PRIMANINGTYAS NUR ARIFAH 09313244004

Managing the Teaching Learning Process of Mathematics (Practical Approach)

Developing the lesson plan
Lesson Plan or in Bahasa RPP is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for one class. Lesson Plan is the rights of teachers, or in other words is belong to the teachers. There are Minimal requirements of Lesson Plan: Identity Information Aim Competence Description learning resources Teaching content or teaching matherial The common format of Lesson Plan typically in this order: Title of the lesson Time required to complete the lesson List of required materials List of objectives, which may be behavioral objectives (what the student can do at lesson completion) or knowledge objectives (what the student knows at lesson completion) The set (or lead-in, or bridge-in) that focuses students on the lesson's skills or conceptsthese include showing pictures or models, asking leading questions, or reviewing previous lessons An instructional component that describes the sequence of events that make up the lesson, including the teacher's instructional input and guided practice the students use to try new skills or work with new ideas Independent practice that allows students to extend skills or knowledge on their own A summary, where the teacher wraps up the discussion and answers questions An evaluation component, a test for mastery of the instructed skills or concepts such as a set of questions to answer or a set of instructions to follow Analysis component the teacher uses to reflect on the lesson itself such as what worked, what needs improving A continuity component reviews and reflects on content from the previous lesson All details of Lesson Plan should be written down to assist the smooth delivery of the content. The extent of the detail will vary depending on the number of years of experience that the teacher has and the number of times he/she has taught the lesson. Obviously a teacher with several or many years of experience may have plans that are much less detailed than beginning teachers. Below is a list of the steps that are usually involved in developing a quality lesson plan as well as a description of what each component should be. a. The first thing that you will have to consider, obviously, is what you want to teach. This should be developed based upon your state or local school standards. You also need to be aware of what grade level you are developing the lesson plan for, as well as record a time estimate for your lesson plan to help you to better budget your time. b. If you want to make sure that your lesson plan will teach exactly what you want it to, then you will need to develop clear and specific objectives at the start. You must

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c.

d.

e.

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h.

i.

j.

note that these objectives should not be activities that will be used in the lesson plan. Rather, they should be the learning outcomes of those activities. You would probably find out exactly what materials you are going to use later, however, they should be shown early in your lesson plan. This way, if someone else decided to start using your lesson plan, they would know in advance what materials would be required. You may also want to write out an Anticipatory Set, which would be a great way to lead into the lesson plan and develop the students' interest in learning what you are getting ready to teach. A good example deals with a lesson on fractions. The teacher could start by asking the students how they would divide up a pizza to make sure each of their 3 friends got an equal amount of pie, and tell them that they can do this if they know how to work with fractions. At this point you need to write the step-by-step procedures that will be performed to reach each of the above mentioned objectives. These don't have to involve every little thing that the teacher will say and do, but they should list the relevant actions that the teacher needs in order to perform them. After the above mentioned procedures have been completed, you may want to provide your students with time for independent practice. For the example of above, students could be given some time to add different numbers of unifix cubes together that a partner would provide them with. Just before you start moving on to the assessment phase you should be prepared to create some sort of closure for the lesson plan. A good idea for this is to return to your anticipatory set, for example, you can ask students how they would divide up that pie now that they know how to work with fractions (check step 4). Now you want to write your assessment/evaluation. Many lesson plans don't really need them, but most of them should have some sort of evaluation of whether or not the objectives were reached. The key to doing this is to make sure that the assessment specifically measures whether the objectives were reached or not. You should make different directions for students with learning disabilities and extensions for others. Examples of this would be adding 1 unifix cube to 1 unifix cube for students with learning disabilities and adding 9 unifix cubes to 13 unifix cubes for the more advanced students and somewhere in between for everyone else. This is most effective when you use specific adaptations for specific students to take into account their individual differences. It's a really good idea for you to include a Connections section, which really shows how the lesson plan could be integrated with other subjects. An example of this would be to have students paint 2 oranges, then 3 more oranges below them, etc. so that they can learn how to integrate Art into the lesson plan.

