Comparison of two methods for the analysis of composite material

P. Konderla
*
, T. Mokanek
Institute of Civil Engineering, Wrocaw University of Technology, ul. Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-371 Wroclaw, Poland
Abstract
The subject of this paper is the neural network and linear regression as tools for the estimation of the componentproperty relationship of
composite materials. Test data were used for the teaching of an ANN, verifying its output and computing a representation of the regression
polynomial. Two kinds of expert systems have been built and tested for different sets of input and output characterizing the component and
the properties of the material. Numerical experiments were conducted for real data given by a concrete factory. The linear regression
method and the developed ANNs can be used for predicting material properties when the components are known as well as for the inverted
problem. The expert systems were described and compared. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Composite material; Linear regression method; ANN
1. Introduction
The object under study was a composite considered as a
multi-component mixture. The study itself concentrated on
the following three goals: (i) the development of a method
by which the composite properties could be described; (ii)
the determination of the bi-directional relationship between
the properties and the components of the composite; and (iii)
the application of this bi-directional relationship to the
design of the composite.
The approximation of the properties of the composite as a
function of component measures was based on laboratory
tests which involved specimens of the composite in question.
To achieve these goals a software package was set together,
which enables: (i) the storing of information about the
composite samples in the form of an open database; (ii)
the processing of results to approximate or predict the
measures of the material properties as a function of the
component measures (the expressions `composite property'
and `composite component' will be used in this paper to
denote `measure of the composite property' and `measure of
the composite component'); and (iii) to make use of the
relationships obtained for the design of the composite.
The software package comprised four computer pro-
grams: BAZA, STATISTICS, EXPERTand NEURO. These
were run independently and were linked for the sharing of
information. As a result of this way of package organization,
the computing modules make use of one common informa-
tion database which is created by the BAZA program. They
can be used as two different expert systems (arrows were
used to show the direction of data ow):
v BAZA=STATISTICS=EXPERT,
v BAZA=NEURO.
The computer program BAZA written by the authors
services the processes of accumulation, edition and visua-
lization of the concrete mixture data in points of the experi-
ment plane. The tasks described in the last two points were
done with the help of two different methods of analysis.
Statistical methods were used in programs STATISTICS and
EXPERT. The following results are the effect of data
processing by these modules: (i) the STATISTICS module
is used to nd a polynomial that approximates the composite
property for the composition set; (ii) the EXPERT module
approximates the composite composition for the composite
properties set.
A multi-layer, feed-forward articial neural network
(ANN) was used as the second method of analysis in the
NEURO module. This method is based on the approxima-
tion ability of an ANN. The NEURO program realizes ve
kinds of calculations: (i) the prediction of the composite
property (properties) for the set composition; (ii) the pre-
diction of the composite property (properties) for the set
composition and also its other properties; (iii) the prediction
of the composite property (properties) for the set of other
properties; (iv) the prediction of the composite component
(components) for the set of composite properties; and (v) the
prediction of the composite component (components) for the
set of composite properties and also its other components.
These two systems are discussed in this text. All of the
computer codes were written in Visual Basic [1] language
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793
*
Corresponding author.
0924-0136/00/$ see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 6 4 3 - 9
with the help of a Ward System software package, which
simulated the ANN procedure [2]. A schematic diagram of
the system described is shown in Fig. 1.
The uses to which the procedure and the software package
are applicable will be exemplied by the description and
design of concrete-like materials with a cement matrix. In
the form presented here, the software package was made use
of in the industry in interpreting the results of laboratory
tests and in designing concrete mixes and shotcretes use was
made of the software package for the analysis and design of
concrete mixes.
Computer programs based on statistical methods that are
now in use for similar purposes are reviewed elsewhere [3].
