Petroleum Crude (unit-5)

Types of Crude Oils

The petroleum industry often characterizes crude oils according to their geographical source, e.g., Alaska North Slope Crude. Oils from different geographical areas have their own unique properties; they can vary in consistency from a light volatile fluid to a semi-solid. Classification of crude oil types by geographical source is generally not a useful classification scheme for response personnel, because general toxicity, physical state, and changes that occur with time and weathering are not primary considerations. Rather, the classification scheme provided below is more useful in a response scenario. Class A: Light, Volatile Oils. These oils are highly fluid, often clear, spread rapidly on solid or water surfaces, have a strong odor, a high evaporation rate, and are usually flammable. They penetrate porous surfaces such as dirt and sand, and may be persistent in such a matrix. They do not tend to adhere to surfaces; flushing with water generally removes them. Class A oils may be highly toxic to humans, fish, and other biota. Most refined products and many of the highest quality light crudes can be included in this class. Class B: Non-Sticky Oils. These oils have a waxy or oily feel. Class B oils are less toxic and adhere more firmly to surfaces than Class A oils, although they can be removed from surfaces by vigorous flushing. As temperatures rise, their tendency to penetrate porous substrates increases and they can be persistent. Evaporation of volatiles may lead to a Class C or D residue. Medium to heavy paraffin-based oils fall into this class. Class C: Heavy, Sticky Oils. Class C oils are characteristically viscous, sticky or tarry, and brown or black. Flushing with water will not readily remove this material from surfaces, but the oil does not readily penetrate porous surfaces. The density of Class C oils may be near that of water and they often sink. Weathering or evaporation of volatiles may produce solid or tarry Class D oil. Toxicity is low, but wildlife can be smothered or drowned when contaminated. This class includes residual fuel oils and medium to heavy crudes. Class D: Nonfluid Oils. Class D oils are relatively non-toxic, do not penetrate porous substrates, and are usually black or dark brown in color. When heated, Class D oils may melt and coat surfaces that become very difficult to clean. Residual oils, heavy crude oils, some high paraffin oils, and some weathered oils fall into this class. These classifications are dynamic for spilled oils ... weather conditions and water temperature greatly influence the behavior of oil and refined petroleum products in the environment. For example, as volatiles evaporate from a Class B oil, it may become a Class C oil. If a significant temperature drop occurs (e.g., at night), a Class C oil may solidify and resemble a Class D oil. Upon warming, the Class D oil may revert back to a Class C oil. Crued Oil Product Crude oil is feedstock for just about everything under the sun. When crude oil is refined, its various chemical parts are separated and some become gasoline, some lubricants, some asphalt, and others the raw materials for plastics and rubber and many more things. Here are some examples of what can be obtained from petroleum (crude oil, natural gas, and/or viscous or solid forms): Fuels - like gasoline, diesel, propane (many people use propane to heat their homes), heating oil Heavy bottoms - like asphalt, bitumen, tar Petrochemicals - used as a feedstock for many everyday products: plastic gadgets, tools, bags, toys candles clothing (polyester, nylon) hand lotions petroleum jelly perfume dishwashing liquids ink bubble gums car tires ammonia

heart valves and many more

Crude oil is refined and used to make all these products: Ethane and other short-chain alkanes which are used as fuel Diesel Fuel oils Petrol Jet fuel Kerosene Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) Natural gas Alkenes (olefins) which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required). Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. Sulfur or Sulfuric acid. These are a useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor oleum, a byproduct of sulfur removal from fuels. Bulk tar. Asphalt Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel. Paraffin wax Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production.

Natural gas
Natural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane. It is found associated with other fossil fuels, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. It is an important fuel source, a major feedstock for fertilizers, and a potent greenhouse gas. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo extensive processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, carbon dioxide, water vapor and sometimes helium and nitrogen. Natural gas is often informally referred to as simply gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal.