Developing student worksheet

The paradigm of learning mathematics is doing mathematics, ang the paradigm of to learn mathematics is to do mathematics. To do both of the paradigms, the students need facilitate. Students Worksheet is one of the facilitate that needed by students, Student Worksheet also called as technology. Most of indonesian teachers thinking that students worksheet just contain of exercises. But actually Students Worksheet also contain of maps to help them with their exercises. Students will often use worksheets to review what has been taught in class.

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There are some usefull steps to developing students worksheet: Prompting Instructional Planning Designing Performance Tasks Identifying Specific Criteria for a Particular Assignment Selecting Specific Behaviours of Interest Adapting to Suit Specific Situations or Students Recording Observations Prompting Student Self-Evaluation Collaborating with Other Teachers and Support Staff Adapting the Scale for Other Grade Levels Adjusting for Other Times of Year The criteria of good students worksheet: Make the students found their own mathematics To promote the students to construc their own mathematics The teacher can employe the discovery method Students can found the mathematics formula by their selves

Developing the learning resources

There are some criteria that must be consider to choose learning resources Students potension Relevance to the interests of local, national, and global. The development of learners physical, intellectual, emotional, social and spiritual. The usefulness for learners The structure of scientific Actuality, depth, and breadth of learning materials Time allocation Besides that teacher should pay attention to: validity of material was indeed verified Level of importance (significance) of material being taught is actually needed by the students. Usefulness (utility) of such material provides fundamental knowledge and skills to the next level. Eligible to learn (learnability) is worth examining whether the material aspects of the level of difficulty as well as aspects of the utilization of teaching materials and local conditions. Attracting interest, the matherial attract students and motivated to learn more.

Developing and implementing apperception

Apperception is Student readiness to learn, in this case learn mathematics. In other words apperception is to perceive new experience in relation to past experience of students. In any event, ideas such as Herbarts were translated into a sequence of steps presumed to be required to carry out a lesson: 1. Preparation, whereby the teacher starts the lesson with something already known to the class

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2. Presentation, introducing new material 3. Association, whereby the new is compared with the old and connected (the stage of apperception) 4. Generalization, whereby the teacher presents other instances of the new idea 5. Application, whereby the ideas are applied to further material, carried out by the child individually (a problem-solving phase)

Developing and implementing various method of teaching

Teaching methods are a theoretical and practical system which in a scientifically established way describes and proscribes effective teaching methods of a specific subject or a group of related subjects. Teaching methods (methodology) of a certain subject will use didactic knowledge about the individualization of the instructional process, teaching methods and didactical principles, the types of instruction and organization of instruction. In addition, the choice of appropriate teaching method and instruction in a specific situation will be influenced by the scientific and expert field of a certain subject, as well as the characteristics of the participants (their psychosocial development, previous knowledge, interests etc). The basic question resulting from the previous definition of methodology or teaching methods is whether universal or general methodology in distance education is possible. In distance education general principles and different educational methods can be formulated, but every specific subject or area in distance education should use theoretical and practical principles of methodology developed especially for this subject or field. General didactic principles and available educational methods for online education should in practice always be adapted to specific methodical teaching approaches for a specific subject or field. It is especially important to be well acquainted with different education methods and teaching approaches in order to apply them appropriately in order to achieve educational objectives. Among the most wide spread types of instruction the following can be pointed out: - transmission instruction and direct teaching (informing, describing, explaining, training, asking questions, monitoring the questions, intervening); - heuristic instruction and teaching through conversation (asking questions, dialogue, group discussions); - pair work and cooperative grouping (joint assignments, analyses, evaluations, problem solving, creative techniques, decision making etc); - problem teaching (identifying and defining a problem, setting hypotheses, gathering data, generating the solution, evaluating the possibilities, selecting the solution, concluding and applying this in practice); - programmed instruction (division of content into smaller units, tasks and questions which stimulate relevant activities, and feedback about the users and their results). Programmed instruction is a system of theoretical concepts and different technical forms of programmed instruction which enable simulated delivery of instruction so as to achieve a 1:1 student: instructor ratio (i.e. a technical system simulating an instructor). Instead of traditional instruction in which there is one teacher and several students and where a complete individualization of the educational process is impossible, in programmed learning individual teaching is multiplied by using the so-called programmed textbooks, computer-based instruction or learning management systems (LMS). Research shows that programmed teaching is usually more successful than traditional instruction, taking into

