Agroforestry Systems 39: 101115, 1998. 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Trees on farms in Bangladesh: 5. Growth of top- and root-pruned trees in wetland rice fields and yields of understory crops
DRAKE HOCKING1,* and KHAIRUL ISLAM2
1 Thrushes, Ridge Common Lane, Steep, UK GU32 1AL; 2 Swiss Development Cooperation, G.P.O. Box 928, Dhaka, Bangladesh (*Author for correspondence)

Key words: canopy pruning, cereals, pulses, root pruning, tree-crop competition, wheat Abstract. Growth of trees and seasonal yields of understory crops were measured over a 5year period for 4 crops grown under 17 tree species at 8 8 m spacing in wetland rice fields. All tree species grew well in rice fields, at rates comparable to their growth in forest plantations. Top and root pruning reduced average tree girths by up to 19% and average tree volumes by up to 41%, depending on intensity of pruning. The crops monitored were Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Corchorus olotorius, and Lens culinaris. Crop yields under the trees averaged 93% of the corresponding yields outside the tree canopy. The most important factor affecting the yields of undercrops was tree size (height and/or girth). Differences among tree species and the interaction with species of undercrops were not significant after controlling for tree size. Pruning of roots and branches significantly improved crop yields under trees by amounts proportional to the intensity of root or top pruning.

Introduction and background Bangladesh agriculture is dominated by cultivation of wetland rice, with ricewheat rotations in the northwestern part. Farmers retain naturally-propagated field trees of several species (Hocking and Islam, 1994), whose distribution depends to a large degree on agroecological zone (Quddus et al., 1995). Without systematic pruning of roots and branches, such trees cause yield depression for the area under the trees ranging from 10% to about 50% depending on tree species, tree size, crop season, and the availability of irrigation (Hocking, Sarwar and Yousuf, 1997). Farmers perceive that this loss can be compensated for by the production of wood, fodder and fruits from the trees so are content to continue the practice. But ways of reducing such adverse effects of trees need to be explored. Background to the Village and Farm Forestry Project (VFFP) was given in Hocking and Islam (1994). The present report describes the main growth parameters of the trees, and trends in seasonal yields of the main undercrops, rice and wheat, with increasing tree sizes. Further details of tree growth are separately reported (Hocking and Islam, 1997). Crop performance under trees in wetland rice or rice-wheat farming systems is not well-discussed in the literature. Articles often report the effects of trees that are still immature and relatively small. A major difficulty in interpreta-

102 tion of conflicting or inconsistent results is the frequent lack of detailed and complete information about the systems: tree species, size or age, spacing and/or management, and sometimes crop details as well. These deficiencies are addressed in the present article.

Methods The site locations and agroecological conditions are described in Hocking and Islam (1994 and 1995). Trees were planted at a minimum spacing of 8 8 m mainly on field margins and, where fields were more than 16 m wide, also within the crop fields. Tree roots and branches were manually pruned to different degrees of intensity, by the farmers following project advice. Crop yield measurements The crop yields underneath trees aged five to nine years were measured over a period of five years from 1992 to 1995. The total sample for assessing crop yields consisted of 424 records. Site variation was controlled by comparing yields under the trees with crop yields in the same fields outside the zone of influence of the trees. The main crop studied was rice, which is the dominant monsoon season crop of the region. In Bangladesh, jute (Corchorus olotorius and C capsularis) is also important; a few samples of C. olotorius were included in the study. Post-monsoon crops studied included winter rice (boro), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and pulses (mainly land races of Lens culinaris). Crop yields in Bangladesh are highly variable, being markedly affected by different farmer practices and by seasons and years. To control for effect of site variation, each sample from under sample trees was accompanied by a matching sample taken from the open field outside the tree canopy. Crop samples consisted of 1 m2 plots, cut and bundled by hand. The under-tree sample was located 0.5 m from the trunk of the tree and at a random location around the circumference except for trees on or near field margins, where the sample location was restricted to the area belonging to the owner of the tree. The outside tree samples were cut from the open part of the same field at a distance from the tree of at least twice the canopy diameter, where crop yield is unaffected by the tree under these conditions (Hocking, Sarwar and Yousuf, 1997). Sometimes this was not possible owing to the small size of the field. After harvesting, the samples were threshed, cleaned and winnowed by hand using local procedures, usually with the help of the farmer and his/her family. The weight (g) of grain (in the case of jute, weight of stems) was taken with a calibrated spring balance. Moisture content (%) of the grain was measured with a commercial grain moisture meter, calibrated daily. Samples were then returned to the owner.

