MINIATURE PLANT

Description of Miniature Plant:

It is a Plant having one sided operation. It does not produce anything. It is only a closed circuit Plant. It has five major parts. This Plant involves

Parts of Miniature Plant:

This is a Plant consisting on five (5) major parts which are as under: Ammonia Circulation Section Steam generation Section Cooling Tower Section Instrument Air Compressing Section Piping Model

1. Ammonia Circulation Section:

Circulation of Ammonia in Miniature Plant consist of Steam Generation Section, Cooling Tower Section, anti-pollution section, instrument air compressor and blow down tank. Reaction taking place in Ammonia Circulation Section is as under: NH3 + H2O NH4OH (exothermic reaction)

First of all NH3 Gas comes from the cylinders. It is then entered into the absorber which is filled with up to 60% water. This water comes from upper side of the tank from packing. This gas makes a solution with water which is known as Ammonical solution. This solution passes through a feed pump. In this pump it is pressurized up to 3kg/cm2. After getting the pressure it is sent to a high pressure pump where it is again pressurized up to 50kg/cm2. Then it is sent to a High pressure vessel where Nitrogen (N2) is also injected through a inlet of the cylinder. From this section high pressure ammonical solution is sent to the Stripping Tower. The reaction taking place in stripping tower is as under: NH4OH NH3 + H2O

Circulation of Ammonical Solution:

Where its pressure lowers up to 3kg/cm2, due to low pressure expansion of gases takes place and NH3 evolves from the Ammonical Solution of it with water. This evolved ammonia is returned towards the absorption unit. To low down the temperature of the vessel cool water is introduced from the bottom of the vessel where it is used and then sent to the cooling tower

for its reprocessing. Because of the stripping of the NH3 gas from the stripping section the remaining solution becomes very weak ammonical solution which goes to the water cooler, where it is cooled with the cool water coming from the cooling water section. After the cooling of this weak ammonical solution it goes to the NH3 absorber. This cooled ammonical solution is sprayed at its top. Now NH3 gas and N2 coming from the top of the stripping tower is injected from the bottom of the absorber tank. In case of incomplete absorption of NH3 gas then this is sent to antipollution section where it is converted into N2 gas and sent into air. As NH3 is so much injurious to health so thats why it is not discharged in the air. In short this section is used for the safe and healthy circulation of Ammonia and its solution.

Stripper

Diagram:
Packing Beds D.W

H.P.V

C.W H.P .P NH
3

Feed Pump Ammonia Tank

2. Steam Generation Section (Boiler):

A close tank in which water is converted into Steam under high pressure is known as Boiler.

Types of Boiler:
There are two major types of boiler which are (a) (b) Fire Tube Boiler Water Tube Boiler

as under:

(a). Fire Tube Boiler:

Fire tube boilers are low pressure, low capacity units used mainly in small Plants. A fire Tube boiler consists of a large steel cylinder (shell) that contains a rest of small diameter steel tubes. Hot Combustion gases pass through the tubes and transfer heat to the water in the shell.

(b). Water Tube Boiler:

A water tube boiler is a boiler in which water circulates in the tubes. This boiler differs from fire tube boiler in the location of water and gas flow. The water circulates through the tubes and the hot combustion gases known as flue gases flow through the furnace. The hot gases contact the tubes and transfer heat to the water. The cross sectional area of water tubes is much smaller than that the shell of five tubes boiler. Thus water tubes boiler can handle higher steam pressure and temperature than fire tube boiler.

When the fuel burns in the boiler following reactions take place: C S 2H + O2 + O2 + O2 CO2 SO2 2H2O

(These reactions are of Complete Combustion of fuel. These gases are shifted towards stack)

Incomplete Combustion:
Incomplete combustion of fuel causes due to the insufficient amount of air for fuel to burn. 2C + O2 2CO

Fuel is wasted due to incomplete combustion.