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consideration short-term and long-term memory of educational content, as well as time spent on learning . With programmed learning participants are guided by questions and tasks which stimulate their inner mental activity, while the possibility to check the correct answer influences the so-called self-confirmation which causes the feeling of extrinsic and intrinsic reward and motivation. The use of programmed learning is especially useful in distance education and computer-based instruction. Computer-based instruction (CBI) is based on automation and individualization of the presentation of educational content and interaction with the students. Computer-based instruction can be applied in the following areas: drills and practical problems, handbook teaching, educational games, modelling and simulations, hypertext, multimedia and distance education. Computer based instruction uses numerous teaching methods: problem solving , guided dialogue, linear teaching, network teaching, adaptive teaching, algorithmic request generating, simulation, computer-guided experimenting, monitoring of the learning process, self-assessment and diagnostic testing.

Developing and implementing teaching aid

Here are some suggested guidelines to the development and use of an effective teaching aid. 1. Analyze learners characteristics identify your learners. Find out the specific entry characteristics- knowledge, skills and attitudes about the topics. You must know your pupils to select the appropriate teaching aid to meet the objectives. Even a superficial analysis of learner methods and media will do. For example, pupils with substandard reading skills may be reached more effective with non-print instructional materials. ( Hiraya Manawari). 2. Consider the objectives. Find out what kind of teaching aid will best carry out the objectives. The objective, the subject matter of the lesson and the teaching aids should be congruent. E.g Characterize the leading lady/man. 3. A practical step when developing a teaching aid is to identify or isolate the criticallyneeded teaching materials which teachers alone or the teachers and pupils together can produce out of the available local resources collage. Such materials are not commercially available and in most cases do not attract commercial-scale production. The production of inexpensive teaching aids frees the schools and teachers from over-dependence on commercial and profit-oriented suppliers or producers. 4. A survey and an inventory of the local raw materials and resources will spark in the teachers and pupils stock of ideas and thinking on forms and types of materials which they can create to help solve their instructional problems. 5. A great deal of research, reading, observation, listening and purposeful exposures to new ideas, information and types of teaching materials will generate much-needed motivation and creative ideas for the production of novel or new materials of instruction. Improvisation of old devices and the utilization of discarded materials are usually the result of imaginative thinking and resourcefulness. 6. Start with the simple and easy production techniques or procedures which all teachers need to develop, such as learning to draw letters, doing simple sketching, designing simple, layout of posters, diagrams and graphs, and making effective use of the chalkboard, bulletin board and flannel board. Such simple skills are

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fundamental and direction, involved in the more difficult production of displays, charts, dioramas, puppets, models, mock-ups and other materials.

Developing and implementing interaction between teacher and student

The tendencies that are manifested in the present linked to the educational process, stress the importance of communication teacher student and active student participation. This places new demands on the teacher, which should generate a communicative environment in your school group, which independent and creative attitude and facilitate positive group dynamics. However, the realization of significant efforts to bring in students a more active, still manifests itself in the activities of the predominant role of the teacher, while students simply to listen and answer questions from the teacher. In relations between the teacher and students, it takes different styles, which in some cases the relationship is characterized by ensuring the relatively active students, taking into account the views of the same style democratic and elsewhere in relationship imposed by the criteria of the teacher and do not take into account the views of students authoritarian style. Usually in practice there are pedagogical styles that move between these two poles, demonstrating a balance between both, or a tendency toward one of them. An extreme case in teacher student relationship, which is the permissive style, where the teacher rather than giving the student involvement, lets you do is a case of taxation does not imply the loss of their authority and control over the process. The teacher must know how to combine resources to command respect and authority while reaching their students, understand and build trust in them. Adopting a communication style that fosters cooperation dialogue, group work, the full development of the members, combining, individual interests with the general educational objectives should lead to achieving greater efficiency of the educational process. It is important that the teacher knows that there is no communication style to ensure success. If the teacher assumes a style that is not its own, it loses its authenticity, hence the need to know not only the styles used but the personal characteristics of each, making possible the success of the style that determines use in different communicative situations. Psychologists and educators with a humanistic orientation, emphasize the need to personalize the learning process, to avoid the general procedures in this process, trying to differentiate the action of the teacher, taking into account the characteristics of school, develop healthy communication and interaction custom among students and teachers, emphasizing the development of motivation to autonomy, self-fulfillment and creativity in students. Teaching processes and education represent a creative act, both by the teacher in his speech to the students and interacting with them, as by the students in their understanding of the material the teacher gives and the configuration of meaning for themselves. During the study, in the process of assimilation of knowledge, there are ideas, thoughts, concerns, experiences, are essential elements for conducting the process of individualization of knowledge by the teacher.