103 At each observation date, it was noted whether the crop field was irrigated or not. At the start of the study in 1986, 70% of fields had irrigation; by 1991 this had increased to 92% and by 1994 all fields in the study were irrigated. Tree measurements The tree growth data reported here are based on 5,482 observations of height and girth at breast height (gbh) of trees of 17 species, planted during the period 19871990. Crop effects are often related to crown diameter of the trees, which is itself correlated with trunk diameter or girth (Dawkins, 1963). Tree girths were measured at breast height (1.3 m) (gbh) with a tape measure. Tree heights to highest growing point were estimated to the nearest 0.1 m with a Suunto optical hypsometer. The location of the tree within the field or on the margin, and whether the tree was pruned or not and pruning intensity, were also noted. Degree of branch pruning was estimated visually on a scale of 14, where 1 = <25% of branches pruned, 2 = 2550% of branches pruned, 3 = 5075% of branches pruned, and 4 = pollarded (entire crown periodically removed). Non-destructive observations were made of tree roots on a small sub-sample of trees, as follows. Two circular trenches about 30 cm wide and deep were dug by hand at 1 m and 2 m radius from the tree trunk, with minimal disturbance of tree roots. Tree roots occurring in each trench were counted by diameter ranges <2cm, 25cm, and >5cm. The excavated soil was then returned to the trenches and gently compacted to its original position. Clearly, this method would not distinguish between natural root distribution and regenerated pruned roots; it determines what roots are present, whatever the reason for the distribution. Hence the parameter is called rooting intensity, rather than a term that would imply a response variable controlled by degree of pruning alone. Summary of main variable factors and levels The main response variable was crop yield under the trees as a percentage of crop yield outside the trees. The independent variables were as follows: Crop species: wet season crops: early monsoon rice (aus) main crop rice (aman) jute dry season crops: winter rice (boro) (irrigated) winter wheat (irrigated) pulses (unirrigated) Irrigation: available or not available

104 Tree species: 17 species of different ages and sizes. Tree location: within the field; or on the field margin Tree size: by gbh and height Tree canopy management: 25-percentiles branches removed Tree rooting intensity: root counts in sample trenches. Agroecological zone (AEZ): 7 zones (UNDP/FAO, 1988) Soil texture: silt, clay-loam, sandy-loam, red lateritic Year: 1992 to 1995 inclusive. Land elevation: (relative vulnerability to inundation) high (almost never flooded) medium-high (1530 cm water for short periods) medium-low (1530 cm water for long periods) NGO: the field-level cooperating partners to the VFFP Analysis of data Routine procedures were used for range and consistency checks and standard tests were applied for extreme out-liers. Data were processed using the General Linear Model of GENSTAT, Release 3.2. An initial series of analyses established which factors were most important (alone and serially) to the response variable, and these were included in the main model. Minor factors were then tested individually and those significant at the 5% level of probability were included. Data for some factor combinations such as rooting intensity were available in fewer replications, so their significances were tested separately using the same model with sequential sub-sets of the data. The main response variable was crop yield under the trees as a percentage of yield outside the trees. Independence of yield outside the tree from influences of the tree parameters was tested by analyzing the ratio (yield under tree)/(yield outside tree) + (yield under tree); this analysis produced the same set of significance tables as the simple ratio (yield under tree)/(yield outside tree). The influence of tree size (computed) was tested by analysis of the influence of observed gbh and height individually and in combination. The best fit in the regression analysis was obtained with the log transformation of tree volume, (gbh)2 height. Results and discussion Growth of trees Average tree heights and girths by ages (all species) and by species (all ages) are given in Table 1. Pruning the roots and/or the branches independently reduced tree size for age in direct proportion to the intensity of pruning. Details for individual species are published elsewhere (Hocking and Islam, 1997),