Difference between Fire and Water Tube Boiler:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fire tube Boiler Occupies less space than water tube boiler. Fire tube Boiler is less costly to purchase and install. Water tube boiler is more efficient than Fire tube boiler. Water tube boiler is much safe than Fire tube boiler. Explosion danger is more in water tube boiler because pressure is exerted on small diameter tubes rather than on a large shell.

Boiler Characteristics:

Capacity refers to the steam or heat output of a boiler. The term used to express capacity depends on the size of the boiler. Boiler manufacture indicates the capacities of medium and large boilers in pounds of steam per hour (at a specified temperature and pressure). Capacity of small boilers is expand in term of total square feet of heating. One boiler horse power equals to a heat output of 33475 Btu/hr. If a boiler

Capacity:

produces more steam than the rated capacity can be given as percentage of rating percentage equals the actual capacity divided by rated capacity.

A boiler is classified by the pressure at which it operates. Fire tube boilers pressure generally ranges between 50-250 Psi.Water tube boiler pressures can be as high as 5000 Psi. Duty is the steam demand made on a boiler by the heating process. The duty required of a boiler determines the load it carries according to design capacity. A boiler can operate at minimum normal or maximum load. The devices increase the capacity and efficiency of a boiler by recovering heat from flue gases. An economizer to a nest of small tubes placed at the flue gases outlet of the boiler. Feed water at low temperature of the boiler flows through the tubes and gases and absorb heat from the hot gases passing around the outside of the tubes. Thus an economizer lowers steam cost because less fuel is needed to heat feed water to its boiling point. An air pre heater uses the heat from the flue gases to warm incoming air that will support combustion. A pre heater is usually placed between the economizer at the stack.

Pressure:

Duty:

Economizers and Preheaters:

Why Steam is Ideal for Carrying Heat Energy:

In heating water it takes 1 Kilocalorie to rise the temperature of 1 kg of water through it. It takes an additional of 539 kilocalorie to change 1 kg of water to steam. This amount of heat is then stored in the steam. When steam condenses the heat energy is given off. Water is also used to carry heat energy because of following reasons: 1. It is easily available. 2. It is cheaper. 3. It has an ideal behavior. 4. It is found on earth in every state. 5.

Sensible Heat:
The heat required to bring change in water is known as Sensible heat.

Latent Heat:

The heat which does not rise the temperature but bring a change in the state of water is known as Latent Heat.

Causes of Heat Loss:

Causes of heat loss are as under: 1. Scaling 2. Radiation 3. Decrease in diameter of tubes. 4. Presence of Salts in water

Water Treatment for Boiling:

A boiler requires a supply of purified feed water to produce the high quality steam. The source is usually natural water from rivers. Water is an active solvent which means it collects dissolve substances. Natural water therefore contains suspended solids dissolved gases such as H2, O2, H2S and NH3.

Scaling:
The impurities in water which it contains cause corrosion and stop the boiler efficiency to work properly. It causes due to dissolved salts in water. Scaling is due to following factors: 1. Process with untreated water. 2. Incomplete Composition due to imbalance ratio of fuel and air. 3. No preheat of air. 4. Overheating which melts the tubes of boiler.

Temporary Hardness:
Presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium causes the hardness of water which is known as temporary hardness. It can be removed by heating the hard water. Ca (HCO3) Mg (HCO3) CaCO3 MgCO3 + + H2O + CO2 H2O + CO2

Permanent Hardness:
Presence of chlorides and sulphates of Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) causes the permanent hardness of under processed water. This hardness can not be removed by heating.

Treatment Methods:
The treatment of water can be done by the following methods: 1. Lime Soda Method 2. Zeolite Method Ion Exchange Method 3. Demin Process 4. Reverse Osmosis Zeolite method is used in the Miniature Plant for the treatment of water.