Sources of NG
Fossil natural gas Fossil natural gas can be "associated" (found in oil fields) or "non-associated" (isolated in natural gas fields), and is also found in coal beds (as coalbed methane). It sometimes contains significant quantities of ethane, propane, butane, and pentaneheavier hydrocarbons removed prior to use as a consumer fuelas well as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide.[2] Natural gas is commercially produced from oil fields and natural gas fields. Gas produced from oil wells is called casinghead gas or associated gas. The natural gas industry is producing gas from increasingly more challenging resource types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gas and coalbed methane.

Town gas Town gas is a mixture of methane and other gases, mainly the highly toxic carbon monoxide, that can be used in a similar way to natural gas and can be produced by treating coal chemically. This is a historic technology, still used as 'best solution' in some local circumstances, although coal gasification is not usually economic at current gas prices. However, depending upon infrastructure considerations, it remains a future possibility.

Biogas When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic matter (biomass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas). Sources of biogas include swamps, marshes, and landfills (see landfill gas), as well as sewage sludge and manure[5] by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation particularly in cattle.

Crystallized Natural Gas - Hydrates Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of hydrates under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost such as those in Siberia (hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form). However, as of 2010 no technology has been developed to produce natural gas economically from hydrates. It costs anywhere between once and twice as much to produce usable natural gas from crystallized natural gas, using current technology

Natural gas processing

The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets. The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).

Uses
Power generation Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas turbines and steam turbines. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit energy released. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal.[13] Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is thus the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, and this technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a reasonable cost. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner options for converting natural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive.

Domestic use Natural gas is supplied to homes, where it is used for such purposes as cooking in natural gas-powered ranges and ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling and central heating. Home or other building heating may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. CNG is used in rural homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs throughout the United States. However, due to CNG being less economical than LPG, LPG (propane) is the dominant source of rural gas. Transportation Compressed natural gas (methane) is a cleaner alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol) and diesel Fertilizer Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use in fertilizer production.

Water gas
Water gas is a synthesis gas, containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It is a useful product but requires careful handling because of the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. The gas is made by passing steam over red-hot coke: C + H2O CO + H2 The reaction is endothermic so the coke must be continually re-heated to keep the reaction going. This was usually done by alternating the steam stream with an air stream.

Lowe's gas process In 1873, Thaddeus S. C. Lowe developed and patented the water gas process by which large amounts of hydrogen gas could be generated for residential and commercial use in heating and lighting. Unlike the common coal gas, or coke gas which was used in municipal service, this gas provided a more efficient heating fuel. The process used the water gas shift reaction: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The process was discovered by the passing of high-pressure steam over hot coal, the major source of coke gas. Lowe's process improved upon the chimney systems by which the coal could remain superheated thereby maintaining a consistently high supply of the gas. This process created a thermo-chemical reaction of applying hydrogen, in the steam, to carbon monoxide, in the coke gas. The reaction produced carbon dioxide and pure hydrogen which after a process of cooling and "scrubbing," passing through water vapor, left just a pure hydrogen gas. The process spurred on the industry of gas manufacturing, and gasification plants were established quickly along the Eastern seaboard of the United States. Similar processes, like the Haber Process, led to the manufacture of ammonia (NH3) by the combining of nitrogen, found in air, with high volumes of hydrogen. This spurred on the refrigeration industry which long used ammonia as its refrigerant. Prof. Lowe also held several patents on artificial ice making machines, and was able to run successful businesses in cold storage as well as products which operated on hydrogen gas. Water gas shift reaction The water-gas shift reaction (WGS/Dussan Reaction) is a chemical reaction in which carbon monoxide reacts with water vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen:

CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The water-gas shift reaction is an important industrial reaction. It is often used in conjunction with steam reforming of methane or other hydrocarbons,[1] which is important for the production of high purity hydrogen for use in ammonia synthesis. The water-gas shift reaction was discovered by Italian physicist Felice Fontana in 1780. The reaction is slightly exothermic, yielding 42 kJ (10 kcal) per mole.[1] The carbon monoxide can also be generated by bogs or other waste regenerative means by physical/chemical processes such as bog and landfill fires. Applications sift rean. This reaction has been used as a CO removal method from the reformate for fuel cell applications. The reverse water gas shift reaction has recently found a possible application in In-Situ Resource Utilization on Mars to provide oxygen for fuel for the Mars Direct mission concept.