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The error must be considered as a necessary learning and personality development, unknowingly used as a source of encouragement and development is an important element of the educational process. The teacher must be well prepared in their knowledge of personality on individual resources such as conversation, theories of group dynamics, and others, where traditional training is generally inadequate. Educators should not lose sight of the use of all forms and ways of activation, in which students have to justify and defend their views, decisions and practice assertiveness tests, which provide demonstrations for the formation of beliefs and modes of action leading to personal development. The system of educational influences in schools must meet the specific needs of personality in the age at which the student is. The style of work, the content of activities, methods used, should arouse the interest of the students for their performance and contribute to educational objectives and external practical processes, be transformed into training grounds and psychological personality . The student as the subject of the educational process, it automatically treats the external influence, but was incorporated into the developing personality through a process of psychological transformation in which it plays an essential role active social practice, individual experience accumulated the subjects needs. The teacher does not always support the personal views and opinions of adolescents and youth, which may create tensions in relationships and a negative representation at work in shaping the personality of the same. It is necessary to take into account opinions, evaluations, and judgments of others, this allows us to enter their inner world and know them better, to guide and communicate more effectively. The teachers task to coordinate information activities and personality development of students, through the systematization of communicative interactions, presenting reality in a clear, lucid, simple and interactive. It should maximize the possibilities and potentialities of the group to contribute to personal development of each of its members. It is that knowledge is produced primarily in terms of the objectives set by the students themselves, taking into account their particular personality. The potential for selfregulation of behavior generally manifest in the possibilities of students view their own objectives and goals, as well as in the domain of the results to be achieved through its activities in the different tasks it performs. When learning from a developer approach allows reflection of the psychological subject which is involved in the situation causing not only an assessment of the situation or the intellectual resources of their own, but reflects and enriches content and higher mental functions in regulating the behavior settings . For better development of self-regulatory capabilities of the students personality, it must have a thorough understanding of its current features and potential, this will enable us to study it achievable goals, be persistent in their achievement, find ways and means according to their particularities to achieve, be creative and look after their own development. There is evidence that the peculiarities of self-esteem also related to the potential for students to develop personally, as they help to develop the ability to set goals that can be actually achieved, along with enough objectivity to evaluate them. Besides self-esteem may constitute a major cause of behavior that drives the personality to overcome their own limitations and disagreements.

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In the communication process the teacher must foster the right conditions, a space for the development of greater interaction between members of the group, communicate more effectively making it a condition not only growth but also personal growth group, and this is only achieved if the teaching is organized as a group activity, generating and mediating the relationships between its members, that encourages the establishment of dependency relationships to achieve meaningful learning. The group interaction is not easily achieved, often does not manifest a real working group, each participant the more defended their views, but does not learn, or is enriched by the vision of others, which is typical intervention decoupled negative phenomenon that affects the group dynamics. The development is socially determined, this being its essence. The interactions in which the subject is committed to lifelong allows this process to achieve that with the increasing complexity of social contexts of the subject demand restructuring and new psychological formations capable of adapting to life in the middle and then be able to transcend the immediacy of their behavior, being the most important result of the development achievement of behavioral self-regulation. It has proposed an approach to teacher-student and student-student, and group as a whole, emphasizing the possibilities of the student to perform beyond their current development with the help of significant other, giving the teacher a role different from Presenter and controller of the strategy but part of the felt need to develop or introduce the strategy and that he himself, in conjunction with the student who transfers and guide their practice and their co-learners, whereas learning situation can be from specific areas or from the multidisciplinary nature in a teaching or professional practice.

