Anatomy Review 1. Proteins are denatured when hydrogen bonds are broken, which is irreversible.

Hydrogen bonds begin to break when the pH level drops or the temperature rises above normal, causing protein to unfold and lose their specific 3D and this is the condition in which a protein is said to be destroyed. 2. The 3 groups of Carbohydrates are Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that are single-chained structures that include Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen atoms. Their function in the body is to be broken down to be used for energy; since they are simple sugars the body breaks these down the most. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. This is when a water molecule is lost while the bond is made. They are double sugars and are broken down to use for energy. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides held together by dehydration synthesis. They are fairly large with means they cannot pass through cell membranes as simple sugars can and they are stored for later hydrolysis to obtain energy. The 4 groups of Lipids are Neutral Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids, and Eicosanoids. Neutral Fats are the bodys most concentrated source of usable energy fuel and when oxidized, yield large amounts of energy. Also used as insulator and can protect the muscles from mechanical injuries. Phospholipids are chief components of cell membranes and may participate in the transport of lipids in the plasma. Steroids are important to maintain homeostasis; they produce sex hormones and corticosteroids. Eicosanoids stimulate uterus contractions, regulate blood pressure, and are involved in clotting blood and inflammation. 3. In a cell the concentration of K is 10 to 2o times higher than the Na outside the cell. The pump drives Na out of the cell against a gradient and at the same time pulls K into the cell, demonstrating primary transport. Primary transport is when energy is provided directly by the hydrolysis of ATP. Secondary transport is transport driven indirectly by passive ion gradients. By moving Na across the membrane the pump stores energy in the ion gradient. As the sodium diffuses back into the cell with the help of a carrier protein other substances are cotransported by the carrier proteins, demonstrating Secondary cotransport. 4. Epithelial Both Connective - Functions: absorption, - Functions: protection - Functions: bonding, support, filtration, excretion, - Many types of tissues in each insulation, transportation secretion, sensory reception. category - all connective tissues arise from - Composed of closely - two laminae form the basement the same embryonic tissue packed cells membrane when epithelial tissue is - Some types are highly - Free top layer of cells and lying on top of connective tissue vascularized while others arent attached basal layer of cells - Cellular matrix: largely composed - Multiply layers of different of non-living material- provides types of epithelial stacked strength and support on top of each other - Supplied by nerve fibers, but lack blood vessels 5. There are two groups of layers of the skin, and these are the Epidermis and the Dermis. The Epidermis is made of 5 layers; all of which are composed of epithelial cells. The most superficial layer is the Stratum Corneum, which is composed of dead shingle-like cells. This layer protects skin against abrasion and punctures, and is also waterproof. The layer beneath that is the Stratum Lucidum which is only present in thick skin. The main function is to be water proof and this layer contains flattened keratinocytes. The layer beneath that is the Stratum Granulosum; this is the layer that cells start to die off due to lack of nourishment. It contains 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes. Also contains keratinohyaline granules, and lammellated granules which contain lipid for waterproofing. The next layer is the Stratum Spinosum which is the bulk of the Epidermis. This layer contains a bundle of tension filaments made of prekeration and an abundance of melanin granules and Langerhans cells. The bottom layer is called the

Stratum Basale. This is the layer that lies next to the Dermis and contains the cells undergoing mitosis. It is also 10-25% melanocytes. The Dermis is composed of 2 layers. The Papillary layer is right below the Epidermis and is made of thin aereolar tissue. There are many blood vessels in this layer, as well as Meissners corpuscles (touch receptors) and dermal papillae (produces fingerprints). The layer beneath that is the Reticular layer. This is 80% of the dermis and is made of dense irregular tissue, which maintains the hydration of the skin. In the layer are many blood vessels, glands, collagen fibers, and Pacinian receptors (deep pressure receptors). 