FLIGHT TESTING LAB REPORT

Flight Lab Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. Submitted by: (GROUP 1)

Aabhas Srivastava Praveen Kumar Raghu V Vineet Prashant Toppo C.V. Krishna Koundinya 08AE1024 08AE1012 08AE3006 08AE1023 08AE1004

Department of Aerospace Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to extend our sincere thanks to Dr. Ajay Mishra for his lucid lectures on Flight Stability and Control, Mr. Adarsh Mishra for guiding us in our Flight Lab Experiments. Also, we would like to thank Capt. K. V. Singh, without him we would never had the opportunity to witness extraordinary maneuvers. We would also like to extend our thanks to the management of IIT, Kanpur for their co-operation throughout the course and also providing us with the facilities. Also, we would like to thank each and every staff of The FLIGHT LAB for their Co-operation during the entire course.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 2. Determination of Centre of Gravity 3. Cruise Experiment 4. Climb Experiment 5. Determination Of Side Slip Coefficient 6. Steady Co-ordinate Turn 7. Dutch Roll Demonstration 8. Phugoid Demonstration 9. Stall Demonstration

1.

INTRODUCTION

Piper Saratoga II
The PA-32 was originally known as the Cherokee Six, deriving from the PA-28 Cherokee series, with heavy modifications. The major differences from the PA28 were its six cylinder engine, and six seat configurations. Production developed from 1965 through until 1979, with the Cherokee Six-300, Lance, Lance II and Turbo- Lance.

These were replaced from 1979 by the Saratoga. It was available with fixed or retracting undercarriage and standard or turbocharged engines. Production ended in 1985, but in 1995 Piper introduced the Saratoga II HP. The type has continued to develop in the 1990s, including a turbocharged version. This aircraft is equipped with a 6-cylinder Lycoming IO-540-K1G5 engine and a Hartzell HC-I3YR-1RF propeller.

The various systems of the Piper Saratoga are as follows:

1. Landing Gear 2. Flight Controls 3. Pitot-Static System 4. Fuel System 5. Electrical System 6. Instrument Panel

LANDING GEAR
The airplane is equipped with a retractable tricycle landing gear, which is hydraulically actuated by an electrically powered reversible pump. The landing gear is retracted or extended in about 7 seconds. Emergency Gear extension system allows the landing gear to free fall, with spring assist on the nose gear, into the extended position where mechanical locks engage. The nose gear is steerable to a 22.5 degree arc each side of the center through the use of the rudder pedals. The Oleo struts are of the airoil type, with normal extension being 3.25 .25" for the nose gear and 4.5 .5" for the main gear under normal static load. The standard brake system includes toe brakes on the left and the right side of rudder pedals and a hand brake located below the instruments panel

FLIGHT CONTROLS
Dual flight controls are provided as standard equipment. A cable system provides actuation of the control surfaces when the flight controls are moved in their respective directions. The horizontal surface (stabilizer) feature a trim tab/servo mounted on the trailing edge. This tab services the dual function of providing trim control and pitch control forces. The rudder is conventional design and incorporates a rudder trim. The trim mechanism is a spring-loaded re-centering device.
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PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
The system supplies both pitot and static pressure for the airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator. Pitot and static pressure are picked up by the pitot head on the bottom of the left wing. Al alternate static source is provided as standard equipment.

FUEL SYSTEM
The standard fuel capacity of the Saratoga II HP is 107 gallons, of which 102 gallons are usable. The inboard tank is attached to the wing structure with screws and nut plates and can be removed for service or inspection. The outboard tanks consist of a bladder fuel cell that is interconnected with the inboard tank. A flush fuel cap is located in the outboard tank only. The fuel selector control has three positions, one position corresponding to each wing tank plus an OFF position. A fuel quantity indicator to measure the fuel not visible through the filler neck in each wing is installed in the inboard fuel tank. This gauge indicates usable fuel quantities from 5 gallons to 35 gallons in the ground attitude. The sole purpose of this gauge is to assist the pilot in determining fuel quantities of less than 35 gallons during the preflight inspection. An electric fuel pump is provided for use in case of failure of the engine driven pump.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The 14-volt electrical system includes a 12-volt battery for starting and to back up alternator output. Electrical power is supplied by a 90-ampere alternator. The battery, a master switch relay, a voltage regulator and an over voltage relay are located beneath the floor of the forward baggage compartment. Standard electrical accessories include the starter, the electric fuel pump, and the stall warning horn, the ammeter, and the annunciator panel. The annunciator panel lights are provided only as a warning to the pilot that a system may not be operating properly, and that the applicable system gauge should be checked and monitored to determine when or if any corrective action is required.
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INSTRUMENT PANEL

