Unit - IV

Interpersonal Behavior

Interpersonal Behavior
Interpersonal Behaviour is basically how "two persons" interact in any setting. It is extremely
important in organizations to strengthen interpersonal relationships. When at a basic level, that
is, between two people the relationship is strong and pleasant; it will lead to proper behaviour.
This behaviour will result in productive work which is ultimately what organizations are looking
Ior. At the employee level iI trust and passion Ior work exists, the unity between them can
achieve great results. These results would be in terms oI reduction in the time lag, better quality
work, and excellence in working procedures.
Concept of Conflict
The term conIlict may mean diIIerent things to diIIerent persons. It may be regarded as the
disagreement or hostility between individuals or groups in the organization. It may even mean
rivalry or competition or may be viewed as the perception oI disagreement. ConIlict is an
inevitable part oI personal, organizational and societal liIe. ConIlicts arise due to competition,
diIIerences in values, attitudes, experiences, goals and perception oI limited resources.
ConIlict is any situation in which two or more parties Ieel themselves in opposition. It is an
interpersonal process that arises Irom disagreements over the goals or the methods to accomplish
those goals.

Nature of Conflict
Functional Conflict: It is healthy disagreement between two or more parties. In Iunctional
conIlicts, people primarily diIIer on ideas or perceptions. II people are open minded they make
joint exploration on ideas or principles, new awareness, new insight which improves the
relationship between parties to disagreement. Functional conIlicts lead to innovation and
creativity, thus open possibility Ior high perIormance and organizational improvement.
Dysfunctional Conflict: It is unhealthy disagreement between two or more parties. Traditional
view oI conIlict is more known Ior its dysIunctional nature. It presumes that conIlicts are
inherently bad and invariably aIIect the organizational outcome negatively. It involves anger,
Irustration, hostility, and antagonism among the parties and most oIten parties to the conIlict
engage in win-lose or lose-lose game.

Features of Conflict
Following are some oI the important Ieatures oI conIlict:
1. ConIlict arises because oI incompatibility oI two or more aspects oI an elements, it may be
goals, interest, methods oI working etc.
2. It occurs when an individual is not able to choose among the available courses oI action.
3. It is a dynamic process as it indicates a series oI events each conIlict is made up oI series oI
interlocking conIlict episode.
4. ConIlict must be perceived and expressed by the parties to it.

Types of Conflict
Deutsch proposed six types oI conIlict which may occur across the issues any time and in
combination.
Veridical Conflict - This type oI conIlict exists objectively and is perceived accurately. Honest
but diIIicult diIIerence oI opinion.
Contingent Conflict - ConIlict is resolvable but parties are not aware oI it.
Displaced Conflict - The parties Iail to identiIy real issue and argue over secondary issue
Misattributed Conflict - The assigning oI wrong reasons, oIten unconsciously leads to conIlict.
Latent Conflict - A Iailure to consciously recognize that a true conIlict exists
False Conflict - A conIlict without basis caused by misunderstanding and poor communication

Robbins proposed a threefold classification of conflict:
Task ConIlict - It relates to content and the goal oI the work.
Relationship ConIlict - It consists oI interpersonal, emotional issues.
Process ConIlict - It Iocuses on how the work gets done.
Robbins suggests low to moderate amount oI task and process conIlict is helpIul Ior
perIormance. However, relationship conIlict invariably hinders group perIormance.
ConIlicts on the basis oI existence in various units can be classiIied in terms oI inter-
organizational, intergroup, interpersonal and intrapersonal conIlicts. PreIix inter is used Ior
depicting conIlict `between" units or parties whereas the preIix intro is used to reIer conIlict
"within" unit or party.
Levels of Conflict
rganizational Level Conflict
All the type oI conIlicts exists in the organizational setting itselI. ConIlict at the organization
level can be intra-organizational or inter-organizational.
1. Intra-organizational conflict, there may be Iour types oI conIlict hierarchical conIlict,
Iunctional conIlict, line-staII conIlict and Iormal-inIormal conIlict.
