I.

Birth of Moral Universalism in Europe typically associated in the writings of Aristotle and Stoics.

(a) Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle unambiguously expounds an argument in support of the existence of a natural moral order (b) Roman stoics, Cicero and Seneca, shared the basic idea expressed in the Nicomechean Ethics. (c) who argued that morality originated in the rational will of God and the existence of a cosmic city from which one could discern a natural, moral law whose authority transcended all local legal codes. (d) The belief in the existence of a universal moral community was maintained in Europe by Christianity over the ensuing centuries. (e) contemporary idea of human rights most clearly emerges during the 17th. And 18th. Centuries in Europe and the so-called doctrine of natural law. II. the 17th. Century philosopher John Locke and, in particular, the argument he outlined in his Two Treatises of Government (1688).

Analyses of the historical predecessors of the contemporary theory of human rights typically accord a high degree of importance to Lockes contribution. Certainly, Locke provided the precedent of establishing legitimate political authority upon a rights foundation. This is an undeniably essential component of human rights. However, the philosophically adequate completion of theoretical basis of human rights requires an account of moral reasoning, that is both consistent with the concept of rights, but which does not necessarily require an appeal to the authority of some super-human entity in justifying human beings claims to certain, fundamental rights. III. The 18th. Century German philosopher, Immanuel Kant provides such an account. Foremost amongst these are the ideals of equality and the moral autonomy of rational human beings. Kant bestows upon contemporary human rights theory the ideal of a potentially universal community of rational individuals autonomously determining the moral principles for securing the conditions for equality and autonomy. the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Assemblys Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Similarly, the concept of individual rights continued to resound throughout the 19th. Century exemplified by Mary Wollstencrafts Vindication of the Rights of Women and other political movements to extend political suffrage to sections of society who had been denied the possession of political and civil rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10th. December 1948 and was explicitly motivated to prevent the future occurrence of any similar atrocities. The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1953) the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). James Nickel ( 1987: 8-10) identifies three specific ways in which the contemporary concept of human rights differs from, and goes beyond that of natural rights.

IV. V.

VI.

VII. VIII. IX.

by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and perpetuated by, most importantly, the European Convention on Human Rights (1954) and the International Covenant on Civil and Economic Rights (1966).