The instrument panel is designed to accommodate the customary advanced flight instruments and the normally required power plant instruments. The artificial horizon and directional gyro is vacuum operated and are located in the center of the left-hand instrument panel. The vacuum gauge is located on the upper left hand instrument panel. The turn indicator, on the left side, is electrically operated. The radios are located in the center section of the panel, and the circuit breakers are in the lower right corner of the panel. An optional radio MASTER switch is located on the lower center instrument panel in the switch cluster. It controls the power to all radios through the aircraft MASTER switch. The radio power switch has an OFF, and ON position.

2.

DETERMINATION OF CG

The center-of-gravity (CG) is the point at which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the aircraft, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. Its distance from the reference datum is determined by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft. The center-of-gravity point affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, the center-of-gravity must fall within specified limits established by the manufacturer. Center of gravity is calculated as follows:

Determine the weights and arms of all mass within the aircraft. Multiply weights by arms for all mass to calculate moments. Add the moments of all mass together. Divide the total moment by the total weight of the aircraft to give an overall arm.

The arm that results from this calculation must be within the arm limits for the center of gravity that are dictated by the manufacturer. If it is not, weight in the aircraft must be removed, added (rarely), or redistributed until the center of gravity falls within the prescribed limits. For the sake of simplicity, center of gravity calculations are usually performed along only a single line from the zero point of the reference datum, usually the line that represents the roll axis of the aircraft (to calculate fore-aft balance). In complex situations, more than one line may be separately calculated, e.g., one calculation for fore- aft balance and one calculation for left-right balance. Weight is calculated simply by adding up all weight in the aircraft. This weight must be within the allowable weight limits for the aircraft. The weight and moment of fixed portions of the aircraft (engines, wings, etc.) does not change and is provided by the manufacturer. The manufacturer also provides information facilitating the calculation of moments for fuel loads. Other removable weight must be properly

accounted for in the calculation by the operator. In larger aircraft, weight and balance is often expressed as a percentage of mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC. For example, a s s u m e that by using the calculation method above, the center of gravity (CG) was found to be 76 inches aft of the aircraft's datum and the leading edge of the MAC is 62 inches aft of the datum. Therefore, the CG lies 14 inches aft of the leading edge of the MAC. If the MAC is 80 inches in length, the percentage of MAC is found by calculating what percentage 14 is of 80. In this case, one could say that the CG is 17.5% of MAC. If the allowable limits were 15% to 35%, the aircraft would be properly loaded.

Calculation

Distance of the reference point from NOSE Wheel = 14.2 in Distance of the reference point from REAR Wheel = 109.7 in

94.48 in. 82.92 in.

For Sortie 1:
WEIGHTS TOW LW(without passengers) L(kg) N(kg) R(kg) TOTAL WEIGHT (kg)

642 398

246 313

656 405

1544 1116

Observation
Take-off weight Landing weight (excluding wt of passengers and pilot) Aspect ratio Plan form area : 1544 kg : 1116 kg : 8.167 : 16.54 m2

By using the C.G formula (above) the center of gravity during Take-off and Landing are found to be 94.48" and 82.92" correspondingly to the first sortie.

For Sortie 2:
WEIGHTS L(kg) N(kg) R(kg) TOTAL (kg) WEIGHT

TOW LW

643 395

263 318

642 467

1548 1180

Observation
Take-off weight Landing weight (excluding wt of passengers and pilot) : 1548 kg : 1180 kg

By using the C.G formula (above) the center of gravity during Take-off and Landing are found to be 93.47" and 83.96" correspondingly for the second sortie.