Reaction Conditions The water gas shift reaction is sensitive to temperature, with the tendency to shift towards reactants as temperature increases due to Le Chatelier's principle. In fuel-rich hydrocarbon combustion processes, the water gas reaction at equilibrium state is often employed as a means to provide estimates for molar concentrations of burnt gas constituents. The process is often used in two stages, stage one a high temperature shift (HTS) at 350 C (662 F) and stage two a low temperature shift (LTS) at 190210 C (374410 F). Standard industrial catalysts for this process are iron oxide promoted with chromium oxide for the HTS step and copper on a mixed support composed of zinc oxide and aluminum oxide for the LTS shift step. Catalysts Attempts to lower the reaction temperature of this reaction have been done primarily with a catalyst such as Fe3O4 (magnetite), or other transition metals and transition metal oxides. Another catalyst is the Raney copper catalyst.[4]

Producer gas
Producer Gas is a generic term referring to:

Wood gas: produced in a gasifier to power cars with ordinary internal combustion engines. Town gas: manufactured gas, originally produced from coal, for sale to consumers and municipalities. Syngas: used as a fuel source or as an intermediate for the production of other chemicals. In old movies and stories, when describing suicide by "turning on the gas" and leaving an oven door open without lighting the flame, they were talking about producer gas. It was odorless and poisonous. Modern 'natural gas' used in homes is far less toxic, and has an onion-like scent added to it for identifying leaks.

Liquefied petroleum gas

Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or autogas) is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly replacing chlorofluorocarbons as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant to reduce damage to the ozone layer.

Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane, mixes that are primarily butane, and the more common, mixes including both propane C3H8 (60%) and butane C4H10 (40%), depending on the season in winter more propane, in summer more butane. Propylene and butylenes are usually also present in small concentration. Production and storage LPG is synthesised by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is usually derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of crude oil, or extracted from oil or gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of the energy consumed, and burns cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions, posing no ground or water pollution hazards. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for diesel and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[1] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/l is lower than either that of petrol or diesel. At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate. Because of this, LPG is supplied in pressurised steel cylinders. In order to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid, these cylinders are not filled completely; typically, they are filled to between 80% and 85% of their capacity. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporised gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure. Uses Rural heating Predominantly in Europe, LPG provides a low-carbon alternative to traditional rural heating fuels, such as electricity and heating oil (kerosene). Despite a steady growth in urbanisation, rural areas still account for 90% of the EU's territory and are home to approximately half of its population. Relatively few of these areas can benefit from piped natural gas. LPG is an ideal power source for a rural population, either as a primary source or, increasingly, in combination with renewable fuels. More recently LPG is being used with combined heat and power technologies (CHP). Motor fuel When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition engines. Two recent studies have examined LPG-Diesel fuel mixes and found that smoke emissions and fuel consumption are reduced but HC emissions are increased. Refrigeration LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption refrigerator. Cooking According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian households or 33.6 million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel in 2001.[16] 76.64% of such households were from urban India making up 48% of urban Indian households as compared to a usage of 5.7% only in rural Indian households. LPG is subsidised by the government. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it potentially affects the urban middle class voting pattern. LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of town gas to buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units. Comparison with natural gas

LPG has a higher calorific value (94 MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable. LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and military installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used during initial gas system introductions, when the distribution infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.

Biogas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel. One type of biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste and energy crops.[1] This type of biogas comprises primarily methane and carbon dioxide. The other principal type of biogas is wood gas which is created by gasification of wood or other biomass. This type of biogas is comprised primarily of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, with trace amounts of methane. The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. Air contains 21% oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a low-cost fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. Production A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. Biogas can be produced utilizing anaerobic digesters. These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, an air-tight tank transforms biomass waste into methane producing renewable energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use any variation of an internal combustion engine.[3] There are two key processes: Mesophilic and Thermophilic digestion.[ Composition Typical composition of biogas Compound Chem % Methane CH4 5075 Carbon dioxide CO2 2550 Nitrogen N2 010 Hydrogen H2 01 Hydrogen sulfide H2S 03 Oxygen O2 02 The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 5575% CH4 [9] or higher using in situ purification techniquesAs-produced, biogas also contains water vapor, with the fractional water vapor volume a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured volume for water vapor content and thermal expansion is easily done via algorithm.