6. The gross anatomy of a long bone: Diaphysis- shaft that constitutes the long axis of the bone that is compact bone, the Epiphysis- ends of the bone that is spongy bone, epiphyseal plate: plate of hyaline cartilage at the junction of the diaphysis and the epiphysis that provides for growth and the lengthening of the bone, peristeum: double-layered connective tissue that covers and nourishes the bone, endosteum: connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surfaces, and medullary cavity: contains fat. 7. For the attachment of the arm and leg bones a. All of the bones in the arm and hand are: phalanges, metacarpals, carpals, Radius, ulna, and humerus. The phalanges connect with the metacarpals at a joint called the knuckle or the synovial hinge. The functional type is Diarthrotic: biaxial, flexion. The metacarpals attach to the carpals in a joint called the synovial plane. The movement is Diarthrotic: gliding. The Carpals attach to the radius in a joint called the synovial condyloid and the functional type is Diarthrotic: biaxial, flexion, extension. The radius and ulna attach in a joint called the synovial pivot and the function is Diarthrotic: uniaxial, rotation. The ulna, radius, and humerus all attach in a joint called the synovial hinge, also known as the elbow. The function is Diarthrotic: uniaxial, flexion, extension. The humerus attaches into the scapula in a joint called the synovial ball and socket, also known as the shoulder. The function is Diarthrotic: multiaxial, flexion, extension, adduction, abduction. b. All of the bones in the leg and foot are: phalanges, metatarsals, tarsals, tibia, fibula, patella, and femur. The phalanges connect with the metatarsals in a joint called the synovial condyloid. The function is Diarthrotic: gliding. The metatarsals attach to the tarsals in a joint called synovial plane and the function is Diarthrotic: gliding. The tarsals attach to the Tibia and Fibula in a joint called synovial hinge and the function is Diarthrotic: uniaxial, flexion, extension. The tibia and fibula connect distally in a joint called the fibrous syndesmosis and the function is Synarthrotic: slight movement during dosriflexion. The tibia and fibula connect proximally in a joint called the synovial plane and the function is Diarthrotic: gliding. The femur and patella connect in a joint known as synovial plane and the function is Diarthrotic: gliding. The femur and the tibia connect in a joint called the synovial modified hinge and the function is Diarthrotic: biaxial, flexion, extension, some rotation allowed. The femur attaches to the coxal bone in a joint called the synovial ball and socket and the function is Diarthrotic: multiaxial, flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation. 8. The Sliding Filament Theory is an explanation of how the muscle contracts since the thin and thick filaments do not shorten. Thin filaments are composed of tropinin which contains tropmyosin which is a complex that covers the binding sites on the actin for the myosin. Myosin filaments have heads that bind to the actin when the TTC moves out of the way. Calcium is required to move the TTC out of the way so that myosin heads can form cross bridges. After the myosin heads have formed cross bridges they do a power stroke which is when the thin filament is pulled toward the center of the sarcomere by thick filament. During cross bridge detachment ATP binds to myosin heads and the cross bridge releases. The cocking of the myosin head is when ATP is hydrolyzed to release energy and the energy is used to reposition the heads for the next site of thin filament. Muscles need to be stimulated by a nerve to contract. So a neurotransmitter is released upon the arrival of a nerve impulse, and a neurotransmitter is a chemical, specifically acetylcholine for skeletal muscles. The neurotransmitter then attaches to the receptors on the sarcolemma and the sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium. In a polarized state the sarcolemma has a greater concentration of sodium on the outside and a greater concentration of potassium on the inside of the sarcolemma. When the neurotransmitter bonds with the receptors on the

sarcolemma then a wave of Na floods into the cell in a process known as depolarization. The exchange of ions institutes change throughout the whole cell. To repolarize the cell K ruches out through the sarcolemma and the sodium potassium pump restores the original configuration. 9. Areas of the cerebral cortex a. Motor areas are: i. Primary motor cortex-sends impulses to skeletal muscles ii. Premotor cortex- learned skills when repeated iii. Brocas area- motor speech directs muscles of tongue, throat, lips iv. Frontal eye field- voluntary movement of eyes b. Sensory areas: i. Primary somatosensory cortex from skin (touch, pain, etc) also spatial discrimination ii. Somatosensory association area- understanding what is being felt iii. Primary visual cortex- vision iv. Visual association area- interprets what is being seen v. Gustatory area- taste vi. Primary auditory cortex- pitch, rhythm vii. Auditory association area- hearing, memory of sounds viii. Olfactory area- odor ix. Vestibular cortex- equilibrium, awareness of position of head in space c. association