105 because there were no significant tree species effects on yield of understory crops (see below). Crop yields outside the trees The observed mean crop yields outside the trees, by crop species, are given in Table 2. To control for site variables, values for crop yield outside trees were tested by analyzing the data for influence of site factors, and of tree factors after controlling for site factors. The main site factors were (crop species) + (year)
Table 1. Mean heights and girths at breast height by age (all species) (A.) and species (all ages) (B.) of sampled trees in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995. (A.) by tree ages (all species) Age of trees (years) 3 Mean height (m) St. dev. Mean gbh (cm) St. dev. N 004.7 000.8 022.0 002.1 100 4 06.3 00.7 37.3 03.0 84 5 07.7 00.6 41.5 03.6 76 6 08.9 01.0 44.9 04.3 61 7 09.1 01.2 48.3 05.5 49 8 10.5 01.5 59.5 07.2 54 All ages 007.4 000.9 040.6 004.1 424

(B.) by tree species (all ages) Tree species Mean height (m) 06.3 05.2 05.9 07.6 06.2 07.6 05.8 08.1 06.7 13.7 07.1 06.8 07.0 07.6 06.1 08.3 04.9 08.5 Std dev Mean gbh (cm) 38 35 30 53 41 58 37 53 40 59 50 43 39 51 45 48 37 44 Std dev N 04.1 06.3 09.1 04.6 05.4 05.5 03.7 04.5 04.7 16.8 10.2 09.1 12.3 04.6 05.3 05.7 04.4 022 014 100 003 023 007 005 010 012 100 012 010 006 054 020 020 003 424

Acacia auriculiformis Acacia mangium Acacia nilotica Albizia procera Albizia saman Anthocephalus cadamba Azadirachta indica Cassia siamea Dalbergia sissoo Eucalyptus camaldulensis Faidherbia albida Gmelina arborea Leucaeana leucocephala Melia azederach Swietenia mahogani Terminalia arjuna Terminalia bellirica Grand mean

0.9 0.8 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.3 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.2 0.7 1.3 1.5 0.9 1.2 0.7

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Table 2. Mean crop yields outside the trees, by crop species, for all years and sites associated with various tree species in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995. Monsoon season (wet) Early rice (aus) Crop yields (kg/ha) St. Dev. N 2080 0079 0010 Main rice (aman) 2381 0075 0265 Jute Post-monsoon crops Irrigated rice (boro) 3420 0091 0111 Irrigated Unirrigated wheat pulses

297 041 004

1904 0072 0023

666 056 011

+ (AEZ) + (soil type) + (NGO), which together explained 52% of the variance. Tree factors (height, gbh, roots, pruning) were not significant for crop yields outside the trees after controlling for site variables. Crop yields under the trees Crop yields under the trees averaged 93% of the corresponding yields outside the trees (Table 3). Differences among tree species were small and not significant (P = 0.05) after controlling for tree size and other factors.
Table 3. Crop yields under trees as percentages of yields outside trees, by tree species (controlling for height); in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995. Tree species Mean crop yield (%) 090 099 094 101 091 097 093 102 098 088 095 092 098 089 092 093 087 093 Std dev N

Acacia auriculiformis Acacia mangium Acacia nilotica Albizia procera Albizia saman Anthocephalus cadamba Azadirachta indica Cassia siamea Dalbergia sissoo Eucalyptus camaldulensis Faidherbia albida Gmelina arborea Leucaeana leucocephala Melia azederach Swietenia mahogani Terminalia arjuna Terminalia bellirica Grand mean