Applications Biogas can be utilized for electricity production on sewage works, in a CHP gas engine, where the waste heat from the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space heating; water heating; and process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for use in vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells and is a much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site CHP plants. Blast furnace gas Blast furnace gas is a by-product of blast furnaces that is generated when the iron ore is reduced with coke to metallic iron. It has a very low heating value, about 93 BTU/cubic foot, because it consists of about 60 percent nitrogen, 18-20% carbon dioxide and some oxygen, which are not flammable. The rest is mostly carbon monoxide, which has a fairly low heating value already. It is commonly used as a fuel within the steel works, but it can be used in boilers and power plants equipped to burn it. It may be combined with natural gas or coke oven gas before combustion or a flame support with richer gas or oil is provided to sustain combustion. Particulate matter is removed so that it can be burned more cleanly. Blast furnace gas is sometimes flared without generating heat or electricity. Blast Furnace Gas is generated at higher pressure and at about 100-150 deg.C in a modern Blast Furnace. This pressure is utilised to operate a generator (Top-gas-pressure Recovery Turbine - i.e.TRT in short), which can generate electrical energy up to 35 kwh/t of pig iron without burning any fuel. Dry type TRTs can generate more power than wet type TRT. Auto ignition point of Blast Furnace Gas is approx.630-650 deg.C and it has LEL (Lower Explosive Limit) of 27% & UEL (Upper Explosive Limit) of 75% in an air-gas mixture at normal temperature and pressure. Higher concerntation of Carbon Monoxide makes the gas hazardous. Liquefied natural gas(LNG) Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been converted temporarily to liquid form for ease of storage or transport. Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability, freezing and asphyxia.

The gas is first extracted and transported to a processing plant where it is purified by removing any condensates such as water, oil, mud, as well as other gases like CO2 and H2S and some time solids as mercury. The gas is then cooled down in stages until it is liquefied. LNG is finally stored in storage tanks and can be loaded and shipped. The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure (maximum transport pressure set at around 25 kPa/3.6 psi) by cooling it to approximately 162 C (260 F).

Compressed Natural Gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released). CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere. CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane [CH4]), to less than 1% of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers, at a normal pressure of 200248 bar (29003600 psi), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes. CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline/CNG). Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used the Asia-Pacific region, Latin America and EuropeAmerica due to rising gasoline prices.[1] In response to high fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-tuks and pickup trucks, transit and school buses, and trains. CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42% of LNG's (because it is not liquefied), and 25% of diesel's.[2] Technology.

