Groundwater vulnerability 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Definition of Vulnerability Factors governing groundwater vulnerability Sources of Groundwater contamination; point and non-point contamination Influence of climate on GW contamination Climate and its influence on GW Vulnerability; dfn, weather n climate factors, mean values (7+14+2x21)/4 Data collected at the climate stations; position, altitude, climate records (ppt, etc), altitude, special factors or impacts of the station Climate diagrams and their interpretations: temperature zand ppt Koppens Climate Classification: Advantage, especially why its easy 2 handle, Classes A, B, C, D and E Temperature changes with altitude; especially the reason the temperature at the Stratosphere and Thermosphere increases (the presence of Ozone gases which absorbs solar radiation). Local wind systems; forests to plains, suburb to cities, land and sea breezes. Alpine Pumping and its role in transport of pollutants Soils; definition, role in GWV, Weathering; Physical and Chemical processes

Raw Materials 1. Rules for sustainable development Rate of consumption of renewable resources should not exceed the rate of their regeneration; The rate of consumption of non-renewable resources should not exceed the rate at which they can be replaced by functionally equivalent renewable resources; The materials and energy input into the environment should not exceed the rate at which the environment can absorb them without detrimental effects; The rate of anthropogenic input and environmental interference should be measured against the time it will take to restore the environment to its original state; Hazards and unacceptable risks to human health should be avoided. 2. Static lifetime=the ratio between the mineral reserves and actual production 3. Reserves=these are mineral resources that have been measured, inferred and indicated, and their production/exploitation is deemed to be economical., resources=are a nations total mineral amount; they can be known but whose exploitation is uneconomic and the undiscovered mineral deposits. Measured reserves = mineral deposits that have been sampled thoroughly that we are sure of its outline, tonnage and average grade , inferred reserves= have been sampled but not thorough and there is enough information about its outline, tonnage and grade, indicated= 4. Procedures of acquiring mining rights/authority:

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

Mineral occurrence Mineral deposits Break even grade Prospection Exploration Claim Concession Mining Property Clay formation; 3=altered granite, bauxite from nephelin syenite and hydrothermal alteration in granite Types of clay: Kaoline, Illite (Smectite), Montmorillonite (Bentonite) Bentonite formation= formed from the weathering of cretaceous volcano-sedimentary units or tuff, its properties=high expansion capacity, high cation exchange, high plasticity, products and uses=i) absorbing clays; filters for water purification, powder for fire extinguisher, litter for cats, beer and wine purification, inert vehicle for insecticides; ii) thixotropic/packing material; drilling mud/drilling sludge, construction of sealing membranes. Products made of Clay and clay stones=Fire resistant; ceramics (earthen- and stone ware, porcelain/china, dental, silicate), fire bricks/schamotte, oxide and non-oxide ceramics; and nonfire resistant; fine pottery clays, loams, coarse clays, expanding/foam clays, sealing clays. Schamotte/ Fireclay/ Refractory clays= used for making pizza stones, tiled stoves, chimneys, fireplaces. Schamotte Formation: Clay is burnt/ sintered to semi-liquid and sticky state (schamotte) Schamotte is crushed and ground, then separated by grain size Schamotte grains are mixed with binding clay to form fireclay/ refractory clay=schamotte stones

10. Oxide and non-oxide ceramics = are not made of natural materials, rather Carbides, nitrides, flourides and pure oxides and their uses= semi-conductors, superconductors and supraconductors, motor pieces, turbines.
Oxide Ceramics=Oxidation resistant, chemically inert, electrically insulating, generally low thermal conductivity, slightly complex manufacturing and low cost for alumina, more complex manufacturing and higher cost for zirconia. Non-oxide Ceramics=Low oxidation resistance, extreme hardness, chemically inert, high thermal conductivity, and electrically conducting, difficult energy dependent manufacturing and high cost.