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Incorrect weight and balance in fixed-wing Aircraft

When the center of gravity or weight of an aircraft is outside the acceptable range, the aircraft may not be able to sustain flight, or it may be impossible to maintain the aircraft in level flight in some or all circumstances. Placing the CG or weight of an aircraft outside the allowed range can lead to an unavoidable crash of the aircraft.

Incorrect weight and balance in helicopters

The center of gravity is even more critical for helicopters than it is for fixed-wing aircraft (weight issues remain the same). As with fixed-wing aircraft, a helicopter may be properly loaded for takeoff, but near the end of a long flight when the fuel tanks are almost empty, the CG may have shifted enough for the helicopter to be out of balance laterally or longitudinally.[2) For helicopters with a single main rotor, the CG is usually close to the main rotor mast. Improper balance of a helicopter's load can result in serious control problems. In addition to making a helicopter difficult to control, an out-ofbalance loading condition also decreases maneuverability since cyclic control is less effective in the direction opposite to the CG location.

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The pilot tries to perfectly balance a helicopter so that the fuselage remains horizontal in hovering flight, with no cyclic pitch control needed except for wind correction. Since the fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor, changing the center of gravity changes the angle at which the aircraft hangs from the rotor. When the center of gravity is directly under the rotor mast, the helicopter hangs horizontal; if the CG is too far forward of the mast, the helicopter hangs with its nose tilted down; if the CG is too far aft of the mast, the nose tilts up.

CG forward of forward limit

A forward CG may occur when a heavy pilot and passenger take off without baggage or proper ballast located aft of the rotor mast. This situation becomes worse if the fuel tanks are located aft of the rotor mast because as fuel burns the weight located aft of the rotor mast becomes less. This condition is recognizable when coming to a hover following a vertical takeoff. The helicopter will have a nose-low attitude, and the pilot will need excessive rearward displacement of the cyclic control to maintain a hover in a no-wind condition. In this condition, the pilot could rapidly run out of rearward cyclic control as the helicopter consumes fuel. The pilot may also find it impossible to decelerate sufficiently to bring the helicopter to a stop. In the event of engine failure and the resulting autorotation, the pilot may not have enough cyclic control to flare properly for the landing. A forward CG will not be as obvious when hovering into a strong wind, since less rearward cyclic displacement is required as when hovering with no wind. When determining whether a critical balance condition exists, it is essential to consider the wind velocity and its relation to the rearward displacement of the cyclic control.

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Weight out of range

Few aircraft impose a minimum weight for flight (although a minimum pilot weight is often specified), but all impose a maximum weight. If the maximum weight is exceeded, the aircraft may not be able to achieve or sustain controlled, level flight. Excessive takeoff weight may make it impossible to take off within available runway lengths, or it may completely prevent take-off. Excessive weight in flight may make climbing beyond a certain altitude difficult or impossible, or it may make it impossible to maintain an altitude.

CG of aft limit
Without proper ballast in the cockpit, exceeding the aft CG may occur when:

A lightweight pilot takes off solo with a full load of fuel located aft of the rotor mast.

A lightweight pilot takes off with maximum baggage allowed in a baggage compartment located aft of the rotor mast.

A lightweight pilot takes off with a combination of baggage and substantial fuel where both are aft of the rotor mast.

An aft CG condition can be recognized by the pilot when coming to a hover following a vertical takeoff. The helicopter will have a tail-low attitude, and the pilot will need excessive forward displacement of cyclic control to maintain a hover in a no-wind condition. If there is a wind, the pilot needs even greater forward cyclic. If flight is continued in this condition, the pilot may find it impossible to fly in the upper allowable airspeed range due to inadequate forward cyclic authority to maintain a nose-low attitude. In addition, with an extreme aft CG, gusty or rough air could accelerate the helicopter to a speed faster than that produced with full forward cyclic control. In this case, asymmetry of lift and blade flapping could cause the rotor disc to tilt aft. With full forward cyclic control already applied, the rotor disc might not be able to be lowered, resulting in possible loss of control, or the rotor blades striking the tail boom.
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Lateral Balance
In fixed-wing aircraft, lateral balance is often much less critical than fore-aft balance, simply because most mass in the aircraft is located very close to its center. An exception is fuel, which may be loaded into the wings, but since fuel loads are usually symmetrical about the axis of the aircraft, lateral balance is not usually affected. The lateral center of gravity may become important if the fuel is not loaded evenly into tanks on both sides of the aircraft, or (in the case of small aircraft) when passengers are predominantly on one side of the aircraft (such as a pilot flying alone in a small aircraft). Small lateral deviations of CG that are within limits may cause an annoying roll tendency that pilots must compensate for, but they are not dangerous as long as the CG remains within limits for the duration of the flight. For most helicopters, it is usually not necessary to determine the lateral CG for normal flight instruction and passenger flights. This is because helicopter cabins are relatively narrow and most optional equipment is located near the center line. However, some helicopter manuals specify the seat from which solo flight must be conducted. In