CNG can be used in Otto-cycle (gasoline) and modified Diesel cycle engines. Lean-burn Otto-cycle engines can achieve higher thermal efficiencies than stoichiometric Otto-cycle engines and very low NOx emissions due to lower combustion temperature. Electronically controlled stoichiometric engines offer the lowest emissions across the board and the highest possible power output, especially when combined with exhaust gas Drawbacks Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than conventional gasoline power vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE). Therefore, the tanks used to store the CNG usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck which runs on CNG. This problem is solved in factory-built CNG vehicles that install the tanks under the body of the vehicle, thanks to a more rational CNG Advantage Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is eliminated. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other fuel-powered vehicles. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses. Another practical advantage observed is the increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil. CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel. CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of inflammability.[9] CNG produces significantly lesser emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons(UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter (PM), as compared to petrol . CNG Vrs LNG CNG is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While both are stored forms of natural gas, the key difference is that CNG is gas that is stored (as a gas) at high pressure, while LNG is in uncompressed liquid form. CNG has a lower cost of production and storage compared to LNG as it does not require an expensive cooling process and cryogenic tanks. CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of gasoline or petrol and the use of very high pressures (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205 to 275 bar). Coke Oven Gas Raw coke oven gas coming from the coke oven battery has 55% Hydrogen, 25% Methane, 6% Carbon monoxide, 3% Carbon Dioxide, etc. The coke oven by-product plant is an integral part of the by-product cokemaking process. In the process of converting coal into coke using the by-product coke oven, the volatile matter in the coal is vaporized and driven off. This volatile matter leaves the coke oven chambers as hot, raw coke oven gas. In a by-product coke oven the evolved coke oven gas leaves the coke oven chambers at high temperatures approaching 2000 deg F. This hot gas is immediately quenched by direct contact with a spray of aqueous liquor (flushing liquor). The resulting cooled gas is water saturated and has a temperature of 176 deg F. This gas is collected in the coke oven battery gas collecting main. From the gas collecting main the raw coke oven gas flows into the suction main. The amount of flushing liquor sprayed into the hot gas leaving the oven chambers is far more than is required for cooling, and the remaining unevaporated flushing liquor provides a liquid stream in the gas collecting main that serves to flush away condensed tar and other compounds.

Fuel Oil
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately 40 C (104 F) and oils burned in cotton or woolwick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes,

cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha. Classes Fuel oil is classified into six classes, numbered 1 through 6, according to its boiling point, composition and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 C, and carbon chain length, 9 to 70 atoms, of the fuel increases with fuel oil number. Viscosity also increases with number, and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases. No. 1 fuel oil, No. 2 fuel oil and No. 3 fuel oil are variously referred to as distillate fuel oils, diesel fuel oils, light fuel oils, gasoil or just distillate. For example, No. 2 fuel oil, No. 2 distillate and No. 2 diesel fuel oil are almost the same thing (diesel is different in that it also has a cetane number limit which describes the ignition quality of the fuel). Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil. Gas oil refers to the process of distillation. The oil is heated, becomes a gas and then condenses. Number 1 is similar to kerosene and is the fraction that boils off right after gasoline. Number 2 is the diesel fuel that trucks and some cars run on, leading to the name "road diesel". It is the same thing as heating oil. Number 3 is a distillate fuel oil and is rarely used. Number 4 fuel oil is usually a blend of distillate and residual fuel oils, such as No. 2 and 6; however, sometimes it is just a heavy distillate. No. 4 may be classified as diesel, distillate or residual fuel oil. Number 5 fuel oil and Number 6 fuel oil are called residual fuel oils (RFO) or heavy fuel oils. More Number 6 oil is produced compared to Number 5 oil, the terms heavy fuel oil and residual fuel oil are sometimes used as names for Number 6. Number 5 and 6 are what remains of the crude oil after gasoline and the distillate fuel oils are extracted through distillation. Number 5 fuel oil is a mixture of 75-80 % Number 6 oil and 25-20% of Number 2 oil. Number 6 oil may also contain a small amount of No. 2 to get it to meet specifications. Residual fuel oils are sometimes called light when they have been mixed with distillate fuel oil, while distillate fuel oils are called heavy when they have been mixed with residual fuel oil. Heavy gas oil, for example, is a distillate that contains residual fuel oil. The ready availability of very heavy grades of fuel oil is often due to the success of catalytic cracking of fuel to release more valuable fractions and leave heavy residue. Uses Oil has many uses; it heats homes and businesses and fuels trucks, ships and some cars. A small amount of electricity is produced by diesel, but it is more polluting and more expensive than natural gas. It is often used as a backup fuel for peaking power plants in case the supply of natural gas is interrupted or as the main fuel for small electrical generators. In Europe the use of diesel is generally restricted to cars (about 40%), SUVs (about 90%), and trucks and buses (virtually all). The market for home heating using fuel oil, called heating oil, has decreased due to the widespread penetration of natural gas. However, it is very common in some areas, such as the Northeastern United States. Residual fuel oil is less useful because it is so viscous that it has to be heated with a special heating system before use and it contains relatively high amounts of pollutants, particularly sulfur, which forms sulfur dioxide upon combustion. However, its undesirable properties make it very cheap. In fact, it is the cheapest liquid fuel available. Since it requires heating before use, residual fuel oil cannot be used in road vehicles, boats or small ships, as the heating equipment takes up valuable space and makes the vehicle heavier. Heating the oil is also a delicate procedure, which is inappropriate to do on small, fast moving vehicles. However, power plants and large ships are able to use residual fuel oil.

