Tools of Communication 1

Running head: TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION

Tools of Communication, Education and Addiction

Max Atwell

Northern Arizona University

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Abstract

From the beginning of human history, efforts have been made to develop tools for improving

communications. Starting with the first use of symbols to create records through the development

of sophisticated Internet-based information delivery systems, this paper looks at how

technologies developed for communication find their way into the classroom as educational

technology. This paper also looks at how these powerful tools of communication can have the

potential to become addictive for some users.

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Tools of Communication, Education and Addiction

Social, Historical, Educational Foundations

Humans communicate. The need to communicate is basic and universal to all peoples. Human

communication can be informative, instructive, recreational and even creative. It can be helpful

and nurturing or it can be malicious (hurtful gossip). Communication is the underpinning for all

human social structures, societies, organizations and interactions. Communication in the form of

language is a pivotal component of personal identity. When asked to describe oneself, most

people will identify a nationality or cultural heritage. These are often described in terms of the

language spoken. Commonly, the name of the cultural heritage and the language are synonymous

(i.e. if one is French it is expected that one could speak French). Language, and a common basis

of communication, form the mortar that unifies societies, groups and cultures. Always seeking to

find better and more effective means of doing things, humans design and create tools to enhance

their abilities to perform required tasks. Communication is no exception. Throughout history,

humans have sought better ways to communicate. This process has led to an ever improving

arsenal of tools to facilitate communication. As a natural progression, tools of communication

are readily adapted to education; thus becoming educational technology. As these tools have

become ever more powerful, they have also become, for some, a source of addiction.

Going beyond simple hand gestures and speech, humans have developed a number of tools

and strategies to augment and enhance their ability to communicate. Human communication

tools can do a number of things with information. Most human communication tools do one or

more of the following with the information; information can be stored, organized, presented and

delivered, or transmitted over time and distance. Beginning with images and enigmatic markings,

some of the earliest evidence of human existence are artifacts relating to communication. As
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more research is done, Pleistocene cave paintings are being reinterpreted. Rather than being

considered mere representations of animals, people and objects in their surroundings, it is

becoming apparent that these images are rich in conceptual content that goes way beyond the

simple objective (Nowell, 2006, p.43). Going beyond conceptual content of cave paintings, an

extremely early example of human record keeping and symbolic representation can be seen in

the example of the bone plaque found in Blanchard France (see Figure 1). Dating to 30,000 years

BP, this artifact has been interpreted as representing phases of the moon, covering over a two

month period (Eccles, 1989, p. 136).

Figure 1. Bone Plaque dating to 30,000 BP found in Blanchard France depicting lunar phases.

Note. From ‘Evolution of Brain: Development of the Self’, (Eccles, 1989, p. 135)

Though not considered to be a representation of a linguistic system or of mathematic

calculation, the Blanchard bone plaque displays a sophisticated understanding of lunar phases as

the turns made in the marking coincide with changes in those phases (Eccles, 1989, p. 136). As a

communication tool the Blanchard bone plaque represents a means of information storage and

retrieval. It may also represent a precursor to written language and numbers.

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By 5000 years BP, complex forms of written communication were beginning to develop.

Cuneiform, a form of writing done in wet clay tablets (see Figure 2) with a reed stylus, became

prevalent in the in Samaria (About Cuneiform, para. 2). Used not only for basic recordkeeping,

Cuneiform was used to record the first known uniform body of law in human history (About

Cuneiform, para. 2). A historic milestone, Hammurabi's legal code was written between 1792 and

1750 BC (About Cuneiform, para. 2). As a written system, cuneiform performed all of the

functions of contemporary written languages; interestingly these clay tablets can be translated

today.

Figure 2. Amarna Letters Note Cuneiform Letter of Biridiya, prince of Megiddo, to the king of

Egypt. (2007). Retrieved September 20, 2008 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/

wiki/Image:Urartu_Cuneiform_Argishti_1.jpg

Though first invented in China, Johannes Gutenberg is credited with being the first European

to print using moveable type (Easton, 2008, p.47). Before printing, the process of producing

books was slow, laborious and expensive. Books would have been hand copied and available

only to the exceedingly wealthy or to the Church. Until the invention of movable type, written

records and documents were limited as to how greatly they could influence the thinking and

learning of others. Like the development of today's Internet, the development of movable type

enabled a relative explosion in the amount of written material that could be produced. As a result
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of Gutenberg's Bible (see Figure 3), most of the population of Europe could gain access to Bibles

and the ability to read proliferated (Easton, 2008, p.47). Gradually books, mostly religious at

first, began to fall into the hands of the middle classes. This wide availability of Bibles,

combined with a citizenry who could read them, led to the Protestant Reformation (Easton, 2008,

p.47).

