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TH[ PH ILOSOPHY OF tANClJAQ
Two Dogmas of Empi ricism
OOnmuCIS iD a fie ld outside that of the physicaJ
and of the tlifhcuhiM- in
a n allc:mpl 10 in detail t heir
and interpretation .
IS. cr. Car nap (ICJ36- 37) . e:;peciatJy S and
10.
19. ( 1936-37). p. 452.
20. The M!l1leore 0 is what Carnap caUs the
r cpN'scnUllive Jell/ena o r Ihe: couple ronsisting
or Ihe kDte nces SI aou 51: ( 1936- 37). pro
450-53.
21. cr., for example. Camap ( 19-' 5) 1 and ( 19-45)2.
and espedalJy ( 1950). see and
Oppell heim ( 1945).
22. On simplicity, d. especially Popper ( 1935),
chapt er V; Reichenbach (19l!1) . 142; Goodman
(1949) 1. ( 1949)2. ( 950): on u planMor}' and
power , cr. Helllpt'l li nd Oppcnheim
(1948). pan IV.
REF ERENCES
Ayer , A. J . . Tru/h (lnd LU8K (London:
1936) 2d ed. 19.1'; .
Carnilp. R., "Testabili ty and Meani ng. Phi/wophy
()I Sdmcr. 3 ( 936) snd 4 (1937).
Carnap, R., "LogicKI Found:ni()lIs ()f the Unity 0 1
Science," in I lll ltrn,w ono/ S ncyrloptJiil of Uni
{ltd l. I (Chicago;
Carnap. R.. Fcwmdorion$ o/LAgic alld Murnl maria
(Chicago: t939) .
Carll ap, R., vOu ImJuctive Philosophy 0/
Scitllcc. 12 ( 1"'5). Referred 10 as in
Ihis arliclc..
R.. ' 'The T9I'o Concept, of Probability, "
Philo.IOp"y and Pht llom;:n% g/cal ReseaN.: /l. 5
(1945). Referred to as (1945)2 iD arTicle,
Camap, R., {.()gical 01
(Chicago: 19:"00).
Chisholm, R. M., '"The Comrary-Io-Fact CoIIIJ!
tiooal," Mind, S5 ( 1!,I'6).
Church, A .. Review of Aycr ( 1946), Tile JOWIIO/ of
Symbolic /,.()gic. 14 (194!1), 52-B.
Fe'gl, H., Reah. ,ic vs.
PhcnllmenaliMic i lnerprelalions, "
11 ( 1950) .
Goodlll lln. N .. 4TIIe Problem of CQunlcd ocwal
Coo<1i tional$." 'n,t Journu/ of 44
(1947).
Goodma!l, N .. "The Logical Simpt icuy 01 Predi
cate\." Th r Jou/III.I uf Logic. 1-1
(1949). Rdeue.oJ to (1949)1 in thi) Articl e:.
Goodman. N .. "Same: Reft cclium. on n ,col)' of
Systems, PIII/woph), and PhtntJmtl10l
Rtstarch. 9 Referred 10 n 0 94\l 1,
Ibis
Goodman. N., "An l mprovemell l in the Tboor,.
Slmplid ty," The /c'l4rnu/ of Symbolic Logrc IS
(195()). .
N., Facl, FICrio". and FOrKllSI (C .
hndge. Mass.:
Helmer, O . and P. Oppeuhei m. "A SymaaM:.!
Dehmhon of Probability lIud of Degret
Confirmat ion." The JOu m u/ ofSYIII/)lIl1t f..ox,c
10 (1945).
Hempel. C G, "A Lo<>,)c.a l Apprai1Nl! of
tiMaii slD," In A)'p*, cl) vf xirnrific ExpiIlrJ4b4"
(New York: 19(3).
Hempel. C. G" Theoretician's Oilernma: "
St udy in t he Logic 01 Theory COustructiOn:_
ASP/1 of &pliuwoon (Nt. Yort.;
19(5).
Hempel, C. G. ana P. Oppenheim, "St udies in 1M
t ...gic of Explanuion ," PhiloJoph,. of Scnw,
15 (1<,048).
Langrord, C. H .. in 1M Jm4f rlill of S._
botic wgie, 6 (194 1),
Lewis. C. I. , An A/Jalysis of I<MwltdKt _
Valuation (La Salle. III .: 1946).
MacCOIQuodalil. K. .md P F... "On I
Disti nct ion Betwccn Hypothetical Constndo
intervening f'JydroW!iaII "
,jew, 55 (l 94i!) .
Marg(nall . H . of Modern
Pni/(!Wpily of Se/l':ncr. ! ( 19.'5),
Nort hrop, F. S. C. Till' i..oel(' of the Sotnca ...
H UITwIUrics (New York:
OConnor. D. J, _"SOme COI'I'Cqucorno of ProfeMUJ
A. J. Ayer'$ Verifi catlon Pnnci plc." Anal",,
10 (1950).
Pap . A . Iemtnl)" of Analytic Ph ll()soplly
Yor k: : 1949).
Popper, K.. LoRik dcr Fomhung 19351
Popper. K., NOiC au Natural L.a\\s .ud So
Cal led Contrary-Ia. Fael CondiliOlli\ls':' MIlIIIi
58
Rei chenhach. H., Pililo)"opliit dcr RilUm-lril- l.t'"
(Bcl lin: 1928).
Reichenbnch. H _ElellJ.(I1rs of SymlxA,r / ,n.fK
York: :
B" Humu" (New YOI"k:
Scll lrck: , M. , "Me.aniull arId VerifiCMtion.' pluJtt.
fopllit:al 45 ( 1936), A ts() reprinttd III
Feigl_ I-l and W. Se ttaB. clb. ..
Philo.foplircal A/lalrs!! (New York: J9ot9).
Kennet h W., "The Nature of 'fhcOI!
COnStruChon In Con[empnrary Psydlolot:1.
51 (1944) .
Modem empiricism has been conditioned in
larJll part by two One is a beli ef in
I(lme fundament al cleavage belween truths
ahlCh are unaly,ie, o r grounded in meanings
indepcndcnl l)' of of raC1 , and
.tIich are s.Vl!lhefjc, or g.rounded in fact. The
oIbtr dogma is reductionism : the beli ef that
ach meaningful statement is equivalenl to
tOme logical OUIlSIrUcl upon terms which refer
to immediate experi ence. Both dogmas. I
wit argue, are ill-founded . One effect of
lbandoning them is, as we shall sec, a blurri ng
of the boundary between specu
la
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