Developing and implementing small group discussion

Make a safe place. Students will not contribute to a discussion if they are afraid that they will be ridiculed for what they say. This needs to be done by an explicit statement and by demonstration. Have clear objectives for the discussions and communicate them clearly. Are the small groups meant to discuss specific assigned readings? Are they where students ask questions to clarify what they do not understand (and if they have no questions are they all excused)? Are these "mini lectures" in which you are presenting new information? Formulate and communicate your expectations of the students. Will they be graded on participation? This is not usually a good incentive because it's difficult to coerce participation and students have the impression that participation can never be graded fairly, anyway. It's better if they form more intrinsic reasons for participation such as a feeling of responsibility to the group or because it's fun and interesting. Also, let students know that a discussion is not a series of two-way exchanges between the instructor and each student. Some students have not had much experience with group discussions and do not really understand what is expected of them. Avoid yes/no questions. Ask "why" or "how" questions that lead to discussion and when students give only short answers, ask them to elaborate. Also, avoid questions that have only one answer. This isn't "Jeopardy" and students shouldn't be put into the position of trying to guess which set of words you have in mind. Don't fear silence. This may be the most difficult thing to do but it's absolutely essential. When we are responsible for facilitating a discussion, we tend to feel that a lack of response within one or two beats is stretching into an eternity. But even if you have posed a

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very interesting question or situation, the students will need some time to think and formulate a response. If you have very reticent students, you can try asking them to write down one or two ideas before you open up discussion. Or try handing out a list of discussion topics at the end of the session for the next session to give them time to think. Even so, there may be times when there is just no response. That's when you need to re-state the topic, use a different example, take only a part of it at a time, or throw out a "what if" scenario or devil's advocate proposition. But the important thing is to learn to bide your time and bite your tongue and wait for the students to respond. When possible, set up the room for discussion. A circle works best, especially if the group can sit around a table. If you can't re-arrange the furniture, then move around the room, sit among the students; become a discussion participant rather than a teacher. Get to know the students' names and who they are. Students are more likely to be engaged with the group if addressed by name rather than by being pointed at. If you know the interests, majors, experiences, etc. of the students, it becomes much easier to think of ways to involve them. For example, if you ask "Jane" to contribute a perspective based on her semester in Rome, you're more likely to get her involved in the discussion than if you ask if anyone wants to say something about the Coliseum. Provide positive feedback for participation. If a student is reluctant to speak up and then makes a contribution that just lies there like a dead fish, that student is not likely to try again. If you can't think of anything better, thank the student for his/her contribution. But it's much better to build on what the student has said, add an insight, ask others how they would respond to what the student said, and otherwise weave that contribution into the fabric of the discussion. Feedback can be a good means of getting through a lull in the discussion also. A recap of what has been discussed so far lets students know that you heard what they said, helps to reinforce main points, and often stimulates further discussion. Show enthusiasm for the subject. You can't expect students to become interested in a discussion topic for which the instructor shows no enthusiasm. This usually means that the instructor has not done his/her homework, a part of which is to think about what is interesting, why the subject is worthwhile or relevant, personal experience with the subject, how the topic relates to current events, etc. If you are interested in the subject, then you will be interested in discovering what your students think and feel. Teach your students how to participate. Many of them may have had little or no experience with small group discussion, and most of those who have experience have never been taught how to do it well. There are all kinds of resources in the library in the Speech/Communications area about small-group discussion. You could prepare a handout for your students or assign a project (preferably in small groups) that involves their preparing information for the rest of the group about small-group communications. Ease students into discussion. One tactic is to arrive at the classroom early and engage the first students to arrive in "chit chat" about the weather, a recent sports event, something in the news, etc. The point is to get students comfortable and talking so that as you ease them into the subject for the day, you are not making a sudden demand for performance. You will also be establishing the idea that discussion is a natural process, not cruel and inhuman punishment, or something with which they have no experience. Clarify for yourself how you see your role as a discussion facilitator. If you are uncomfortable, your students will also be uncomfortable. So don't try to make yourself into the "Great Communicator" if you are not. Are you more comfortable with a prepared list of topics and questions or do you like a more free-wheeling atmosphere? Do you feel that