areas: i. prefrontal cortex- intellect, learning abilities ii. (next 4 Language region) wernicks area- sounding out unfamiliar words iii. Lateral prefrontal cortex- comprehension word analysis iv. Parts of temporal lobe- naming objects, reading v. Brocas- motor speech vi. General interpretation area- integrates signals from all areas into a single thought vii. Visceral association area- conscious perception of organ sensation (stomach ache) 10. Reflex arcs have 5 essential components: receptor- site of the stimulus action, sensory neuron- transmits afferent impulses to the CNS, integration center- synapse between the sensory neuron and motor neuron, motor neuron- conducts efferent impulses from integration center to an effector organ, effector- muscle fiber or gland cell that responds to the efferent impulses. Somatic reflexes activate skeletal muscle while autonomic reflexes activate visceral effectors. 11. Major endocrine glands: a. Pituitary- secretes many hormones vital to body functions b. Thyroid- stimulates enzymes concerned with glucose oxidation c. Parathyroid- releases hormone that controls the calcium level in blood d. Adrenal- releases hormones the help us deal with stressful situations e. Pineal- secretes melatonin which regulates the sleep-wake cycle f. Thymus- development of T cells and the immune response 12. Erythropoiesis begins when a myeloid stem cells is transformed into a proerythroblast. Proerythroblasts give rise to early erythroblasts that serve as ribosome producing factories. Hemoglobin synthesis occurs as an early erythroblast is transformed into a late erythroblast and then a normoblast. The cytoplasm changes as the ribosomes are become masked by the hemoglobin. When the normoblast accumulates hemoglobin in a concentration of about 34% its nuclear functions end and the nucleus degenerates and is ejected causing the cell to collapse inward and assume the biconcave shape. The result is a reticulocyte which enters the bloodstream to begin task of oxygen transport. Erythropoiesis is a negative feedback mechanism because the process only happens when the body detects inadequate oxygen traveling in the kidney cells. 13. The first path that we will be taking is through the pulmonary circuit. The purpose of this path is to discard the CO2 in our blood cells and pick up O2. We are starting in the Right atrium of the heart which receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava. We then pass through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve has 3 flaps that prevent the backflow of blood

from the right ventricle into the right atrium. The right ventricle is where the blood is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve. The pulmonary semilunar valve prevents the back flow of blood from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle. From the pulmonary trunk we branch of into either the right of left pulmonary arteries. The arteries purpose is to carry blood away from the heart. From the arteries we go to the arterioles which are smaller and thinner arteries. From the arteries we go to the capillary bed of the lungs where we unload CO2 and load O2. From the capillary beds of the lungs we go to the venules (smaller thinner veins) and to the veins which carry blood back to the heart. The veins turn into the pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. Now we are on the Systemic circuit and the purpose of this path is to deliver O2 to the body and pick up CO2. From the left atrium we pass through the Bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. The bicuspid valve prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium. The left ventricle is where the blood stays before being pumped through the aortic semilunar valve, which prevents the backflow of blood into the left ventricle. From there we enter the aortic trunk and then the aorta from where we go into the arteries which carries blood away from the body. Then we enter arterioles and then the capillary beds of the body tissues which is where we unload O2 and load CO2. Then we go back from the capillary beds into venules and then veins that carry blood back into either the superior or inferior vena cava and back into the right atrium of the heart. 14. Ideal gas law states that when temperature is constant then the pressure will indirectly relate to the volume. When the lungs expand then the volume increases thereby decreasing the pressure inside the lungs which causes air to rush into the lungs. As the lungs decrease the volume decreases causing the pressure to increase. The pressure outside of the body will be less than the pressure inside the lungs causes the air to rush out of the lungs. Daltons law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas in the mixture. Henrys law states that each gas will dissolve in a liquid proportional to its partial pressure. During inspiration the lungs expand forcing gases to come into the lungs and fill into the alveoli. The three main gases present are oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. While