Zeolite Method:
This method is a type of Ion Exchange Method. In this method softening material mostly used is called resins. Formula of Zeolite is as under: Zeolite: Na2O3. Al2O3. 2SiO2. H2O The reactions taking place in the Sodium Zeolite chamber is as under: Ca (HCO3) + Na2Ze Mg (HCO3) + Na2Ze MgCl2 + Na2Ze CaZe + 2NaHCO3 MgZe + 2NaHCO3 MgZe + 2NaCl

After the reaction Sodium Zeolite (NaZe) is regenerated due to following reactions: CaZe + 2NaCl MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2 Na2Ze + MgCl2

Condensative Recovery:
It is a good energy conservation method which improves the system efficiency and reduces the fuel and water cost. A condensate recovery system returns condensed steam to the boiler to become a portion steam to the boiler of the feed water supply. The rest of the feed water supply comes from make up water replaces water loss through blow down. High quality water containing few minerals and treated with chemicals thus condensate requires less treatment than raw make up water to make it pure to use it as feed water. In this way energy is saved through this process.

Blow Down:
As the boiler generates steam, the condensation method that improves system of minerals and treatment chemicals that remain in the boiler water increases large amount of minerals which cause corrosion, boiler tube blockage and scaling. It is actually a process which water is removed to decrease the concentration of salts. It is mainly of two types: 1. Periodic Blow down 2. Continuous Blow down Periodic blow down of a boiler involves opening the main blow of valve regularly usually when steam demand is low and when the solid concentration is so high. Continuous blow down removes a small amount of water from a boiler continuously. Water drains through a pipe beneath the water surface where the levels of impurities are highest. This type of blow down is used in most of the plants. It makes a uniform level of solids in the under processed water.

Boiler Efficiency:
The main factors that reduce the efficiency of boiler are the greatest loss of heat in boiler operation. There are two causes of abnormal stack loss whish are as under: 1. Excess Air in Combustion Area 2. High exit temperature of Flue Gases Every fuel requires some excess air to burn completely. High flue gas exit temperature reduces the efficiency of boiler because the heat released through the stack is wasted heat. Economizer and air pre-heater can recover some of the heat to improve its efficiency and it also lowers fuel cost. Radiation loss is the heat loss from the boiler and high temperature piping through radiation to the surrounding air.

Use of Steam:
Steam is of two types: 1. Saturated Steam(Heating purpose) 2. Superheated Steam(turbine operation) Steam is mainly used in the power generation purposes. Superheated steam carries vapors in it. Thats why it is used to run Turbines.

3. Cooling Tower Section:

Definition:
A mechanical arrangement assembling together the main components such as louvers, drift elimination fan etc. dims to cool the hot returned processed water is referred as cooling tower. In cooling tower 80% cooling is done due to evaporation whereas the 20% is due to temperature difference between hot water.

Evaporation:
Cooling occurs in the tower by the mechanisms of evaporative cooling and exchange of sensible heat. The loss of heat by evaporation lowers the remaining water temperature. The smaller amount of cooling also occurs when remaining water transfer heat to the air. The rate of evaporation is about 1.2% of the rate of flow of the recirculating water passing through the tower for every 10ft. decrease in water temperature achieved by the tower. The decrease in temperature will vary with the ambient dew point temperature (DPT). Due to evaporation process 4-5% water is shifted towards the air. In short evaporation causes cooling.

Fan Water

Louvers

Sum/Tank

Main Components of Cooling Tower:

There are four major components which to make up a cooling tower namely the Packing Drift elimination. Following are the components of a cooling tower: 1. 2. 3. 4. Shell or Casing Air inlet and outlet Fans Drift Eliminator

5. Warm water Inlet 6. Water distribution system 7. Packing 8. Louvers 9. Cold Water Basin/Tank 10. Cold water outlet

Types of Cooling Tower:

There are three classification of Cooling Tower: 1. Spray Pond Cooling Tower 2. Natural Draft Cooling Tower (A). Atmospheric Circulation Type
(B). Chimney Type Cooling Tower

3. Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower (A). Forced Draft Cooling Tower

(B). Induced Draft Cooling Tower

Description of Cooling Towers:

Hot returned processed water that has to be cooled is sprayed through nozzles over the pond surface in Spray pond. Greater water to air surfaces exposure is the main concept taken in consideration. Thus evaporation rate enhances causing more water cooled in same unit length of time. Prevailing wind indeed causes the rate of evaporation. These spray pond cooling system are preferred either for small capacity or where ground is inexpensive water loss and damage to nearby facility may result through wind. The rate of evaporation is also decreased due to air.