11. Expanding clays formation diagramflowchart / Clay Mining: refer to diagram script 11, slide 15; 1-Clay deposits 2&3- Crushing 4&6&17-rolling mills 5&7-double shaft mixers 8-large silos, 12-dust silo, 20-storage silo 9-7th round rolling devices

10-electric filter 11-exhaust fan 13-double rotary kiln; 13.1-drier, 13.2-swell and burner 14-shaft cooler 15-coal, 16-oil 18-between stocks 19-screening; 21-weighing and loading, shipping 12. Bricks= should be porous and perforated to reduce the density, pressure resistant, high suction, no cracks and fissures, dimensional accuracy and roofing tiles=frost resistant Brick production: A-Raw material preparationB-Crushing, Grinding and Screening C-Mixing (with water) and Molding into dimensions D-Packing/stacking/Hacking-drying in the open air E- Burning/Firing and Cooling..then packing and shipping 13. Lime (Calcium oxide) and Cement= Raw materials in cement production: Calcium Carbonate (CaCo3)/limestone, used to produce Cao/lime with release of CO2 Silicon dioxide (silica), SiO2, Aluminium dioxide (alumina) Al2O3, Magnesium carbonate, MgCo3, Iron oxide, Fe2O3 Sodium Oxide (NaO2) Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) Loss of Ignition (H20) Chlorine, Cl2 Gypsum/ Calcium Sulphate (CaSO )used at the last stage for setting These are ground/crushed together then sent to the silo for storage and homogenization to form a kiln feed The kiln feed is fed into the kiln system; it is pre-heated at the cooler end (btwn 900 and 1000 deg. C) to remove all moisture. The burning in the Kiln takes place in 4 zones; a) b) c) d) Calcination (900 deg C), where limestone (CaCO3) is converted to Lime (CaO) Upper transition Zone where the temp rises to 1200 Deg. C The Sintering/ Burning Zone (1450 deg. C) where Clinker Nodules (3 to 20mm Di.) are formed Cooling/ lower Transition, the Clinker is cooled to abt 1250 degr. C

Exhaust dust from the kiln is used to dry the raw materials. The exhaust gases are de-dusted before releasing into the atmosphere

From the Kiln, the clinker is cooled to abt 800 degr. C and stored in silos The Clinker is ground with small proportion of Gypsum (CaSO4) to form Portland Cement. CaSO4 is used to control the setting times of the final cement products. The materials are milled together in a finishing mill The final cement is stored in silos by product typethese are packed and shipped. The following pollutants are emitted during cement production: NOx, Sox, Cox, Cement Kiln Dusts, and Trace Metals Hydraulic Lime=

matte

Mineralogical Laboratory Techniques Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is a nucleus comprising Protons (+ve charge), Neutrons (neutral charge) and surrounding shells of electrons. A neutral atom has equal number of Electrons and protons. Elements can combine physically in fixed proportions to form molecules of compounds. The valence of an atom is related to its ability to participate into chemical combinations with other elements, and is most often determined by the number of electrons in the outer energy shell. The atomic stability is associated with its valency; if an atom has a valency of 0, it is termed as being a stable atom, inert and unreactive. This is because they dont have voids in their outer shells to create a chemical bond. Those atoms with a valence of 7 are very reactive coz they have a higher tendency of attracting 1 electron from a partner to attain stability (an octet rule), a process refered to as Electronegativity. Bonding 1. Covalent Bonds Involves sharing of valence electrons between atoms Occurs in organic compounds, or between non-metals Are directional Very strong bond The material can only bend when the bond is broken, a process that utilizes a lot of energy. When broken, they cannot easily re-orient Very brittle and poor conductors of both heat and electricity (Graphite??) 2. Metallic Bonds Occurs between the electrostatic charge between the +ve charge cores of the atoms and the collective valence atoms. The metallic elements have low valence hence they easily give up their valence electrons to form a sea/cloud of electrons surrounding the atoms The valence electrons are free to move and form a vely charged soup/sea The +vely charged atom cores are held within the electron soup by their charge thus producing the metallic bond Metallic bond allows electrons to move freely in the electron soup under the effects of external electrical potential difference Are good conductors of both electricity and heat Non- directional 3. Ionic Bonds Transfer or donation of valence electrons (full electron transfer)

Between metals and non-metals Non-directional bonds The resulting electrostatic charge bonds the 2 atoms together Atomic radius may differ from ionic radius Coordination number is controlled by the ionic radius; Coordination number (CN) is the number of atoms adjacent to any particular atom, ie the number of neighbors.