Nitrogen is most present in the atmosphere, its solubility in liquid is so low that it does not dissolve into our blood. Oxygen is the second most dominant gas in the atmosphere and it is soluble enough to be in our blood. During equilibrium, gases will exchange out of blood and into blood to balance the gases according to Henrys law. Since there is more oxygen in the gas in the alveoli but more carbon dioxide in the blood, the CO2 and O2 exchange to achieve a balanced proportion. The gas with the CO2 then is exhaled and the O2 attaches to the red blood cells and is carried throughout the body. 15. The first place that the biscuit will go will be in the oral cavity, or the mouth. In this part of the digestive system the good will be chewed up and mixed with saliva by the tongue. The saliva is produced by the salivary glands inside the mouth. The saliva dissolves chemicals and carbohydrates so that the food can be tasted. The food also turns into a term called the bolus. The tongue then initiates swallowing and the food travels down the esophagus where the bolus is separated into parts. There are no digestive processes in the esophagus. The bolus then passes through the gastroesophageal sphincter, which prevents stomach acid from reaching the esophagus. In the stomach the food is segmented, which is the churning of the food. The chemical breakdown of protein begins in the stomach; this is with the chemical pepsin. After the food is churned it is called chyme, which is then delivered into the small intestine. In the small intestine most of the absorption happens. Many enzymes are mixed into the chyme; these enzymes are produced by the intestinal cells and the pancreas. The specific enzymes are Trypsin, Pancreatic amylase, lipase, nuclease which are produced by the pancreas; Dipeptidase, maltase, and carboxypeptidase which are produced by intestinal cells. Bile also enters here from the gallbladder, which helps to breakdown carbs, lipids, and proteins. The chyme then moves into the large intestine where the water is absorbed into the body and then the rectum eliminates feces from the body. 16. Urine formation begins with glomerular filtration which is mostly a passive act where fluids and solutes are forced through a membrane by hydrostatic pressure. The high pressure makes the glomerular filtration more effective than other capillary beds. The filtration allows water, glucose, amino acids and nitrogenous wastes to pass freely from the blood into the renal tubule. Most of the tubule contents are reabsorbed by the peritubular capillaries and placed in the blood in a process called tubular reabsorption.

As soon as the filtrate enters the proximal tubules, organic nutrients such as glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed. Some materials then move from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubule, such as hydrogen and potassium ions. Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter to be sent to the bladder and expelled from the body, known as tubular secretion. 17. Spermatogensis takes place in the seminiferous tubules from about 64 to 72 days. Spermatogonia before puberty undergo rapid mitosis and build up a stem cell line. During puberty FSH modifies division which results in a primary spermatocyte. These undergo meiosis and then haploid spermatids are produced. Spermiogenisis is when late spermatids are produced. These spermatids have a head with DNA, a midpiece and a tail. Mature sperm cells result after maturing of spermatids. 18. The ovarian cycle is the monthly maturation of an egg. There are two phases, the follicular phase and the luteal phase. The follicular phase involves the maturation of a primordial follicle. Follicular cells proliferate until they form a stratified epithelium around the oocyte, which is called a granulosa cell. The granulose cell then sends signals telling the developing oocyte to grow. Then a fluid-filled cavity called an antrum continues to expand until it isolates the oocyte along with the capsule of granulose cells called a corona radiata. The primary oocyte then completes meiosis to form the second oocyte and first polar body. Ovulation occurs when the ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte into the peritoneal cavity. The luteal phase then occurs where the ruptures follicle collapses and the antrum fills with clotted blood. This corpus hemorrhagicum is eventually reabsorbed. 19. The uterine cycle is the cyclic changing of the endometrium which is regulated by the cyclic production of estrogen and progesterone. Menses is the functional layer of the endometrium that is expelled from the body over a course of 1 to 5 days; which is also days 1-5 called the menstrual cycle. Days 6-14 is the proliferative phase where the endometrium rebuilds itself under the influence of rising blood levels of estrogen. Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this phase. Days 15-28 are the Secretory phase when the endometrium prepares for the implantation of an embryo.