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some topics are strictly off limits or do you feel that you can manage even very "touchy" topics by keeping the discussion relevant and on course? Are you able to give over enough control to the students so that they feel some ownership and responsibility to making the course work? Provide opportunities for students to talk to each other in smaller, unsupervised groups so that they get to know each other and become comfortable with sharing ideas. You can do this with small "break-out" groups which are assigned a specific task about which they will report to the larger group. You can assign group projects, encourage the formation of small study groups, or have the class form interest groups which are responsible for contributing something related to their particular interest periodically. The point is to encourage interaction that is not under the watchful eye of the instructor and helps students to become comfortable with each other. Manage both process and content. This is often rather difficult at first but becomes much easier with practice. Good discussion is as much about process as it is about content and if you concentrate on one but neglect the other, you are likely to have problems. The tendency is to become caught up in the content and forget to encourage quiet students to contribute or forget to minimize your own contributions. But concentrating too much on making sure everyone contributes or on acknowledging and rewarding contributions can allow the conversation to stray too far afield or become mired in a tangle of irrelevant minutiae. To a great extent, you will need to take your cues from the students. While you are part of the discussion, you have the added responsibility of monitoring it as well. During the course of a class session, you will probably have to do some of each. Bringing students into the process of the course and even having them contribute to content does not mean that you have to give over total control. It's still your course and your responsibility to inform the students what information they should study, how they will be expected to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding, and your standards for performance. It is their responsibility to read, study, participate, and perform. When you ask students to participate, you are not asking them to simply voice their unformed and uninformed opinions. At the developmental stage for most freshmen and sophomores, students tend to believe fervently that everyone has a right to his/her opinion. Unfortunately, the corollary, for them, is that therefore all opinions are equal. Part of your mission, therefore, is to help them understand the difference. Listen, learn, and adapt. There is no single prescription for all groups. Much like individual people, groups have individual characters and you will need to adapt your style to them as much as is comfortable for you. If you can be open to those differences, they will become part of what makes teaching an interesting challenge year after year after year.

Developing and implementing student presentation/reflection

As the culminating event of the portfolio process, all students make an annual presentation about themselves in relation to the outcomes. This is an essential final piece in the process of placing the responsibility for learning and growth squarely with the student. After collecting a body of evidence about themselves during the year, reviewing it at defined intervals, reflecting about what it says about themselves and refining personal learning goals, the student must summarize all that and share it in a professional way with an audience. The presentation forces students to synthesize information from a collection of sources, note and explain patterns, celebrate successes and growth, explore ongoing

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challenges, and apply that knowledge to setting goals for the future. We believe strongly in developing active learners and the final presentation is a cornerstone of that belief. Students begin to seriously prepare for the annual presentation during the 4th quarter. They are given developmentally appropriate assistance to prepare for the presentation. Younger students are given more structure and guidance in helping them prepare to participate in a formal interview. Older students develop a 20-25 minute presentation. Whatever the format, each student must give a brief introduction of themselves, address each outcome specifically with supporting evidence of their growth, tie things together in a conclusion and address judges questions.

Developing and implementing the cognitive scheme

A schema is a [cognitive] structure for screening, coding, and evaluating the stimuli that impinge on the organism. It is the mode by which the environment is broken down and organized into its many psychologically relevant facets. On the basis of that matrix of schemata, the individual is able to orient himself [herself] in relation to time and space and to categorize and interpret experiences in a meaningful way (Beck, 1967, p.283). Cognitive schema serve as organizers of meaning about all aspects of ones world view including relational views toward self, other, and the world. It is thought that all cognitive schema are developed during childhood and are further elaborated on throughout ones life. The Schema Characteristics are: Cognitive schema, when triggered, are capable of generating automatic thoughts, strong affect, behavioral tendencies. Most people (even those who would not be diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder) have difficulty in one or more schema area(s) This is the idea behind the identification of a clients core issue (a.k.a. - Early Maladaptive Schema). The goal of counseling is to help the client achieve the goals that the core issues are blocking.