4. Van Der Waals Bonds Weak electrostatic bonds Occurs between molecules Easily broken when material changes state, eg heating water to gaseous state. The primary covalent bond in the water molecule is not affected. Bond Energy The atoms arrange themselves within a bonding regime such that they are at a minimum energy level. This is when there is a balance between the attractive and repulsive forces. The spacing at thsis low level equilibrium distance is called the Inter-atomic spacing. Crystal Structure A crystal structure is the particular repeating arrangement of atoms/molecules or ions throughout a crystal. Structure refers to the internal arrangement of particles and not external appearance. Atomic arrangements Has a significant effect on the property of the material A cubic structure is used to model the arrangement of atoms within a material, also known as a unit cell. The unit cell is the smallest group of atoms, ions, molecules, which when repeated at regular intervals in 3D, will produce the lattice of a crystal system. The unite cell is described using; a) Lattice point/position b) Lattice direction (square brackets), Family of directions (<xxx>) c) Lattice plane (brackets) There are also 14 Bravais Crystal Lattices; There are 7 Crystal Systems: 1. Cubic; Simple Cubic (SC), Body Centered Cubic (BCC) and Face Centered Cubic (FCC) 2. Tetragonal; Simple Tetragonal (ST) and Body Centered Tetragonal (BCT) 3. Orthorhombic; Simple Orthorhombic (SO), Body Centered Orthorhombic (BCO), Face Centered orthorhombic (FCO) and Base Centered Orthorhombic (BCO)

4. 5. 6. 7.

Rhombohedral Hexagonal Monoclinic; Simple Monoclinic (SM) and Base Centred Monoclinic (BCM) Triclinic

Groundwater Salinization/ Seawater Instrusion into Coastal Aquifers 1. Sources of GW Salinization Presence of brines in petroleum mines; Presence of gypsum CaSO4, when dissolved ionizes to SO42- and Ca2+ Anhydrite or mineral salts within the aquifer material Intense irrigation which increases a lot of evapotranspiration Presence of connate water in low aquifer depths Seawater intrusion; due to changes on the hydraulic gradient of the groundwater 2. Active and Passive Intrusion Passive, a lot has been pumped, but the pumping has not yet reached the saline water. The gradient is still sloping seawards. In Active, the hydraulic gradient has shifted, due to high groundwater abstraction 3. Ghijben-Herzberg Principle Pressure of saline water= pressure of fresh water Assumptions of Ghibjen-Herzberg Principle The aquifer is homogeneous; hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity are the same Hydrodynamic dispersion is negligible Vertical flow in the aquitard and horizontal flow is negligible Horizontal flow in the aquifer while vertical flow is negligible Saline groundwater is at rest; qs=0 4. Ion exchange is influenced by Sorption; Absorption; absorbed/ chemical taken up into the solid Adsorption; adherence to the surface of the solid Ion exchange; replacement of one chemical for another at the solid surfaceDuring seawater intrusion, the ca+ in the aquifer material is replaced by the Na+ from the seawater. During recharge, the reverse takes place; the Na+ are replaced by the Ca+ (and Mg+ ions) 5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)- total minerals that are dissolved in water and are used to describe the quality of water. TDS affects EC 6. Electrical Conductivity- measure of how the water transmit electric currentswhen there is a lot of TDS, it means there is a lot of ions dissolved in the water hence high electrical conductivity. SEC is the electrical conductivity of 1 ccm of water at 25 degrees C.

7. 8. 9. 10.

Sodium Absorption Ration (SAR)Exchangeable Sodium %Revelle Coefficient- the ration of Cl to CO3 and HCO3 Countermeasures to curb Seawater intrusion Application of freshwater barriers; Extraction of saline and brakish groundwater Modifying pumping practice Land reclamation Increase of artificial recharge in upland areas to enlarge the outflow of fresh groundwater thru coastal Physical barriers

Groundwater Chemistry/ Hydrochemistry