17 09 17 10 15 10 06 12 18 20 09 04 11 14 09 08 06 16

022 014 100 003 023 007 005 010 012 100 012 010 006 054 020 020 003 424

107 Factors influencing crop yield under the trees The main factors independently affecting the crop yield under trees as a percentage of yields outside the trees were the size and species of the tree (Tables 4 and 5); after controlling for tree size, species became less significant. The explanatory variables for the general model for the yield percentage were (tree sp) + (height) + (ghb) + (soil type) + (NGO) + (roots). This model explained 41% of the variance in crop yield percentage. Agroecological zone (AEZ), soil texture, and NGO were almost interchangeable in the model, because each NGO operated in a relatively small area comprising only one or a few AEZs and soils, and soil texture is itself a major determinant of AEZ so differences were small and not statistically significant (P = 0.05).
Table 4. Factors influencing the ratio of yield of crops under to outside the trees in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995; showing statistical significance. Main effects Tree-related factors Sole factor *** ** *** NS ** NS NS Sole factor *** *** *** ** NS NS After height Included *** * * ** NS NS After NGO Included *** * *** NS NS When added to model Model Model Model Model NS NS NS term term term term

Height Girth Tree species Rooting intensity Tree age Pruning intensity Location margin or centre Site factors

When added to model Model term Model term NS * NS NS

NGO Soil type AEZ Year Crop species Elevation

Two-way interactions

Significance when added to model * NS NS NS

Tree Tree Tree Tree

sp sp sp sp

year height girth crop sp

Note: One, two or three asterisks indicate probability at the 5%, 1%, and 0.1% levels; NS means non-significant.

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Table 5. Accumulated analysis of variance for factors influencing crop yields under trees in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995. Change Degrees of freedom 001 001 004 003 016 001 173 199 Variance ratio 17.83 23.46 05.35 07.86 01.72 07.34 F (probability) < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.046 <0.007

+ tree height + gbh + NGO + soil type + species + roots Residual Total

The relative elevation of the field was not a significant factor either, possibly because differences (if any) attributable to elevation were already reflected in the crop species being grown. Location of the trees on field margins or within the fields was also not a significant factor for crop yields. Availability of irrigation could not be tested because nearly all records were for fields seasonally irrigated in the year of observation. The effect of crop species and seasons Differences in yield percentage under trees attributable to individual crop species and seasons were small and not statistically significant overall, although yield percentages under trees of post-monsoon crops (especially pulses) were generally smaller than those of monsoon season crops (Table 6). The smaller seasonal effect, in contrast to the large difference between seasons found by Hocking, Sarwar and Yousuf (1997), may be accounted for by the facts that all the fields in the current sample had irrigation, and most of the trees had been managed by top and root pruning to some degree.
Table 6. Crop yields under trees as percentage of yield outside trees, by crop species and seasons; in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995. Crops Monsoon season Early rice (aus) Yield ratio Std Dev N 96 12 10 Main rice (aman) 094 019 265 Jute Post-monsoon season Rice (boro) 94 11 23 Wheat Pulse