GTL (gas to liquid) Technology

Gas to liquids (GTL) is a refinery process to convert natural gas or other gaseous hydrocarbons into longer-chain hydrocarbons such as gasoline or diesel fuel. Methane-rich gases are converted into liquid fuels either via direct conversion or via syngas as an intermediate, for example using the Fischer Tropsch or Mobil processes.

Fischer-Tropsch process

GTL process using the Fischer Tropsch method This method starts with partial oxidation of methane (a component in natural gas) to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen and water, the carbon monoxide to hydrogen (H2) ratio is adjusted using the water gas shift reaction) and the excess carbon dioxide removal by aqueous solutions of alkanolamine (or physical solvents) the water is removed yielding synthesis gas (syngas) that is chemically reacted over an iron or cobalt catalyst to produce liquid hydrocarbons and other byproducts. Mobil process An alternative path starts by conversion of the natural gas to syngas, conversion of the syngas to methanol which is subsequently polymerized into alkanes over a zeolite catalyst. It was developed by Mobil in early 1970s. Methanol is made from methane (natural gas) in a series of three reactions: 1. Steam reforming: CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2 rH = +206 kJ mol-1 2. Water shift reaction CO + H2O CO2 + H2 rH = +206 kJ mol-1 3. Synthesis 2 H2 + CO CH3OH rH = -92 kJ mol-1 The methanol thus formed may be converted to gasoline by the Mobil process. First methanol is dehydrated to give dimethyl ether: 2 CH3OH CH3OCH3 + H2O This is then further dehydrated over a zeolite catalyst, ZSM-5, to give a gasoline with 80% (by weight based on the organics in the product stream) C5+ hydrocarbon products. ZSM-5 is deactivated by a carbon build-up ("coking") over time in converting methanol to gasoline. The catalyst can be re-activated by burning off the coke in a stream of hot (500 C (930 F)) air; however, the number of re-activation cycles is limited. Commercial uses

Using Gas-to-liquids processes, refineries can convert some of their gaseous waste products (Gas flare) into valuable fuel oils, which can be sold as is or blended only with diesel fuel. It may also be used for the economic extraction of gas deposits in locations where it is not economical to build a pipeline. This process will be increasingly significant as crude oil resources are depleted. Shell produces a diesel from natural gas in a factory in Bintulu, Malaysia. Another Shell GTL facility is the Pearl GTL plant in Qatar, the world's largest GTL facility.[1] The world's first commercial passenger flight powered by fuel made from natural gas landed in Qatar on monday 12th October 2009. The historic journey from London Gatwick to Doha took around six hours and was operated by Qatar Airways with an Airbus A340-600 aircraft using Rolls-Royce Trent 556 engines.

Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol. Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel. The term "biodiesel" is standardized as mono-alkyl ester in the United States.[1] Blends Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix: fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labeled B20, while pure biodiesel is referred to as B100.[2] It is common in the USA to see B99.9 because a federal tax credit is awarded to the first entity which blends petroleum diesel with pure biodiesel. Blends of 20 percent biodiesel with 80 percent petroleum diesel (B20) can generally be used in unmodified diesel engines. Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form (B100), but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Blending B100 with petroleum diesel may be accomplished by: Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of Biodiesel and petroleum diesel) In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously. Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and Biodiesel meters are set to X total volume, transfer pump pulls from two points and mix is complete on leaving pump. Applications Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme high pressure (29,000 psi) common rail engines have strict factory limits of B5 or B20 depending on manufacturer. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with FKM, which is nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petrodiesel has been used.[3] As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend.