Modes of Propagation

Frequency Range 30-3000 Hz 3-30 kHz 30-300 kHz 300-3000 kHz 3-30 MHz 30-300 MHz 300-3000 MHz 3-30 GHz 30-300 GHz

Band Designation ELF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Ground Wave
The wave which is guided along the surface of the earth,is called the ground waves. The range of this mode of propagation is upto 2MHz. The waveis connected at one end to the surface of the earth and to the ionosphere at the other.The ionosphere is the region above the troposphere (where the air is), from about 50 to250 miles above the earth.It is a collection of ions, which are atoms that have some of their electrons stripped off leaving two or more electrically charged objects.The sun's rays cause the ions to form which slowly recombine. The propagation of radio waves in the presence of ions is drastically different than in air, which is why the ionosphere plays an important role in most modes of propagation. Ground waves travel between two limits, the earth and the ionosphere, which acts like a duct. Since the duct curves with the earth, the ground wave will follow. Therefore very long range propagation is possible using ground waves.

Figure 13

Sky Waves

Radio waves in the LF and MF ranges may also propagate as ground waves, but suffer significant losses, or are attenuated, particularly at higher frequencies. But as the ground wave mode fades out, a new mode develops: the sky wave. Sky waves are reflections from the ionosphere. While the wave is in the ionosphere, it is strongly bent, or refracted, ultimately back to the ground. From a long distance away this appears as a reflection. Long ranges are possible in this mode also, up to hundreds of miles. Sky waves in this frequency band are usually only possible at night, when the concentration of ions is not too great since the ionosphere also tends to attenuate the signal. However, at night, there are just enough ions to reflect the wave but not reduce its power too much.

Figure 14 The HF band operates almost exclusively with sky waves. The higher frequencies have less attenuation and less refraction in the ionosphere as compared to MF. At the high end, the waves completely penetrate the ionosphere and become space waves. At the low end, they are always reflected. The HF band operates with both these effects almost all of the time. The characteristics of the sky wave propagation depend on the conditions in the ionosphere which in turn are dependent on the activity of the sun. The ionosphere has several well-defined regions in altitude. . Maximum usuable frequency The transmitted frequency was 5 MHz and the critical frequency was 3 MHz in this example. Maximum Useable Frequency (MUF): defined for two stations. The maximum frequency that will reflect back to the receiving station from the transmitter. Beyond the MUF, the wave will become a space wave. At MUF the skip zone extends to just short of the receiver. In figure xx, the MUF for a receiver at 1400 miles is 5 MHz. Lowest Useable Frequency (LUF): again defined for two stations. At low frequencies, the signal will be attenuated before it can be reflected. The LUF increases with sunlight and is a maximum near noon. Optimum Frequency for Traffic (OFT): for two stations, taking into account the exact conditions in the ionosphere, there will be the perfect frequency that gives the strongest signal. This can be predicted by powerful modeling

programs and is the best guarantee of success in HF. The diurnal variation if HF propagation is characterized a simple rule-of-thumb: the frequency follows the sun. At noon, the OFT is generally higher than at night.

Line of Sight
In the VHF band and up, the propagation tends to straighten out into line-ofsight(LOS) waves. However the frequency is still low enough for some significant effects.

1. Ionospheric scatter. The signal is reflected by the E-region and scattered in all directions. Some energy makes it back to the earth's surface. This seems to be most effective in the range of 600-1000 miles.

Fig

What is ISDN?
ISDN is an abbreviation for Integrated Services Digital Network. It is the next-generation, digital telephone network that integrates circuit-switched voice and data services over a common access facility. There are two types of ISDN lines. Basic Rate ISDN (BRI) is designed for residential customers and small businesses. Primary Rate ISDN (PRI) is designed for larger businesses.

The Benefits of ISDN

Reduces the cost of network adminstration Simplifies wiring Combines separate voice and data networking requirements Compatible with BRI/PRI, plus existing analog voice and Switched 56 services

For residential customers, Basic Rate ISDN (BRI) costs about the equivalent of two phone lines. BRI customers can gain high speed Internet access (64 KBPS to 128 KBPS). BRI improves the quality of speech in telephone calls. BRI provides an ideal way to keep in touch through personal videoconferencing. BRI offers improved modem connectivity to non-ISDN systems. For business customers, ISDN offers cost savings through the integration of voice and data services. PRI provides a great backup solution for leased data lines. PRI offers high-quality video conferencing capabilities. PRI costs about the same as standard "channelized T1" services.

Basic Rate ISDN

Basic Rate ISDN (BRI) consists of three channels. Two channels are used for actual voice or data traffic with each one operating at a rate of 64 KBPS. These are called "Bearer" channels, or B-channels for short. There is a third channel that is used for call supervision (connecting, disconnecting, etc.). This channels operates at a rate of 16 KBPS and is called the "Delta" channel, or D-channel for short

Radio Receiver System

The power supply (not shown) is connected to the audio amplifier block.

Aerial - picks up radio signals from many stations. Tuner - selects the signal from just one radio station. Detector - extracts the audio signal carried by the radio signal. Audio Amplifier - increases the strength (power) of the audio signal.
This could be broken down into the blocks like the Audio Amplifier System shown above.

Loudspeaker - a transducer which converts the audio signal to sound

Tropospheric scatter (known as "troposcatter" among practitioners) is a method of transmitting and receiving microwave radio signals over considerable distances often up to 300 km. This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at particular frequencies are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere (hence troposcatter). Radio signals are transmitted in a tight beam aimed at the tropopause, midway between the transmitter and receiver sites; as the signals pass through the troposphere they are scattered, allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal. Normally, microwave signals, transmitted at various frequencies, usually around 12 Gigahertz (GHz) or 19 GHz, are only used for line of sight applications, where the receiver can be seen from the transmitter. However, tropospheric scatter signals use a frequency of around 2 GHz