2. Inter-organizational Conflicts: These are conIlicts that arise between two or more
organizations. There are numerous examples oI inter-organizational conIlicts. These can be
Iunctional as well as dysIunctional conIlicts. When organizations, due to competition enhance
their quality, the same can be treated as Iunctional conIlict. However, iI the same organizations
are engaged in malicious campaign against each other, conIlict will be termed as dysIunctional
conIlict.
Group Level Conflict
A group constitutes two or more persons who interact in such a way that each person inIluences
and is inIluenced by others. In this interaction process, there may be two types oI conIlict: intra-
group and inter-group.
1. Intra-group Conflict: Intra-group ConIlict may arise in three situations: (i) When group Iaces
a novel problem oI task (ii) where new values are imported Irom the social environment into
group; and (iii) where a person`s extra-group role comes into conIlict with his intra-group role.
2. Intergroup Conflict: When conIlict occurs between two or more groups, departments, teams,
the same is called intergroup conIlict. When there is intergroup conIlict, the groups become more
cohesive, task Iocused and members show greater loyalty. However the out group i.e., the other
group is seen as an enemy, hostility and obstructing behaviour is among members negatively
aIIecting the interest oI other group. It is thereIore suggested that competition must be managed
careIully, and competing groups should not lose sight oI super ordinate goals oI organizations.
Individual Level Conflict
ConIlict may start at individual level itselI. Organization is composed oI various individuals,
many conIlict develops at individual level. Individual level conIlict may take place at two levels
intra-individual/intrapersonal and inter-individual/interpersonal.
1. Interpersonal Conflict: ConIlict between two or more individual can be considered as
interpersonal conIlicts. Such conIlicts may occur due to individual diIIerences including
diIIerences in perception oI problems, perception oI situations, attitudes, values apart Irom
diIIerences arising out oI control and allocation oI resources. These conIlicts may be in two
Iorms- horizontal or vertical conIlict.
2. Intrapersonal Conflicts When conIlict occurs within a person, the same is called
intrapersonal conIlict. There are several types oI intrapersonal conIlict including role and goal
conIlict.
A Role Conflict - Role is a set oI expectations put by others. Persons who are putting their
expectations are called role senders and the person who is receiving set oI expectations and is
Iocus oI attention is called Iocal person. Role conIlict may be inter-role, intra-role, and person-
role conIlict.
a) Inter-role conflict can occur when a person is experiencing conIlict due to competing
demands in two roles. An employee may be a union leader and also executive in production
department. Person's role as executive expects him to be obedient to his boss and work diligently
Ior the organization, however his role as a union leader is to raise issues with management to
Iurther the interest oI their union. By playing the two roles the person experiences inter-role
conIlict.
-) Intra-role conflict can occur when the persons receives contradictory expectations in the same
role. For example, manager suggests an employee to Iinish the project by tomorrow and also
suggest to visit Iive clients personally today itselI. It is virtually impossible to Iinish the project
by tomorrow iI the employee complies to the other expectation, i.e., visiting Iive clients
personally today itselI. This may generate intrapersonal conIlict.
c) Person-role conflict occurs when a person is expected to do certain thing as a part oI his/her
role, which is against personal value system. For example, a person strongly Ieels about
environmental pollution. She is asked to deIend act oI unguarded pollution oI her company to the
Government oIIicials. Such expectation put her in the person-role conIlict.
B Goal Conflict It occurs when two or motives block each other. There can be three alternate
goal conIlict: approach-approach conIlict, approach avoidance conIlict and avoidance-avoidance
conIlict.
a) Approach-approach conflict - In this type oI conIlict individual tries to decide upon one or
another oI two attractive goals, which are mutually exclusive. Basically it hardly seems to be a
conIlict as the individual makes choice to attain a positively valued outcome.