addition, if there is an unusual situation, such as a heavy pilot and a full load of fuel on one side of the helicopter, which could affect the lateral CG, its position should be checked against the CG envelope. If carrying external loads in a position that requires large lateral cyclic control displacement to maintain level flight, fore and aft cyclic effectiveness could be dramatically limited.

Fuel dumping and overweight operations

Many large transport-category aircraft are able to take-off at a greater weight than they can land. This is possible because the weight of fuel that the wings can support along their span in flight, or when parked or taxiing on the ground, is greater than they can tolerate during the stress of landing and touchdown, when the support is not distributed along the span of the wing. Normally the portion of the aircraft's weight that exceeds the
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Maximum landing weight (but falls within the maximum take-off weight) is entirely composed of fuel. As the aircraft flies, the fuel burns off, and by the time the aircraft is ready to land, it is below its maximum landing weight. However, if an aircraft must land early, sometimes the fuel that remains aboard still keeps the aircraft over the maximum landing weight. When this happens, the aircraft must either burn off the fuel (by flying in a holding pattern) or dump it (if the aircraft is equipped to do this) before landing to avoid damage to the aircraft. In an emergency, an aircraft may choose to land overweight, but this may damage it, and at the very least an overweight landing will mandate a thorough inspection to check for any damage. In some cases, an aircraft may take off overweight deliberately. An example might be an aircraft being ferried over a very long distance with extra fuel aboard. An overweight take-off typically requires an exceptionally long runway. Overweight operations are not permitted with passengers aboard.

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3.

EXPERIMENT:CRUISE

Aim
The static performance characteristics of the Piper Saratoga aircraft which includes parameters like Zero Lift Drag Coefficient (CDo), Ostwald efficiency factor (e) and Induced Drag Co-efficient (k) and variation in control variables like elevator deflection and stick force with Lift coefficient are to be determined. The aim of the cruising experiment is to obtain the curves of power required against speed for standard weight and sea level conditions. From these curves, the curve for any weight and altitude combination can be drawn by suitable scaling. Maximum and minimum speeds, the speeds for maximum endurance and maximum range can also be arrived at. In addition, the power available curves provided by the engine performance charts and the propeller chart make it possible to evaluate the climb performance characteristics such as the maximum rate of climb, the steepest angle of climb, etc. can
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also be found in flight and would serve as a useful basis for comparison with the theoretical estimates mentioned above. Instruments used 1. Airspeed Indicator 2. Engine Rpm Indicator 3. Manifold Pressure Gauge 4. Outside Air Temperature Gauge 5. Altimeter 6. Stopwatch.

Procedure
The airplane is made to cruise at four different airspeeds. During the cruise, altitude, Outside Air Temperature, Engine RPM, Manifold Air Pressure and the time are noted from the instrument panel and watches (wristwatch and desktop clock). In the same time stick Force, Angle of attack, Sideslip angle and deflection angles of aileron, rudder and elevator are recorded using the software Lab View in the provided laptop. The recorded data is presented in the following table: M.A.P (inches of (ft) (Knots) Hg) 18 18 19 19 2300 2300 2300 2300 28 28 28 28 RPM O.A.T. Time On WW (hrs) 1241 1242 1243 1244 Time on Desktop (hrs)

Altitude

Velocity

1000 1000 1000 1000

80 85 90 95

1252 1253 1254 1255

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The above data is fed to the program "CRUISE". The program "CRUISE.exe" calls various inbuilt subroutines like "PROPELLER", 'BHP' and other standard subroutines to give the output of (THP)o. The plots of (THP)o*Vo vs. V 0 And (THP)o vs. Vo are then obtained from the output files of CRUISE. Intercept and slope of (THP)o*Vo vs. V 0 Are used to obtain zero lift drag coefficient, Ostwald efficiency factor (e) and Induced Drag Co-efficient (k) as follows:
4 4

Formulae Used
1. 2. 3.