The same monograph [3] provides a comprehensive list of
the relevant literature. Some of the patterns presented there
were taken for the needs of the present study. Also programs
based on ANN are known [4].
2. Description of the composite in databases
The composite is a mixture of k 1 components. The
components of the composite are described by appropriately
chosen k independent variables (generally dimensionless)
that are functions of the components and take the form
of x = (x
1
Y x
2
Y F F F Y x
k
)
T
. The admissible ranges of variability
for particular coordinates of the vector x were determined,
thus establishing the admissible design region O of
parameter variability in space x
1
Y x
2
Y F F F Y x
k
. For the pur-
pose of the present study, the admissible design region
O was assumed to be a k-dimensional cuboid (the ranges
of particular variables being mutually independent). How-
ever, in some instances (from the viewpoint of further data
processing) it is convenient to assume that O is a k-dimen-
sional ellipsoid or sphere for standardized variables [5].
The composite is described by a set of independent
properties, which are functions of the components. It has
been assumed, furthermore, that the composite properties
can be dened by continuous functions of the form
y
1
(x)Y y
2
(x)Y F F F Y y
m
(x). Using one of the available methods
for the experimental design, appropriate points (samples)
belonging to O were chosen. They had the form of
x
(1)
j
Y x
(2)
j
Y F F F Y x
(n)
j
and were the best in terms of the antici-
pated approximation of the function of the jth property [6].
The values obtained by laboratory tests at these points for the
jth property were y
(1)
j
Y y
(2)
j
Y F F F Y y
(n)
j
.
The BAZA program aimed at creating, editing and main-
taining the databases, which comprised a complete set of
information about the composite (particularly the descrip-
tion of the composite components and properties, as well as
the description of the samples and the test results obtained
with these samples). The program involved three databases
of Microsoft Access type: (i) a database for composite
components (the sheets represented the classes of the com-
ponents, individual elements forming a set of elds describ-
ing a particular component of a given class); (ii) a database
for composite properties (containing one sheet, the elements
of which were sets of elds describing a given property of
the composite); and (iii) a database for composite samples
(its sophisticated structure enabled the recording of any
essential information about the sample such as composite
composition, test results obtained with a composite sample,
descriptive information).
The BAZA program: (i) enabled the creation/editing of
data on the composite; (ii) provided sorting of the composite
samples according to a key established by the user, and
created new databases; and (iii) printed information about
the composite in the form of alphanumeric reports or
graphical schemes.
The concrete mix under study had the following compo-
nents: cement, water, stabilizer, plasticizer and accelerant.
The following properties of the mix were analyzed: the
compressive strength after 1 h, the compressive strength
after 4 h and the compressive strength after 24 h.
3. Statistical analysis
By the help of the STATISTICS program, the user can
construct a polynomial regression model in terms of an
algorithm described elsewhere [3].
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the system described.
88 P. Konderla, T. Mokanek / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793
It has been assumed that the jth property of the composite
is described by a quadratic polynomial (at the very most) that
takes the form (j = 1Y 2Y F F F Y m)
Y
j
(x) = z(x)b
j
(1)
where
z(x) = [1Y x
1
Y x
2
Y F F F Y x
k
Y x
1
x
1
Y x
1
x
2
Y F F F Y x
k
x
k
[
b
j
= (b
00
Y b
01
Y b
02
Y F F F Y b
0k
Y b
11
Y b
12
Y F F F Y b
kk
)
T
j
(2)
It is possible for the user to limit the polynomial arbi-
trarily by removing one, or more than one, of its compo-
nents. The STATISTICS program like many other
practical solutions involves a quadratic polynomial, even
though the theoretical algorithm applies to higher order
polynomials also.
The term b of polynomial (1) is the sought-after regres-
sion coefcient vector. Furthermore, the results of labora-
tory tests
y
j
= (y
(1)
Y y
(2)
Y F F F Y y
(n)
)
T
j
(3)
at the points of the experiment design are regarded as
independent random variables of a normal distribution (with
identical standard deviation s) and of the following expected
values:
E(y
(i)
j
) = Y
j
(x
(i)
) for i= 1Y 2Y F F F Yn (4)
Each test result propagates a measuring error e, which is
also a random variable of a normal distribution N(0Y s
2
).
Thus, vector (3) can be written as
y
j
= Xb
j
e
j
(5)
where
X = [z(x
(1)
)Y z(x
(2)
)Y F F F Y z(x
(n)
)[
T
(6)
and e
j
is the error vector.
The four objects (XY Y
j
Y s
2
j
Y y
j
) will form a polynomial
regression model if the following assumptions are fullled:
(i) X
T
X is a non-singular matrix; (ii) the measuring errors
are homogeneous and have a normal distribution.
The unbiased estimator