101 013 004

092 017 111

87 11 11

109 The effect of tree size Tree height was the strongest predictor of crop yield percentage under trees after controlling for AEZ and year. The regression equation was used to predict crop yield percentages under trees for a smoothed series of tree heights and girths (Table 7). Crop yield percentages associated with the tallest (25 m) trees were 40% less than those associated with the shortest (5 m) trees. Tree girth was also significant. For girth, crop yield percentages associated with the fattest (140 cm girth) trees were 21% less than those associated with the thinnest (20 cm) trees. Both associations were probably due to the much larger shady canopy of the taller and fatter trees, even when averaged over all pruning levels. The effect of tree species The influence of tree species on crop yield percentage under trees interacted with tree size as there were large differences in mean size of the different tree species. After controlling for tree size, differences in crop yield percentage under different tree species were small and few were significant (Table 3 above). There was no striking pattern of influences that could be associated with any particular group of tree species, such as nitrogen-fixing species. The effects of branch and root pruning After controlling for AEZ, year, and tree height, the effects of branch pruning intensity and root intensity were significant at the 5% level of probability. The more branches were pruned, the higher was the yield percentage under the tree (Table 8A). Crop yields under trees pruned more than 50%, or under pollarded trees, were not significantly different from yield outside the trees. This suggests that light competition through shading was a major cause of crop yield depression. Numbers of roots found ranged from 0 to 144; the more roots were present in the sampling trenches, the lower was the crop yield percentage under the
Table 7. Crop yield under trees as percentage of yield outside trees, in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995; as predicted by tree height (A.) and tree girth (B.) (controlling for crop species, AEZ, year, tree species; and gbh or height). A. Tree height Tree height (m) 05 10 15 20 25 Crop yield (%) 99 89 79 69 59 s.e. B. Tree girth Tree girth (cm) 020 040 060 080 100 120 140 Crop yield (%) 103 100 099 096 091 087 082 s.e.

14 32 21 23 37

16 09 22 31 37 28 51

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Table 8. Crop yield under trees as percentage of yield outside trees, in northwestern Bangladesh, 19901995; as influenced by A. branch pruning; or B. Nos. of roots. (Means of all crop species, all tree species, and all years.) A. Effect of branch pruning Pruning intensity (%) <25 2550 5075 >75 Mean Crop yield (%) 0*89 0*95 0*99 *106 0*94 Std. dev. N B. Effect of numbers of roots Nos of roots Crop yield (%) 94 94 93 92 90 85 76 59 Std dev.

17 13 22 18 15

090 050 030 005 175

000 002 004 008 016 032 064 128

013 012 011 010 013 026 057 119

* This value is a mean of 5 records for Leucaena leucocephala only. Note: Log scale for root numbers.

trees. For presentation of results, the model predictions are given on a log scale of root numbers (Table 8B). The strong negative correlation of number of roots with crop yield suggests important below-ground competition. Combined effects of tree height and rooting intensity The strongest predictors of crop yield percentage under trees after controlling for site variables were tree height and rooting intensity. It is instructive to present these as combined effects in a single figure (Figure 1).

General discussion and conclusions The main findings of this work were: 1. Most trees grew well in, or on the margins of, rice fields of northern Bangladesh. 2. Yields of rice or wheat underneath such trees (including pruned ones) averaged about 93% of yields outside the tree. 3. Tree size was the most important factor influencing crop yields under trees. 4. Pruning of tops and roots of the trees improved the yield percentage of undercrops compared to unpruned trees, by amounts proportionate to degree of pruning. Top and root pruning also reduced growth of all tree species proportionately. 5. Within the limits of the time frame of the experiment, the tree species was unimportant to crop yields underneath.

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Figure 1. The effect of tree height and numbers of tree roots in sample trenches on the crop yield under trees, expressed as a ratio of yield under trees to that in the open, in northwestern Bangladesh, 1990 to 1995.

In common with the present study, other authors report that trees significantly depress yields of rice or wheat by amounts inversely related to distance and directly related to age and presumably size of the trees (Dhukia et al., 1988; Keli-Zagbahi et al., 1990; Wahid Rashid et al., 1991; Khybri et al., 1992; Khan and Ehrenreich, 1994; Puri et al., 1995). In other studies, trees sometimes have no apparent effects on rice or wheat crops (Takeda, 1990; Singhal and Panwar, 1991; Wu, 1996). The interaction of trees and undercrops is clearly made up of complex biophysical elements that include benefits of shelter (Huxley, 1993; Wu, 1996) and improvements in soil nutrient status (Sae-Lee et al., 1992) as well as the negative effects of competition for light, water, and/or nutrients (e.g. Sharma and Singh, 1992). Shading often appears to be a dominant cause of adverse crop effects (Sae-Lee et al., 1992; Salazari et al., 1993). Below-ground competition is more likely to be a contributing factor where and when water and/or nutrients are in short supply (Singhal and Panwar, 1991; Salazari et al., 1993). Although crop yields often may be reduced, the value of the trees may compensate or more than compensate (Wang and Shogren, 1992; ZL Jiang et al., 1994; Wu, 1996). For many tree species, intermediate harvests of minor tree products such as leaves and branches for fodder and domestic fuel alleviate