Where, W is the Total Take-off Weight AR is the Aspect Ratio.

is the sea level density (=1.225 kg/m 3 )

A plot for estimation of stability characteristics is obtained by using the recorded data (using LABVIEW) during flight.

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Result I (ft/s)4 (THP) * V

o o

Result II Vo (ft/s) (THP) (hp)

142.778 149.762 160.232 167.220
o

(hp*ft/s)
4.16E+08 5.03E+08 6.59E+08 7.82E+08 13368.3 14342.3 16970.4 18038

93.630 95.767 105.911 107.870

From the above curve, Profile Drag Coefficient (Cdo) 0.0283 Oswald's Efficiency (e) 0.475 Induced Drag Coefficient (K) 0.082

Slope

Intercept On Y-Axis

1E-05

7813

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Formulae Used
The plots of (dFs/q)/(dCL) and (doe/dCL) are to be obtained for determining the neutral and maneuver points of the airplane under stick-fixed and stick-free conditions, where Fs is Stick force (in N) taken as the average of the readings recorded at the respective desktop time in laptop.

CL is the Coefficient of Lift and is given by, e is the elevator deflection. (in deg) dW/dT is the rate of change of weight with respect to time and is given by,

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dw/dt = 0.397 kg/min FS (N) -7124.97 -7043.7 -7081.8 -7004.28 (deg) 35.15276 35.02358 35.11045 34.98329 Time (min) 9 10 11 12 W (kg) 1540.427 1540.03 1539.633 1539.236 CL 0.913745 0.830417 0.72534 0.665924 FS/q -7.1258 -6.40375 -5.62516 -5.10916

Following plots are drawn by using the above data given:-

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22

Results
0.0283 0.082
-

0.475

CONCLUSION:
The static performance characteristics of the Piper Saratoga aircraft which includes parameters like Zero Lift Drag Coefficient (CDo), Ostwald efficiency factor (e) and Induced Drag Co-efficient (k) and variation in control variables like elevator deflection and stick force with Lift coefficient are determined.

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4.

EXPERIMENT:CLIMB

Aim:
The aim of the climb performance experiment is to determine the maximum rates of climb, and the corresponding speeds at different altitudes, and to extrapolate the service and absolute ceilings for airplane. Minimum time required for climb from h1 to h2 can also be evaluated.

Theory:
The governing equations for quasi-steady climb are:

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With the help of the engine charts and the propeller charts, the curves of power available can be plotted against speed for different altitudes on the same coordinate system on which the power required curves are plotted. A typical curve is shown in Figure above. The speeds at which the two curves intersect represent the minimum and maximum speeds for level flight attainable at the given altitude. In certain cases, the stalling speed may be greater than the minimum
POWER AVAILABLE AND POWER REQUIRED CURVES FOR A PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE

speed; in which case this minimum sped loses its significance. It can be shown that under certain restrictions, the speed corresponding to the minimum power required is the speed for maximum endurance and the speed corresponding to the point where the tangent from the origin touches the power required curve is the speed for maximum range. The rate of climb which is given by R/C = (Pav - Preq)/w can also be evaluated at various speed and the maximum rate of climb corresponds to the maximum ordinate between the two curves. Instruments used: 1. Airspeed indicator 2. Engine RPM indicator 3. Manifold pressure gauge 4. Outside air temperature gauge 5. Altimeter 6. Stopwatch

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Procedure
1. Climb to an altitude h, and set the power to cruise at an airspeed 'V'. Note the

ambient temperature, altitude, engine RPM, and the manifold pressure. Repeat this step for different speeds. To study the effect of the propeller-pitch, the above trials may be repeated at the same speeds by setting the propeller to operate at coarse and fine pitch settings. 2. Establish a steady climb at the maximum continuous power setting. Record the time

taken to climb through h at various mean altitudes h, the indicated airspeed, the engine rpm, manifold pressure and ambient air temperature. 3. Calculate the cruise and climb performance characteristics as per the specified

procedure, and present them in the form of charts and plots as shown below:

Velocity (knots) (ft)

H1

H2 (ft)

O.A.T

M.A.P (inches of hg)

Time on RPM WW (hrs)

(Time Differenc e Between h1 and h2) (sec) 36.92 35.78 30.53

95 90 85

500 500 500

1000 1000 1000

28 28 28

29 28 28

2700 2600 2600

1252 1257 1305

80

500

1000

28

28

2600

1310

34.25

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Plot of Gamma

vs. Vo

Plot of Rate of Climb vs. Vo

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Plot of Power Available (THPo Vs Vo) and Power Required (DHPo Vs Vo)

Results:
From the Plot of Gamma ( ) vs. Vo and Rate of Climb vs. Vo For Steepest Climb: 4.65o approx 167.39 ft/s 14.22 ft/s For Max Rate of Climb: 17.2 ft/s 167.67 ft/s 4.035o

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CONCLUSION: The Plots of Gamma vs. Vo and Rate of Climb vs. Vo did not have any maxima in the range of velocities where experiments were conducted.

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5.

ESTIMATION OF SIDE-SLIP COEFFICIENT

Aim:
To estimate the side slip coefficient and find the ratios between the weathercock stability and aileron yaw stability coefficients and between C l a and dihedral effect.

Theory:
The conditions accompanying the steady side slip experiments are as follows. Fy = 0; r = 0; p=0 ay = 0.

Using these conditions on the equations for equilibrium in the y-direction during Lateral Dynamic Stability Analysis,

On further simplifications and assumptions, it reduces to:

Further the moment equilibrium equation about the z direction gives: = 0, p = 0, r = 0 Now assuming: = 0 ::we get,

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The moment equilibrium equation about the x direction gives, = 0 , p=0,r=0

Now assuming: = 0 , we get,

Procedure:
The airplane is to be flown at four different bank angles maintaining a fixed velocity, altitude and side slip angle. During each of these 4 bank angles readings were noted from the instrument panel. Also LabView was used to record the stick force, sideslip angle, rudder and aileron deflections and the time at which the 'e' readings are recorded.

For equations (2) and (3), plots of side slip angle versus rudder, aileron deflections were drawn, and their slopes obtained. The sign of these slopes is verified to ensure the lateral directional stability of the aircraft. The values of all angles are as given in labview software and hence are plotted accordingly, except the bank angle which is in degrees.

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Beta
-450 -440

Rudder Deflection vs. Sideslip

-20 -430 -420 -410 -20.5-400 -21 y = 0.067x + 6.100 -21.5 -22 -22.5 -23 -23.5 -24 -24.5 -25 Rudder Linear (Rudder)

Aileron Deflection vs. Sideslip

Beta
-450 -440 -430 -420 -410 -80 -81 -82 -400

-84

Aileron Deflection

y = 0.189x - 4.404

-83 Aileron Linear (Aileron)

-85
-86

-87
-88 -89

Rudder Deflection

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Bank Angle vs. Aileron

-80 -81 -82 -83 -84 -85 y = 0.487x - 92.54 Aileron Linear (Aileron) 0 10 20 30

-86
-87 -88 -89

Bank Angle (deg)

/r

/a

Cy beta (taking beta in volts as from reading) -0.0849 -0.1328 -0.1811 -0.2265

10 15 20 25

18.51265 18.65328 18.86123 18.99573

5.026227 5.014521 5.009367 4.999852

CONCLUSION:
The various plots required for the analysis of steady slip characteristics have been obtained and the ratios of required stability coefficients have been computed on the basis of the given data. It is to be noted that all values obtained from LabView software are potentiometer readings and hence are in voltage. Since, we have not been provided with any conversion factor, we have been forced to get our results using these values only.

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6.

EXPERIMENT: STEADY LEVELTURN

Aim:
To determine the lateral and directional control angles required for trim during steady coordinated turn and to estimate some lateral and directional static stability derivatives of the airplane.