-) Approach avoidance conflict - In this type oI conIlict individual have both positive and
negative Ieeling Ior a goal because the goal possesses both attractive and repulsive
characteristics. This may lead to conIlict in the person and may cause the person to be indecisive
anxiously at the point where approach equals avoidance.
c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict This is a situation where individual choose between two
exclusively goals, each oI which possesses unattractive qualities. Unless other alternatives are
available, such a conIlict has a tendency to stay unresolved.
The Conflict process
There are many approaches that describes conIlict process. One popular approach is proposed by
Lois Pondy. He has proposed that conIlict goes through Iive stage process which he calls
"conIlict episodes". These stages are helpIul in diagnosing task conIlicts. II one can locate where
is the group in the process, then he/she can predict where it will go next and thus may try to Iind
ways to manage conIlict. The Iive stages are: Latent conIlict, perceived conIlict, Ielt conIlict,
maniIest conIlict and conIlict aItermath.
1. Latent conflict: It is the stage in which Iactors exist in the situation/environment that may
surIace at any time. For example limited resources are to be shared by many departments.
Potential source oI conIlict is present in the situation. It can erupt any time.
2 Perceived conflict: At this stage people are aware that a conIlict exists and the other party may
Irustrate one's goal directed behaviour. For example, iI quality manager is heard saying that we
need to be more careIul in certiIying product as we have received many complaints Irom dealer
about quality oI the product. Overhearing this conversation production manager may become
aware that there is a conIlict as our product has to pass stringent quality standards, thus may
reduce the volume oI production. Thus production manager sees the possibility oI development
oI conIlict between the two departments.
3. Felt conflict: Parties to the conIlict are emotionally aware that there is a conIlict and they
experience stress anxiety, stress, and hostility. Managers oI quality and production once called in
GM's review meeting, they may Ieel the waves impending conIrontations on production and
quality issues and may prepare to state their stands on the conIlict mentally.
4. Manifest conflict: At this stage open observable conIlict is visible. Quality manager now
communicates his concern to production manager regarding the quality. Production manager
may react to the same by asking Ior speciIic data may or may not tribute to the usage obsolete
technology. But the Iact is that conIlict has come into open.
5. Conflict aftermath: This is the IiIth stage and ranges conIlict resolution to group dissolution
and group may return to stage one. This is the stage where conIlict resolution is attempted and
once conIlict is somehow resolved using various strategies, parties to the conIlict reach to stage
where they are still leIt with residual hostility which among other things become a reason Ior
latent conIlict in subsequent conIlict episode.
Managing rganizational Conflict
1. Establishing Common Goals - Existence oI super-ordinate/common goals will reduce the
occurrence oI dysIunctional conIlicts.
2. Reduction in Interdependence - Common reason in inter-group conIlict is interdependence
among them. II interdependence id reduced, conIlict automatically reduces.
3. Reduction in shared Resources When two or more units share resources especially the
scare resources, chances oI conIlict increases. For conIlict reduction such sharing should be
reduced by increasing the resources.
4. Exchange of personnel - Personnel oI conIlicting groups may be exchanged Ior a speciIied
period as a way to reducing and managing conIlict.
5. Creation of Special Integrators - Organizations should appoint special integrators Ior
managing interdependence oI various groups Ior solving the unresolved matters.
6. Reference to Superior Authority Issue can be resolved by taking the matter to common
superior who resolves the conIlict by decision making. Decisions are usually accepted by the
members because oI the recognized superior authority oI high ranking individual.
7. Problem-Solving - Problem-solving technique is the most positive technique Ior conIlict
resolution. This technique emphasizes on attaining the common interests oI both conIlicting
parties.
8. Avoidance - Parties to the conIlict may either withdraw Irom the conIlict or conceal the
incompatibility.
9. Smoothing - It is the process oI curbing down the conIlict that exist between individuals or
groups while emphasizing common interests.
10. Compromise This technique involve third party intervention Ior internal compromise
between the conIlicting parties through representative negotiation and voting.
11. Confrontation - In this technique parties are leIt to settle the conIlict themselves. This may
result into win-lose situation. The parties concerned may settle their score by applying their
strength against each other.