Figure 3. Gutenberg Bible. Note. Library of Congress Gutenberg Bible (2002). Retrieved

September 20, 2008 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/

b/b0/Gutenberg_Bible.jpg

The next major developments in human communication deal with electronic medium. For the

most part these technologies, for people in industrialized societies, are ubiquitous. We are

surrounded each day by these technologies. For the most part we take them for granted and use

them with out giving them a second thought. Each has had some impact on how we interact and

how we live our lives. As such, we would be hard pressed to comprehend what life would be like

without them. Claude Fisher (1997), in a Sociological Inquiry article, draws upon studies of the

impact of the telephone and other technologies of the recent past to predict how computer-

assisted communication may effect the future. In his article, Fisher (1997) indicates that the

relative effect of past electronic communication technologies have been: "(a) modest; (b)

different for different devices, so that one cannot make blanket statements about “technology”;
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and (c) complex, indirect, and even contradictory." Sighting the telephone as "... the most

profound person-to-person, electronic communication technology in history." (Fisher, 1997, p.

114). Fisher goes on to down play the actual effect of the telephone on society. According to his

research, Fisher explains that the telephone has made it easier to maintain social relationships

with people over distances and that it may have improved communities slightly (Fisher, 1997, p.

114). Fisher concludes that the telephone has mainly enabled the maintenance of community

patterns that were already in place, "...only somewhat more effectively" (Fisher, 1997, p. 114).

Pointing out that different technologies will predictably have different effects on social

interaction, Fisher goes on to point out that the effect of movies and television are apt to be

different based on how and where they are viewed (Fisher, 1997, p. 114). Noting that movie

attendance is typically a social activity done with others and that television viewing is more

typically done in isolation or in the home with only a small group. Fisher contends that the effect

of either technology on society is likely small (Fisher, 1997, p. 115). Fisher also goes on to point

out that a given technology can have effects that are self nullifying (Fisher, 1997, p. 116).

In Fisher's article, he looks back at the impact of pre-computer communication technologies

to frame what the ultimate effect of computer communications will have on the world. It would

be interesting to see if his opinions are different today in light of the changes that have been

described and that have been predicted by Thomas Friedman ( 2007). In all fairness, Fisher was

looking back at the effects of the telecommunications of the early 20th century, from the

perspective of 1997. 1997 was right before the time of the bursting of the "dot.com bubble"

(Friedman, 2007, p.71). and before a number of other of Friedman's "World Flatteners"

(Friedman, 2007). Perhaps he had a similar view point of many people on the cusp of a major

world event. Most Americans looking at the world of economics during the days leading up to
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"Black Thursday" or October 24th 1929, felt that nothing was out of the ordinary. Likewise,

Americans were not as a whole too focused on world affairs on December 6th, 1941 or the eve of

Pearl Harbor, and September 10, 2001 was just another day for air travel. There is often little

foreshadowing of major events, yet lives are often profoundly changed in their aftermath. Further

influencing Fisher's outlook on the future effects of computer based communications would have

been the way he was likely to have been able to connect to the Internet. For most people 1997

Internet connection was made through a dial up modem over phone lines. This would have

placed Fisher in the position of viewing the communication potential of a computer through the

functionality of the telephone. Listening to your modem dial up the Internet and then waiting

while information was slowly passed back and forth would have made the whole experience

seem like just another way to use the telephone and it literally was. Today using the Internet

simply feels different with the high speeds that are now fairly common place.

Symbols, writing, printing, telecommunications and the computer communications

technologies have all been developed by humans to enhance their ability to communicate. Each

has played an important role in how humans communicate. Arguably each has also in their own

ways shaped the way humans think about communication and by extension how they think.

Technology in Schools

Education goes on all around us. It has gone on as long as there have been ideas to share.

Perhaps most education occurs outside of formal setting in the form of ideas and information we

share with others. Anytime a parent shows a child how to do something new, the child is being

educated. A mother teaching her child how to tie their shoe or blow a bubble contributes to the

education of that child. Likewise, when a grandparent teaches a child to fly a kite, the child is

being educated. Any of the educational tools that are available can be put to use to educate one
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another. More formal education, or education that is delivered in a structured setting, is referred

to as schooling (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006, p. 39). Characteristics of schooling deal with the

structure and formal delivery of content. Students, are expected to attend a specified place for a

specified period of time to be instructed in a specified body of information or a curriculum (Pai

et al., 2006, p. 39). Arguably, when a communication tool is brought into this formal setting,

whether it be instruments of writing, books, chalkboards, videos, computers or the Internet, they

become educational technology. Some educational technologies have long and venerable

associations with the process of teaching and learning. Paper, pencils and books are so

ubiquitous to the school environment as to become nearly invisible. Yet one should never

overlook the educational potential of these because they are old. Nor should one assume that

digital technologies are always the best tool. In any given situation, the most effective approach

may be a blend. It is the responsibility of the teacher to select from among the various

educational technologies those that will be most effective. It should not be overlooked, that the

only way that teachers can choose from amongst all of the educational technologies that are

available, is to be proficient with those technologies. Cambre and Hawkes (2004) identify

"Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools" as being accessible, flexible, user-friendly, and chosen

by the teacher to meet a real or perceived need (p. 26). This framework offers an excellent tool

for evaluating educational technologies for any given application. This framework is both simple

and insightful with regards to evaluating educational technology. Using this framework will

enable educators to make sound selections of educational technology. There needs to be one

caveat to go along with Cambre and Hawkes' "Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools", that is

that all educators need to be versed in the use and integration of the newer digital technologies

into the curriculum. Not being technologically fluent will skew how an educator might interpret
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Cambre and Hawkes' "Characteristics of Good Teaching Tools." Not exposing students to the

newer digital educational technologies due to discomfort or lack of competence does the students

a disservice. As professionals, educators need to take the initiative to become proficient with the

educational technologies at hand. To date many educators need help in becoming more

technologically fluent to meet the current need for technological integration into the curriculum.