Developing and implementing student conclusion

Conclusions pull together the various results of the study, consider what they mean, and suggest their importance. There are several types of conclusions. The following is one typology: 1. Findings summarize two or more results. 2. Interpretations indicate what the results and findings mean within the study and within the context of prior research on the topic. 3. Generalization extrapolates the results or findings beyond the studied units. 4. Implications suggest how the findings may be important for policy, practice, theory, and subsequent research. 5. Recommendations urge specific actions in respect to policy, practice, theory, or subsequent research. Conclusions have considerable appeal-indeed they are the objective of any research study. They are also usually easily read. For those reasons, apprentice scholars may skip

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most of the research report and jump to the conclusions and recommendations. That is a mistake. Conclusions and recommendations are not an automatic extension of the results. They require careful inference in light of the delimitations of the study (the bounds on the questions of the study, the contexts studied, the population and sampling frame, and the interventions that occurred or were administered) and in light of the limitations of the study (the methodological shortcomings). They also require broad knowledge of the topic being addressed, they require combining facts and values, and they involve some speculation. Even eminent researchers occasionally blow the conclusions and recommendations of a study. It is not uncommon to find a conclusion or two with no real support from the results, and occasionally a conclusion will be contradicted by the results. The most common reasons for that are fatigue and ambition. The conclusions and recommendations cannot be generated until the rest of the research is completed, and by then the research has usually taken more time and money than expected. So the conclusions and recommendations are often hastily assembled. In addition, many researchers have hopes of making important contributions, and, at the end, they sometimes succumb to concluding and recommending more than is well justified by their study. Whether there is good justification for the conclusions can usually be determined by reading the research report. Indeed, readers may infer additional conclusions that are well supported by the study but not stated in the report. It should be noted, however, that some omissions in the report may make some conclusions appear unjustified even though the researcher actually has good justification for them. Common errors when generating the conclusions and recommendations are the following: 1. Stating conclusions that the researcher thinks are correct and important, but for which the study provides no support. 2. Generalizing well beyond the questions, contexts, population, and interventions that were actually studied. 3. Not adding cautions when there are important limitations in methods and/or their execution in the study. 4. Falsely interpreting statistical significance and the lack thereof (This is explained in 5. Selectively focusing on some results while ignoring others and the pattern of results 6. Moving from inference to values and speculation, with using wording that clearly indicates that is involved.

Developing and implementing assessment

Assessment of student learning is the process of evaluating the extent to which participants in education have developed their knowledge, understanding and abilities. The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to gauge student progress.[3] Though the notion of assessment is generally more complicated than the following categories suggest, assessment is often divided for the sake of convenience using the following distinctions: 1. formative and summative 2. objective and subjective 3. referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative) 4. informal and formal. The UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2006) in its Code of Practice state that There are many different forms of assessment, serving a variety of purposes. These

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include: promoting student learning by providing the student with feedback, normally to help improve his/her performance; valuating student knowledge, understanding, abilities or skills; providing a mark or grade that enables a student's performance to be established. The mark or grade may also be used to make progress decisions; enabling the public (including employers), and higher education providers, to know that an individual has attained an appropriate level of achievement that reflects the academic standards set by the awarding institution and agreed UK norms, including the frameworks for higher education qualifications.

References: http://www.learnatlast.com/10steps-to-developing-a-quality-lesson-plan.html http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/worksheet_intro.pdf http://fmgmpbatangbarat.wordpress.com/pengembangan-rencana-pelaksanaanpembelajaran-matematika/ http://www.carnet.hr/referalni/obrazovni/en/mkod/dev_teaching.html http://www.centrorisorse.org/personal-development-from-the-interaction-studentstudent-and-student-teacher-and-as-a-group.html http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/small_group.html http://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/information_and_resources/info_to_go/transition_ to_adulthood/portfolios_for_student_growth.html http://www.gwu.edu/~litrev/a08.html