Concept of Power
"The concept oI power is as ancient and ubiquitous as any that social theory can boast." Power is
recognized as "the ability oI those who possess power to bring about the outcomes they desire".
Power reIers to inIluence Ilows oI the available resources towards certain goals as opposed to
other goals. Power is assumed to be exercised only when these goals are at least partially in
conIlict with each other.
Characteristics of Power
1. Power is one oI the means to inIluence others Ior getting results.
2. InIluence process occurs in particular way when it is attempted by the use oI power.
3. Power is used not only in getting certain results achieved but it also includes negative
decisions, or the action oI non-decisions.
4. Power is extra-organizational in nature and any one in the organization may have this type oI
inIluence through the use oI power provided one is capable oI doing so.
Importance of Power
Power is the ability that a person may use to get others to do what he/she wants to be done. The
nature oI power is control over other people.
In the organization, power oI a person can be derived Irom interpersonal, structural and
situational bases. Basically, interpersonal power is vested in a person as prescribed by the
organization (ie; legitimate, reward and coercive) and by the person`s qualities (ie; expert and
reIerent). While structural and situational powers (ie; resource, decision making and inIormation
powers) normally go by the hierarchy oI the organization`s structure, that is, the higher the
position oI a person as structured by the organization, the greater is his/her power in accessing to
resources, making decisions and having access to important inIormation.
One reality oI power in the organization is that people are having the need Ior it. The diIIerences
are in the degree and intention; whether someone is having a high or low need Ior power, and
whether the need Ior power is directed towards personal or organizational purposes. The issue oI
the reality oI power in the organization is important to be closely studied because it aIIects the
eIIectiveness oI the organization.
Bases of Power
An essential part oI leadership or management is to inIluence the people so that they do what
organization want them to do. The inIluence oI a leader will depend on a variety oI Iactors
including their personality and oI those around them. The inIluence oI a leader over his Iollowers
is oIten reIerred to as power. Below are explored the diIIerent types oI power a leader may have.
Reward Power - This type oI inIluence is created when the leader is able to oIIer a reward to
his Iollowers Ior completing tasks/behaving in a certain manner. Rewards in the workplace can
take a variety oI Iorms Irom chocolates, giIt vouchers and holidays to promotions, commission
and pay rises. This reward will only be eIIective iI the reward appeals to the Iollower; iI the
Iollowers believe that leader will give reward, and iI the reward is proportionate to the task.
Coercive Power - This is the opposite oI reward power because this power is based on the
leader having control over what happens iI Iollowers do not act as required. Coercive power rests
in the ability oI a manager to Iorce an employee to comply with an order through the threat oI
punishment. Coercive power typically leads to short-term compliance, but in the long-run
produces dysIunctional behavior.
Legitimate Power - This is the power that a leader has when the Iollowers believe that the
leader has 'a right to instruct them and that they have an obligation to Iollow instructions.
Sometimes legitimacy power is created by the leader`s job title (such as captain, doctor, or area
manager), combined with the Iollower`s belieI that the job title gives the leader the right to give
them orders.
Referent Power - This is created when the Iollowers believe that the leader possess qualities
that they admire and would like to possess. The Iollowers identiIy with their leader and attempt
to copy their leader. As reIerent power is dependent on how the Iollower views the personality oI
their leader, a leader will not have reIerent power over every Iollower they lead. Some leaders
will have reIerent power over just a Iew, whilst others such as Ghandi have lead millions through
their personality and charisma.
Expert Power - As the title suggests a leader has expert power when the Iollowers believe that
the leader has 'expert knowledge or skills that are relevant to the job or tasks they have to
complete. OIten an experienced member oI the team or staII in an organization, can have expert
power even though they are not a supervisor or manager. Expert power rests on the belieI oI
employees that an individual has a particularly high level oI knowledge or highly specialized
skill set. Managers may be accorded authority based on the perception oI their greater knowledge
oI the tasks at hand than their employees.