In order to facilitate technological proficiency amongst educators some considerations need to be

addressed. Bitner and Bitner (2002) suggest the following considerations be taken into account

when supporting educators in adapting to technology:

1. FEAR of change
2. TRAINING in basics
3. PERSONAL use
4. TEACHING models
5. LEARNING based
6. CLIMATE
7. MOTIVATION
8. SUPPORT

Like students, educators will perform better at learning new skills if they feel safe, supported

and comfortable. Perhaps the area of greatest importance in integrating technology into

education rest with improving the skills of working teachers. Bitner and Bitner provide some

excellent ideas on how to promote that.

Technology and Society

What are the possibilities when there is so much access to powerful computer based

communication tools? As with any technology where there are tremendous benefits, there can

also lie tremendous dangers. Having so much of our lives centered around interaction with the

computer for social, professional, personal and recreational purposes may hold inherent risks for

some. Access comes with dangers. When most people think about the dangers posed by

technology, thoughts usually run toward things like identity theft, hacking or pedophiles posing
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as friends in chat rooms. Though not formally recognized as a psychological condition, more and

more people are beginning to display signs of addiction to the Internet (Lopez, 2006). The

current opinion in the medical community is mixed, more study needs to be done to determine if

Internet addiction is a real disorder (Lopez, 2006). For some, all of this connectivity is

overpowering. Never before has so much power to be continuously connected existed, for some

this can lead to addictive behavior. Unlike communication tools of the past, Internet has no

limitation. Older communication technologies inherently had some limits. Print communications

needed to be written, transported and read. That being the case, one would be able to keep up

with their mailbox once a day after the mail is delivered. By contrast email can arrive anytime

day or night and the Internet is always there with the constant possibility that there will be new

email when it is checked. In addition, email is cheep as there is no need for a stamp. Telephonic

communication has less potential for addiction than does Internet. The limiting factors to

telephone addiction are primarily social. Telephone use is limited by the availability of someone

to talk to in real time. Most people will limit their accessibility on the telephone. Most people

don't appreciate calls when they are trying to sleep for example. In addition, caller I.D. makes

screening calls very easy. Though Internet addiction is not formally recognized as a disorder,

there are those who do spend more time with the Internet than they want for non-work related

reasons, or those who wish to quit or cut back their use but can't. It may be prudent to take stock

(Lopez, 2006).

Conclusion

Humans have long sought to use tools for communication and information processing. In this

effort improvements have been on going. Each improvement has in someway altered both

society and the individual. In aggregate, these technological innovations reshaped how humans
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view themselves, their societies and the world. It is quite natural that as education shifted from

an informal endeavor to a more formal practice or schooling. It stands to reason that tools or

technologies of communication would be adapted to serve that purpose. In the formal school

setting, educational technology has dramatically impacted the process. Without the benefits

delivered by the many educational technologies used in schooling, schooling would likely not be

possible. It is impossible to predict the future, but one would be safe in believing that technology

will continue to advance. What forms this may take would be anyone's guess. The one certainty

in the equation is the fact that whatever is developed will be tested as an educational tool. If it is

successful it will join the kit that comprises educational technology. Regarding the potential

hazards of Internet addiction, anything that can be used is also subject to abuse. We shouldn't shy

away from potentially useful technologies out of fear. Rather we should seek to recognize the

potential risk, and understand it. That is the best way to coexist with it.
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References

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Bitner, N., & Bitner, J. (2002). Integrating technology into the classroom: Eight keys to success.

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WWHYWVDFDLQA3DILSFF4ADUNGIIV0

Cambre, M., & Hawkes, M. (2004). Toys, tools & teachers the challenge of technology (4th ed.).

United States: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Easton, B. (2008). Gutenberg and globalization. (cover story). World Literature Today, 82(2), 47-

50.

Eccles, J. C. (1989). Evolution of the brain: Creation of the self. Independence, Kentucky,

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Fischer, C. S. (1997). Technology and community: Historical complexities. Sociological Inquiry,

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Friedman, T. L. (2007). The world is flat A brief history of the twenty-first century (3rd ed.).

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Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory, 13(4), 239-249.

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Pai, Y., Adler, S. A., & Shadiow, L. K. (2006). Cultural foundations of education (4th ed.). New

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