112 current losses of undercrops. However, Khybri et al. (1992) found that net income was less after 13 years for three combined tree/crop systems in northern India, although annual harvests of branches were taken, than for pure arable crops. In the present study, the factors affecting the crop yield percentage under trees were mainly tree-related, whereas crop yield outside the trees was influenced mainly by site-related factors. Owing to small field sizes, some of the larger trees unavoidably had an effect on the crop sampled from outside the canopy but within the same field. But this effect on the outside sample was small and became non-significant when controlled for crop yield ratio (under/outside). The effect on crop yield under pruned trees varied little among the different tree species within the size and time limits of the present study, in contrast to the differences in yield percentages observed under trees of different species when not pruned (Hocking, Sarwar, and Yousuf, 1997). Tree size (height and/or girth), and the degree of branch and root pruning, were the most important factors affecting yield ratio of undercrops. These observations support the earlier inference that, in the monsoon season, competition for light is the dominant influence whereas in the post-monsoon season, below-ground competition enters the equation more strongly. These factors accounted for the main variance in yield ratios, and there was no residual yield depression effects that required attribution to other factors like allelopathy. Independently of tree species, knowledge of the strong influence of tree size offers farmers the management option of harvesting trees at a smaller size. This would minimize the extent of crop yield depression and the period over which it is suffered. Of course, a clear choice is subject to knowledge of the relative prices of the crops and the tree products. The unit volume price of wood increases with dimensions, so the trade-off with crop yield at larger tree sizes is complex and subject to external variables. Root pruning and branch pruning, as recommended by the project, had strong independent and combined effects on alleviating the yield depressing effect even of big trees. But such pruning slows the growth of the trees (Hocking and Islam, 1997). A better understanding of such trade-offs permits farmers to make informed decisions on management. In the present study, not many farmers pruned the branches heavily, although they knew about the adverse effects of shading (Quddus et al., 1995); mainly because they also knew about the high value of wood and about the slowing of tree growth that accompanies branch pruning (Hocking, Sarwar and Yousuf, 1997). Literature reports of beneficial effects of trees or short-duration woody hedgerows on the rice undercrop attribute this mainly to improved soil fertility relating to litter fall, or to micro-climate amelioration (Vityakon et al., 1988 and 1993; Sae-Lee et al., 1992; Huxley, 1993; Osman et al., 1995); although in some studies on special problem soils this effect was not found (Dagar et al., 1995). Such an effect has not yet been quantified in the present

113 study but is expected to be beneficial to soil fertility in the long term through recycled nutrients. Most farmers participating in the VFFP are content with the productivity of the combined systems and have expanded their area of cropland under systematic agroforestry. The earliest farmer partners are into their second generation of trees in crop fields. This speaks for their experience and confidence in the system. The expected longer-term benefits to soil structure and fertility maintenance, if realized, can only add to their satisfaction. The project has developed much farmer-oriented extension material based on this research, which is available on request. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Swiss government. All of our field partners, farmers, NGOs and field staff alike, contributed to technical understanding of tree performance. Many scientific colleagues contributed through discussions or reviews of early drafts of this paper, among whom we acknowledge particularly Shahadad Hussain, Werner Hunziker, Roger Mead, Peter Huxley, and Peter Savill. Arifur Rahman Siddiqui and Amzul Huda of the VFFP Coordination Office ensured the timely collection of data in the field. Invaluable advice on statistical analysis and interpretation was provided by Professor Roger Mead of Reading University, UK. Help with data management and analysis was provided by Joan Knock, Carlos Barahona and Andrew Jack of Reading University Statistical Services Centre. References
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