b
j
of the regression vector b
j
is
determined by the least-squares method according to the
relationship

b
j
= (X
T
X)
1
X
T
y
j
(7)
It can be demonstrated that

b
j
has a normal distribution
N(b
j
Y s
2
(X
T
X)
1
). From Eq. (7) the estimate of the function
(1) is given by

Y
j
(x) = z(x)

b
j
(8)
The expected values of the variable at the points of the
experiment design are
y
j
= X

b
j
(9)
The departure of real values from the expected values is
described by
S
j
= (y
j
y
j
)
T
(y
j
y
j
) (10)
and remains in close relationship to the standard deviation s.
The program performs automatically the signicance
tests for the regression coefcients of the vector b
j
at the
assumed signicance level a (in the program a = 57),
eliminating the polynomial coefcients that are of no sig-
nicance to the estimation procedure. Signicance tests are
discontinued, once the signicance of particular regression
coefcients has been established. For the regression model
obtained via this route two parameters are determined, being
the estimator

R
j
=

1
y
T
j
y
j
b
T
j
X
T
y
j
y
T
j
y
j
(1an)(1
T
y
j
)
2
v
u
u
t
(11)
and the coefcient of determination

R
2
j
, both regarded as
model discriminates.
Used as independent variables for the linear regression
algorithm in the STATISTICS program with composite
contents consisting a set X = x
1
Y x
2
Y x
3
Y x
4
Y x
5
were: (i)
x
1
-proportion: weight of water to weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture; (ii) x
2
-proportion: weight of cement in 1 m
3
to weight of 1 m
3
of the mixture; (iii) x
3
(%): (weight of
plasticizer in 1 m
3
of the mixture/weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture)100; (iv) x
4
(%): (weight of accelerant in
1 m
3
of the mixture/weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the
mixture)100; and (v) x
5
(%): (weight of stabilizer in
1 m
3
of the mixture/weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the
mixture)100.
The approximating mixture properties consisted of a set
Y = y
1
Y y
2
Y y
3
, where: (i) y
1
is the compressive strength of
the concrete after 1 h, s
RA
1 h
; (ii) y
2
is the compressive strength
of the concrete after 4 h, s
RA
4 h
; and (iii) y
3
is the compressive
strength of the concrete after 24 h s
RA
24 h
.
The potentiality for composite design is the most inter-
esting property of the software package, both for the user
and for the designer. Of the three programs already men-
tioned, the third, i.e. the EXPERT program, is best suited for
the purpose of composite design. It makes direct use of the
estimating functions