Spray Pond Cooling Tower:

Natural Draft Cooling Tower: (A). Atmospheric Circulation Type:

In the atmospheric circulation type, the circulation of air through the tower is essentially across it in a horizontal direction. Some of the wing entering the tower is carried upward but most of the wind blows straight through it. The lower help it directly and also prevent water loss from it. The hot air and water vapors leaving the top of the tower have to pass through drift eliminators. The splash bars slow down the fall of water and breaks it up into small drops. The large contact of water with air causes quicker evaporation and faster cooling than in a spray pond. Due to evaporation and drift there is some water loss which has to be replaced by make up water. In order to get maximum evaporation from a cooling tower, the air should be provided in a large amount.

(B). Chimney Type Cooling Tower:

The chimney type cooling tower depends on the fact that air is warmed by the water and therefore produces an upward draft. The top part of the tower is known as chimney or stack. The hot water is sprayed in above the splash bars. The splash bars break the flowing water into fine drops in order to provide better air to water for contact. Some of the heat in water transfer to the air. As the air heats up it becomes lighter. Due to this air rises in the chimney. The heated air is replaced with cold air heat enters the tower through the air inlet. The temperature of the air inside the chimney is very much higher than atmospheric temperature of the air. This temperature difference causes a constant draft or flow towards the exit point.

3. Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower:

Mechanical graft cooling tower use fans for air circulation. They are usually called Forced Draft and Induced Draft cooling towers. Induced tower pulls air towards through the fans. Forced draft tower push air through it fans. Forced draft tower are usually limited to smaller system due to need of high power to run it. Induced draft is preferred because it avoids return of saturated air back towards to the tower.

(A).Forced Draft Cooling Tower:

In Forced Draft Cooling Tower the air flow through the falling water is produced by fans. Motor driven fans force air into the tower through openings near the bottom of the tower. The cooling of water in all towers depends mainly on the amount and humidity of air passing through it. Fans used in forced draft cooling tower should produce a large volume of air with a low velocity. Mechanical draft cooling tower s also provided with Drift Eliminator to air velocity. If one or more of the fans is shutdown, the cooling rate will be slow due to the less air to water contact. The degree of cooling tower can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the fans and the rate of water flow.

(B).Induced Draft Cooling Tower:

In a forced draft cooling tower the fan push the air through the tower. In this type of tower as the fans rotates it pulls the air through the tower. The air is driven upward from the top of the tower where it can be carried away easily by the powered air. This reduces the possibility of water air re-entering the cooling tower at the bottom. There are types of induced draft cooling tower. The tower with its sides open the cross flow type and in the counter flow type the target past of the tower or solid sides. In a tower

with solid sides the induced air travels most of the time in an opposite direction from falling water. In both these towers the air volume flowing through the tower is controlled by the speed of the fans and the amount of opening of side louvers.

Why We Use Water for Cooling:

The importance of water in industry is due to its specific heat. Specific Heat is the measure of how well a substance can absorb heat. Water is so good at absorbing heat as compared to all other substances. It has a specific heat value which is 1.0. We will compare it with Methanol which has specific heat value 0.39 which is very less as compared to the value of water. Outstanding ability to absorb and release heat of water through evaporation makes it an ideal for the use in Industries for cooling. Water is used in industries due to the following reasons:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Plentiful Readily available Inexpensive Easy Handling

5. It can carry heat 6. Does not decompose.

Packing of Cooling Tower:

Timber was the traditional material which was used for packing but now it is usually packed with plastics notably PVC. This packing has the following advantages: 1. Easily removable 2. Inert in any water whether acidic or alkaline 3. Scale growth Inhibitor 4. Non-flammable

Conditions affecting the Cooling Tower:

The most important factor in any type of cooling tower is how fast the water is being evaporated by the tower. Therefore any condition which prevents water from evaporating reduces the efficiency of cooling tower. If the air surrounding a cooling tower is very humid, the water in the tower does not evaporate as much as it would if the air is dry. In damp humid days a cooling tower works not as well as it works in usually dry season. A factor that affects the rate of evaporation is the amount of humidity or moisture in the air in contact with the water.

4. Instrument Air Compressing Section:

Definition:
The Instrument air compressor is the fourth important part of the Miniature Plant. The basic work of an air compressor is to deliver air at a maximum pressure.

Diagram:

Compressor
Receiver
Hot Water Outlet
D r i e r D r i e r

after Cooler

Pump Dryers

Function of Air Compressor:

The function of compressor is to provide air at the pressure required for various plant applications. In many plants compressed air is used as a power source. Some typical uses of compressed air are as under: 1. To provide power for pneumatic instruments. 2. To provide air for breathing apparatus. 3. To provide air for pneumatic control. In reciprocating air compressor the air is compressed by the movement of a piston inside a cylinder. Air enters the cylinder through a suction valve that is designed to allow air to flow in only one direction. This section increases the pressure of the air. Compression takes place in the cylinder. The compressed air leaves the cylinder through a discharge valve. This valve is also designed to permit air to flow in only one direction out of the cylinder. The power required to move the piston is usually supplied by a motor. The motor moves a crank shaft. There are two types of reciprocating air compressor: 1. Single Acting Compressor 2. Double Acting Compressor

1. Single Acting Compressor:

In a single acting compressor the compression occurs only during the forward stroke of the piston. This is called compression stroke. The backward stroke of the piston is called the suction stroke. During this stroke the piston moves back and air is drawn in through the suction valve. After this stroke the valve is closed and the piston moves forward to start a new compression stroke. As the air is compressed its pressure increases and causes the air to be forced out of the cylinder through discharge valve.

2. Double Acting Compressor:

In this type of compressor the compression occurs during the forward stroke and backward stroke of the piston. This is accomplished by having suction and discharging valves on each end of the cylinder. During the forward stroke of the piston air is compressed on one end of the cylinder, while suction occurs on the other. During the backward stroke these actions are reversed. As a result compression takes place during each stroke.

Components of the Compressor:

Several components in a compressor are used to clean, dry and store the compressed air. There are some components which are mostly used in the compressor:

This filter removes dirt from the air before it enters the compressor. Dirty air can result in rapid valve wear and cylinder wear.

Intake Filter:

After Cooler:

Compression causes the air to get very hot. The air after cooler cools the compressed air. Most after coolers are hot exchangers. They contain a network of tubes that have cold water circulating through them. As the hot compressed air flows around the tubes it is cooled by these tubes having cool water.

Moisture Separator:
This component removes moisture that condenses after the compressed air has cooled. Moisture separator s usually has manual or automatic drain traps to remove the collected moisture from the compressor.

Loading and Unloading System:

The unloading system is a series of valves and switches that reacts to feed back from control point. The unloading system

controls compressor output by causing compressor operation to switch between two states loading and unloading. When a compressor is loading compression takes place. Air enters the cylinder is compressed and sent to receive. While a compressor is loading pressure in the receiver rises. Compression of air also takes place when process of un-loading occurs.

5. Piping Model:
In a Chemical Plant piping has been installed for the transfer of fluid from one equipment to the other. Following are the different parts of a piping model.