Sources of Power
Sources oI power can be broadly categorized into two: (i) interpersonal sources oI power, and (ii)
structural and situational sources oI power.
Interpersonal sources oI power primarily emanate Irom one`s organizational position or one`s
personality viz., legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, expert power, and reIerent
power.
Structural and situational sources oI power relate to the types oI department structure, access to
powerIul individuals, access to critical resources and strategic inIormation, and soon. The power
oI lower level employees emanates Irom the dependence superiors have on them Ior inIormation,
perIormance, control oI resources, and their own group aIIiliations and individual characteristics.
rganization politics
According to Tushman, 'Politics reIers to the structure and process oI the use oI authority and
power to aIIect deIinition oI goals, direction and the other major parameters oI the organization.
Decisions are not made in a rational way but rather through compromise, accommodation and
bargaining.In the words oI Farrell and Peterson, 'Politics in an organization reIers to those
activities that are not required as part oI one`s Iormal role in the organization, but that inIluence
or attempt to inIluence the distribution oI advantages and disadvantages within the organization.
Features of rganizational Politics
The broad Ieatures oI organizational politics are as under:
(i) Politics involves the use oI some kind oI power or pressure over other persons or groups.
Rewards and punishments are commonly used.
(ii) Political behaviour is selI-serving in nature. Attempts are made to use organizational
resources Ior personal beneIits or to give some beneIits to others.
(iii) Political behaviour is outside one`s speciIied job requirements. It involves ways oI getting
things accomplished that are not Iormally recognized practices or procedures.
(iv) Political decisions may not be rational Irom the point oI view oI the organization. They are
usually taken to acquire more power
Factors relating to Political behavior
There are number oI Iactor that encourages political behavior. Some are individual while some
are organizational. These are described as below:
A) Individual Factors At the individual level several Iactors have been identiIied like
personality traits, needs, and others that are likely to be related to political behavior. Few oI the
individual Iactors are described below:
1he high self monitor These exhibits higher levels oI social conIormity and are more likely
to be skilled in political behavior than the low selI monitor.
Internal Locus of Control These people believes that they can control their environment and
attempt to manipulate situations in their Iavor.
Individual's Investment The more the person invests in an organization in terms oI
expectations oI increased Iuture beneIits, the more a person has to lose iI Iorced out the less
likely he or she is to use illegitimate means.
Alternative 1o- Opportunities II an individual has job opportunity and inIluential contact
outside the organization then he/she is more likely to risk the illegitimate political actions.
Low Expectation of Success in Using Illegitimate High expectations oI success in the use
oI illegitimate means are most likely to be the behavior oI both experienced and powerIul
individuals.
B) rganizational Factors Political activity is more a Iunction oI organization`s
characteristics than oI individual diIIerences variables. Few oI the organizational Iactors are
described below:
1. Reallocation oI Resources
2. Promotional Avenues
3. Low Trust
4. Role Ambiguity
5. Unclear PerIormance Evaluation
6. Reward Practices
7. Democratic Decision-making
8. High PerIormance pressure
Managing Political Behavior
Managing Political Behavior is not an easy task. The very nature oI political behavior makes it
tricky to approach in rational and systematic way. It will require understanding oI three basic
Iactors: the reasons oI political behavior, common techniques Ior using political behavior, and
limiting the eIIects oI political behavior.
A Reasons for rganizational Politics
There may be several reasons Ior political behavior. Some oI these are as Iollows:
Competition for Power People want to acquire power because this satisIies them. But in an
organization power is limited; oIten there is competition Ior acquiring power.
Discretionary Authority Positions with discretionary authority to use power are provided in
organizations so as to use such powers could be used in special cases. People with discretionary
positions try to maintain power at least equal to or greater than their dependence on
organizational members.
Am-iguity in Organization Ambiguity especially related to roles and authority, generates
political behavior.
Su-ective Evaluation of Performance Sometimes perIormance cannot be measured
quantitatively. In such cases perIormance is evaluated subjectively by the superiors. This oIten
leads to political behavior.