Y
j
(x) determined for each composite
property by the STATISTICS program. Determination of the
composite property for the set composition based on the
approximation polynomial does not require comment. In the
case of search of the optimumcomposite composition for the
set composite, the user denes an SQL query for the
database: this means that the user denes the conditions
that should be fullled by the selected composite properties.
It is assumed that, for many demands, they are linked
together, with the logical symbol and.
The program retrieves automatically the types of the
components for which the properties mentioned in the
SQL query have been estimated. The user may abandon
P. Konderla, T. Mokanek / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793 89
the analysis of the chosen composite types, but the remain-
ing types will be analyzed. The set of solutions (if there are
any) will produce a new database. Such a set can be
subjected to further processing by ltration.
The algorithmfor the search of relevant solutions includes
the following steps: (i) in space O are chosen the points
x
(1)
Y x
(2)
Y F F F Y x
(p)
, these being the nodes of a regular, rec-
tangular grid, where the size of the grid can be dened by the
user; (ii) for the chosen points the values of the composite
properties are calculated by virtue of
Y
1
(x
(1)
)Y F F F Y Y
1
(x
(p)
)Y F F F Y Y
j
(x
(1)
)Y F F F Y Y
j
(x
(p)
)Y F F F Y
Y
m
(x
(1)
)Y F F F Y Y
m
(x
(p)
) (12)
(iii) a base of Access type is established, and its ith element
takes the form
x
(i)
Y Y
1
(x
(i)
)Y F F F Y Y
j
(x
(i)
)Y F F F Y Y
m
(x
(i)
) (13)
(iv) an SQL query is formulated according to the user's
demands; and (v) the database is ltered according to the
SQL query, a new database being established, where its
elements are the sought-after solutions.
The searching procedure may be applied to multi-stage
uses, since the solution obtained constitutes an independent
database.
4. ANN analysis
A neural network is a mathematical abstract. Its geome-
trical interpretation is a grid of interconnected neurons. The
neural network is characterized by: the number of neural
layers, the number of neurons in each layer, the way of
neuron interconnection and the kind of neuron activation
function. The ANN examples presented had properties that
were discussed in [8]. A three layer, feed-forward ANN with
one hidden layer was used in this analysis. The authors'
experience shows that the use of feed-forward nets with
more than one hidden layer makes the learning time much
longer and causes instability of the gradient value, which is
calculated in the process of the determination of the optimal
weights. The number of input variables denes the number
of neurons in the input layer. The number of neurons in the
output layer is established a priori and is equal to the number
of output variables. Any number of neurons can be used in
the hidden layer. A too-small number of neurons in the
hidden layer is unable to collect sufcient information in the
net, whereas a too-large number causes unreasonable delay
in the learning process or a learn-by-heart effect [7].
The net layers are connected according to the standard
rule `each to each'. Every neuron in the (i 1)th layer is
connected to all neurons in the ith layer. The net itself in the
learning process veries this connection system. Setting
their weights to very small values can lose unnecessary
connections. Such a situation shows a minor inuence of the
variable on the value of the approximated function. A non-
linear function is used to generate an output signal based on
the sum of the input signals. Such a function is called an
activation function and it is required to be continuous,
having nite real values and a positive derivative. The
logistic function is taken in this analysis. It is important
for such nets that the data be normalized to an interval of
values within the range of the activation function. It is a good
idea to normalize all data to the same range. Thanks to this, a
factor giving information about the inuence of a variable on
the results can be calculated. This factor is calculated as a
sum of all weights of connections between an input neuron
and the net output. The data used by the authors were
normalized in the range [0.1, 0.9].
Many authors commonly and successfully use the back-
propagation method as a learning method. The learning
process is initiated by setting all weights to small non-zero
numbers. A random number generator is used for this
purpose. The net is provided with subsequent learning
vectors. The comparison of net output to the learning vector
is used to calculate the prediction error. The weights are
modied in the direction opposite to the gradient of the error
function. The learning process is continued until the
required accuracy of prediction is reached. This algorithm
tends to fail in local minima of the error function.
The NEURO-program-predicted investigated values
based on a chosen group of data came from:
1. Five normalized, non-dimensional input data associated
with composite contents consisting a set C =
c
1
Y c
2
Y c
3
Y c
4
Y c
5
, where: (i) c
1
-proportion: weight of
water to weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture; (ii)
c
2
-proportion: weight of cement in 1 m
3
to weight of
1 m
3
of the mixture; (iii) c
3
-proportion: weight of
plasticizer to weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture;
(vi) c
4
-proportion: weight of accelerant to weight of
concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture; c
5
-proportion: weight of
stabilizer to weight of concrete in 1 m
3
of the mixture.
2. Normalized values of composite properties consisting of
a set P = p
1
Y p
2
Y p
3
, where: (i) p
1
is the normalized
compressive strength of the concrete after 1 h, s
NA
1 h
; (ii)
p
2
is the normalized compressive strength of the
concrete after 4 h, s
NA
4 h
; (iii) p
3
is the normalized
compressive strength of the concrete after 24 h, s
NA
24 h
.
The nets dened above were built with the following
assumptions [3]: (i) the composite is a mixture, thus ve
independent parameters c
1
c
5
determine the ve compo-
nents in the mixture; (ii) the weight of each input is the same.
Problems of determining mutual componentproperty