Piping Diagram:
Ball Valve

Orifice Plate Gate Valve

Y-Strainer

Valves:
Valves are the devices used to control the rate of flow of fluids in a pipe line. Several valves are provided in the piping model valves are classified as given below:

Gate valves are mostly used in plants. These valves are used to cut the flow of liquids or to control its flow rate. In a gate valve diameter of the opening through which the fluid passes is nearly the same as that of pipe. These valves are usually used to complete cut of the pipeline liquid. The other end of the stem extends through the stuffing box in the valve bonnets connects to the hand wheel. In a rising stem, gate valve is not connected with the stem directly to its wheel. Instead of the stem is threaded through a fitting called stem bashing. In a non-rising stem gate valve the stem is directly attached to the hand wheel.

Gate Valve:

1. Globe Valve:
So called because in the earliest design the body of the valve was spherical. The globe valve is mainly used for flow rate control. The opening increases almost linearly with stem position and wear distributed around the disc. The fluid passes through a restricted opening and changes direction several times. As a result the pressure drop in this kind of valve is large.

2. Check Valves:
Check valves are used when unidirectional flow is desired. They are automatic in operation. It is opened by the pressure of the fluid in the desired direction, automatically closes by gravity or by a spring pressing against a disk. Common types of check valves are: 1. Lift Check 2. Swing Check

3. Ball Valve:
The ball valve is used at a place where quick switch over from fully closing fully opening or vice versa is required. This valve is used for fluids containing suspended solids.

4. Butterfly Valve:
It is used at a place where leakage of fluid with this fully closed does not matter much. It can be fully closed does not matter much. It can be fully closed. These are used in low pressure low temperature applications.

5.Safety Valve:
The safety valve protects the equipment and piping from damage duet enters pressure when pressure in equipment rises above a specified level. This valve opens automatically to prevent equipment damage.

6. Blind Plates:
Blind plates are used at a place where completely isolation is required. For instance this plate is inserted into a vent line having no valve so as to completely isolate. This line from the atmosphere. For complete isolation there are: 1. Blind Plates 2. Spatial Blind Plates 3. Blind Flange

7. Blank Flange:
A flange with no openings used to close a pipe is called a blind flange or blank flange.

8 .ANGLE Globe Valve:

Flow through an angle valve can be either upward or downward. Since the directions of flow only changes once. Angle valve has less resistance to flow than globe valve.

9. Needle Valve:
The tapered plug permits fine controller of flow. These valves are often used in small diameter piping and high pressure lines.

Valve Material:
Valve in pipes sizes of 2 and under these pipes usually all coating is of brass. In size over 2. They are usually iron castings with principal working parts such as seat the disc and stem of brass or bronze. Such valves are known as iron body valves. For use with ammonia or cyanide solutions are used through which all iron valves could be obtained.

Basic Construction of Valves:

Although valves come in many different sizes and designs and several basic parts are common to all valves.

1. Body:
The body is part of the outer casing of the valve. It houses the moving parts of the valve and contains the process fluid.

2. Flanges:
These are the parts of the valve which are bolted to the processing pipe. They are also called flanges lamp.

Pipe is made up of a brittle material like glass or cast iron is joined by flange. Flanges are the matching disks of metal bolted together and compressing a gasket between the valve faces. For joining pieces a large steal pipe in a process piping. Especially for high pressure services welding has become the standard method. Welding makes stronger joints than screwed fittings and since it does not weaken. The only disadvantage of a welded joint is that cannot be opened without cutting of the pipe which takes a so much time than screwed joint.

3. Bonnet:
A part of the valve outer casing is mounted on the top of the valve body and houses the valve stem discs packing.

4. Stuffing Box:
Stuffing box is a cavity inside the valve bonnet. It is filled with packing material.

5. Packing Material:
It provides a seal against leakage around the valve stem. The packing material is compressed to lift inside the stuffing.

6. Gasket:
Gasket also prevent leakage of process on most valves gasket are located between the flanges and the piping and between the valve body.

7. Hand Wheel:
It provides a way to the valve manually. The hand wheel is to open or close the valve. Some values have a lever instead of a hand wheel.