Theory:
In a Steady level coordinated turn an airplane turns at a constant altitude and forward velocity with zero side slip. The rate of turn is computed by using the relation:

Where, r g = = rate of turn 9.81m/s^2 Bank angle

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In addition, we can estimate the stability of the aircraft qualitatively by calculating the values of 'a/sin ' and 'r/r', where a and r are the aileron and rudder deflections respectively. If 'a/sin ' is positive and 'r/r' is negative, we can conclude the aircraft is statically stable.

Procedure:
The aircraft was made to turn through 90 deg at four different bank angles maintaining a fixed altitude, speed and zero sideslip. During the turns, various readings were noted from the instrument panel and LabView was used to record some other data. From the readings noted down, we can estimate the rate of turn using the formula given above. By applying rolling moment equation, we can obtain the relationship shown below,

From the above equation, we can see that the slope of oa Vs sin0 graph for the three different turns should be positive for a statically stable aircraft. Hence, oa vs sin0 is plotted using the values of oa recorded by the software and 0 values noted in the card. Similarly, by applying yawing moment equation we can arrive at the relationship shown below,

From the above equation, since Cnr , Cnr are negative we can expect that the slope of or Vs r plot should be negative for a statically stable aircraft. Hence, or vs r plot is constructed using the values of or recorded by the software and r values calculated above.

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Calculation:

Velocity (knots)

Bank Angle (deg)

Rate of turning (rad/s)

90 90 90 90

10 15 20 25

-22.9818 -22.9231 -22.9331 -22.97

-84.6223 -84.3967 -84.4147 -84.5908

34.93504 34.84253 34.85433 34.91374

0.041865 0.050361 0.077377 0.101865

Sin vs. Aileron Deflection

-84.2838 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

sin

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

-84.4530

Aileron Deflection(volts)

Sin

-84.6223

-84.7915

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37

CONCLUSION:

The lateral and directional control angles required for trim during steady coordinated turn and to estimate some lateral and directional static stability derivatives of the airplane are determined.

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7. Experiment: Dutch Roll Demonstration

Dutch roll is a type of aircraft motion, consisting of an out-of-phase combination of "tail-wagging" and

rocking from side to side. This Yaw-roll coupling is one of the basic flight dynamics modes (other include Phugoid , short period, and spiral divergence). This

motion is normally well damped Dutch roll modes can experience a degradation in damping airspeed decrease and altitude increase. Dutch roll stability can be artificially increased by the installation of a yaw damper. Wings placed well above the center of mass, sweep back(swept wings) and dihedral wings tends to increase the roll restoring force, and therefore increase the Dutch roll tendencies this is why high-winged aircraft often are slightly anhedral, and transport category swept wing aircraft are equipped with yaw dampers.

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8. EXPERIMENT: PHUGOID EFFECT

The Phugoid is a constant angle of attack but varying pitch angle exchange of airspeed and altitude. It can be excited by an elevator singlet ( a short, sharp deflection followed by a return to the centered position) resulting in a pitch increase with no change in trim from the cruise condition. As speed decays, the nose will drop below the horizon. Speed will increase, and the nose will climb above the horizon. Periods can vary from under 30 seconds for light aircraft to minute for larger aircraft. Micro light aircraft typically show a Phugoid periods of 15-25 seconds, and it has been suggested that birds and model airplane shown convergence between the Phugoid and short period modes.

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41

10. EXPERIMENT: STALL

Flow separation begins to occur at small angle of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominated. As angle of attack increases, the separated regions on the top of the wing increase in size and hinder the wing's ability to create lift. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that further increases in angle of attack produces less lift and vastly more drag. (Note, airflow doesn't really separate from the wing, a vacuum does not magically emerge there. Rather, clean laminar flow gets pulled away by messy turbulent flow " Flow Separation" is a useful abstraction though)

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11. Conclusion
The flight lab experiments were successfully conducted. The experiments were performed in two sorties each extending for a period of approx 50-60 min. The analysis of the Climb and Cruise experiments were done successfully. The performance values obtained were in close proximity with the expected results within the error limit. In steady state slip and steady turn experiments, the ratios of the stability coefficients were obtained which were also within the error limit. Apart from these a demonstration flight was also organized where we experienced the different modes of flight like Dutch Roll and the Phugoid.

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