relationship were analyzed by authors with the use of four
different kinds of ANN (Fig. 2).
5. Experimental results
To establish the relationship between the components of
concrete mixture and its properties a series of calculations
90 P. Konderla, T. Mokanek / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793
were carried out. An attempt to solve the inverted problem,
i.e. investigation of optimal contents of the mixture with
required property values, has also been made. The numerical
experimental results are presented in Figs. 37. In these
gures laboratory test values (s
LT
1 h
Y s
LT
4 h
Y s
LT
24 h
) are compared
to those predicted by ANN (s
NA
1 h
Y s
NA
4 h
Y s
NA
24 h
) and approxi-
mated by statistical regression (s
RA
1 h
Y s
RA
4 h
Y s
RA
24 h
).
For the input data that have the authors' approximation,
better results were obtained when using ANN methods. The
algorithm based on statistical methods often gives no one
relationship between components and properties repre-
sentation of the regression polynomial is limited to a con-
stant only. Examples of such a situation are shown in Figs. 3
and 4.
Results of ANN prediction had smaller t mistakes than
the results of statistical approximation. This is because ANN
does not require the independence of input data. The con-
dition of a linear relationship between the input data and the
outputs need not be fullled. In addition to only independent
variables, it is also possible to input for ANN any of their
combinations (e.g. prediction of compressive strength after
4 h on base mixture components, compressive strength after
1 h and compressive strength after 24 h). For these prepared
input data, ANN approximates the required variable much
better, making use of relationships that have a great meaning
Fig. 2. The topology of ANNs.
Fig. 3. Results of ANN prediction of s
NA
1 h
(c
1
Y c
2
Y c
3
Y c
4
Y c
5
) and regression
approximation of s
RA
1 h
(x
1
Y x
2
Y x
3
Y x
4
Y x
5
).
Fig. 4. Results of ANN prediction of s
NA
24 h
(c
1
Y c
2
Y c
3
Y c
4
Y c
5
) and regression
approximation of s
RA
24 h
(x
1
Y x
2
Y x
3
Y x
4
Y x
5
).
Fig. 5. Results of ANN prediction of s
NA
4 h
(s
LT
1 h
).
P. Konderla, T. Mokanek / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793 91
for the results of approximation. For example: prediction of
compressive strength after 4 h based on mixture compo-
nents, compressive strength after 1 h and compressive
strength after 24 h. The authors used ANN results qualita-
tively and synonymously invert problems to successfully
solve the incomplete laboratory tests. The results, that were
obtained by using statistical algorithms, had too-large errors.
An example of that feature is shown in Fig. 5: the prediction
of compressive strength after 1 h (incomplete tests database)
with the use of a complete data set of compressive strength
after 4 h.
An expert system with a linear regression algorithm
generated a lot of component combinations as a result of
approximation. The system operator must have a lot of
experience in mixture projecting for the choice of the best
combination. The solutions of the inverted problem in ANN
system yield a single result but they do not provide the
assurance of being an optimum (Figs. 6 and 7).
6. Conclusions
The computer-aided procedure (of a general nature) pre-
sented in this paper is of use in documenting laboratory
investigations, in data processing and in composite design.
The experience gained from the construction of similar
software packages has shown that they may be a useful
tool in laboratory investigations of materials, as well as in
the design of these materials.
Further investigations are underway with the objective of
expanding the software package by incorporating programs
that make use of the neural net technique and are applicable
to the estimation of composite properties.
The authors availed themselves of designed systems and
made calculations that realized investigations of bi-direc-
tional dependencies between components and properties of
Fig. 6. Results of ANN prediction of WC
NA
(c
2
Y c
3
Y c
4
Y c
5
Y p
1
Y p
2
Y p
3
) and
statistics approximation WC
RA
(p
1
Y p
2
Y p
3
) of inverted problem.
Fig. 7. Results of ANN prediction of the inverted problem.
Table 1
Comparison of systems and algorithms
Expert system based on statistical methods Expert system based on ANN methods
Input data must be independent Input data need not be independent
It is necessary to use a large set of laboratory tests for the statistical
regression method
NEURO program makes results based on a small number of samples
The results obtained are only for a single dependent variable The results obtained may be for any number of dependent variables
The user must decide about preliminary representation of approximation The user need not interfere with the calculation
The inverse problem cannot be realized using statistical regression.
It is necessary to use additional methods based on the results
of regression
The same ANN can realize the inverse problem
The EXPERT program makes results in the form of a large set of
possible components combinations: the system operator must
have experience in mixture projecting to select one result
The solution of the inverted problem yields a single result but there
is no certainty for it to be an optimum
Quite a complicated algorithm Quite a simple algorithm
An Expert system is created to solve only one kind of problem
investigated
Expert system can solve many kinds of relationships for the
problem investigated
For the same components that have a little difference in properties
(like concrete B20 and B25) the user must create a new regression
polynomial
For the same components that have a little difference in properties (like
concrete B20 and B25) ANN creates results based on previous experience
Quite long time of calculations Results in real time
92 P. Konderla, T. Mokanek / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 106 (2000) 8793
concrete mixtures. The results of two kinds (ANN methods
and linear regression) of algorithms are presented and
compared with values of laboratory tests and are shown
in chart form. The main differences between these systems
are presented in Table 1.
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