour, ecology Lightening of coat colour - if exposed to bright winter conditions Striped coats - hiding young, adults that live in light forests Countershading - desert animals, no clear evidence otherwise
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Nathan Messer
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Owl Butteries
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Charlie J
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Gaylon Keeling
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Joelle Johnson
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http://www.freshbrainz.com/2007/12/outdoor-modelphotography.html
Auto-mimicry?
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Guardian, 2009
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However, there are limits to how head-like the tail can be made to look. ... the tail's adaptation involves a trade-off between looking like a head and being good for swimming. The tail has to be slightly attened to allow it to act like a paddle which reduces its resemblance to the head. But the head-like way the tail twists about when the snake is foraging in a crack might make up for this.
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The "thick-tailed sea snake" another snake with the appearance of two heads. Photograph: Arne Rasmussen/PA
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Lyssa zampa
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a. Aggressive Mimicry
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Cuttlesh or octopus can change body colouration and apparent texture to match the background Mimic octopus can also alter its shape to resemble other marine animals
Thaumoctopus mimicus
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http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=260
Norman MD, Finn J, Tregenza T (2001) Dynamic mimicry in an IndoMalayan octopus. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 268(1478):1755-1758.
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Mimic octopus and lionsh or sea snake Scarlet king snake and eastern coral snake Monarch buttery and Viceroy buttery? Economy?
http://marinebio.org/ species.asp?id=260
Mllerian mimicry
Harmful species resembling one another (rare one a mimic?)
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Classic example of Batesian mimicry by inference Monarch caterpillar feeds on poisonous milkweed leaves; Viceroy caterpillar feeds on non-poisonous willow and poplar leaves Until 1991, when studies suggested that Viceroy buttery is also distasteful to predators (birds) May therefore be an example of Mllerian mimicry instead
Monarch buttery
Viceroy buttery
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Natural selection should favour even poor mimics where their model is common, but only good mimics where their model is rare.
Harper, Jr, G. R. & D. W. Pfennig , 2007. Mimicry on the edge: why do mimics vary in resemblance to their model in different parts of their geographical range? Proc. R. Soc. B., 274: 1955-1961 107
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More deadly animal mimics less deadly! Harmful not deadly in order to train?
E.g. milk snake (safe) and coral snake (deadly) mimic False coral snake (moderately toxic)
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Puffer sh
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Behavioural defense
Form partnerships (symbiosis) Play dead Living in groups
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Symbiotic partnerships
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Playing dead
Grass snake
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The experimental analysis of defensive behavior has identied three strategies of defense that are shared by different animal species, triggered by three situations: potential predatory threat - cautious exploration of the environment for risk assessment distal predatory threat - oriented escape or behavioral inhibition, proximal predatory threat - disorganized ight or complete immobility
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Anxiety disorders
Potential predatory threat - cautious exploration of the environment for risk assessment Associated emotion: anxiety Pathology: Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
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Anxiety disorders
Distal predatory threat - oriented escape or behavioral inhibition, associated emotion: normal fear pathology: Specic Phobias Proximal predatory threat - disorganized ight or complete immobility associated emotion: dread pathology: Panic Disorder.
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Protection/Defence
General strategies an animal adopts when threatened:
Hold position (need protective or offensive weapons) Give warning/threat that you are dangerous Evasive action (run, hide, ee, escape detection, play dead)
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Hierarchy of antipredatory defense level Blanchard and Blanchard (1988) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Risk assessment, Escape, Tense immobility, Defensive threat, Defensive attack.
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