Saturation in Promotion When people start Ieeling that they have reached maximum level
as per their talents, skills, ability and knowledge they resort to political behavior.
1oint Decision-making Large organizations rely on Joint decision making to solve various
types oI problems. Joint decision making oIten leads to political behavior and conIlict in an
organizations.
B. Techniques of Political Behavior
Few oI the techniques oI political behavior are as Iollows:
Controlling Information One oI the techniques oI political behavior is to control as much
inIormation as possible. The person having complete inIormation has the power and engages in
politics to control decisions and activities according to his ends.
Controlling Lines of Communication Similarly some people create or exploit situations to
control lines oI communication, particularly access to others in the organization.
Using Outside Experts - Using outside experts, such as consultants or advisers, can be an
eIIective political technique.
Came Playing - When playing games, managers simply work within the rules oI the
organization to increase the probability that their preIerred outcome comes out. Here the
manager uses control over inIormation to play games with his subordinates.
Image Building - Image building or impression management is restrained Iorm oI political
behavior is in most cases a means oI enhancing one`s power base Ior Iuture activity.
Building Coalition The technique oI building coalitions has as its general goal convincing
others that everyone should work together to get things accomplished. At its extreme, coalition
building which is Irequently used in political bodies may take the Iorm oI deliberate reciprocity.
7 Controlling Decision Parameters Managers may be able to inIluence the decision
parameters such that his desired location subsequently appears to be the ideal site as determined
by the criteria.
C. Limiting the Effects of Political Behavior
Opening Communication - Open communication is an eIIective technique Ior constraining
the impact oI political behavior. Open communication also limits the ability oI any single person
to control inIormation or lines oI communication.
Reducing Uncertainty - Many oI the reasons Ior political behavior ambiguous goals, non-
routine technology and an unstable environment, and organizational change as well as most oI
the political technique themselves are associated with high level oI uncertainty.
Awareness of the causes and techniques Simply being aware oI the causes oI political
behavior can help a manager check their eIIects.
ork Stress
Here are some recent deIinitions oI work-related stress:
O "fob stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur
when the reqirements of the fob do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.
Job stress can lead to poor health and even infury."
O "the emotional, cognitive, behavioural and physiological reaction to aversive and
noxious aspects of work, work environments and work organisations. It is a state characterised
by high levels of arousal and distress and often by feelings of not coping."
O "stress is the reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed
on them."
Implication of stress on performance and satisfaction/ Effects of 1ob Stress
According to Luthans (1989), stress experience by individuals has negative consequences Ior
them, their Iamilies, and Ior the organizations they serve.
1. Consequences for the Individual
The impact oI distress on individuals has subjective, cognitive, physiological, behavioural, and
health Iacets to it. The subjective or intrapersonal eIIects oI stress are Ieelings oI anxiety,
boredom, apathy, nervousness, depression, Iatigue, anger, irritability and sometimes aggressive
behaviours on the part oI individual experiencing the stress. The cognitive eIIects include poor
concentration, short attention span, mental blocks, and inability to make decisions. The
physiological eIIects can be seen in increased heart and pulse rate, high blood pressure, dryness
oI throat, and excessive sweating. The behavioural consequences are maniIest in such things as
accident proneness, drinking, excessive eating, smoking, nervous laughter, impulsive behaviours,
depressions, and withdrawal behavours. The maniIest health eIIects could be stomach disorders,
asthma, eczema, and other psychosomatic disorders. In addition, the mental health, i.e the ability
to Iunction eIIectively in one`s daily liIe, will also decline as excessive stress is experienced.
2. Consequence for the Family
Distress, which is handled by individuals in dysIunctional ways, such as resorting to drinking or
withdrawal behaviours, will have an adverse eIIect on their home liIe. Spouse abuse, child abuse,
alienation Irom Iamily members, and even divorce could result Irom dysIunctional coping
mechanisms.
3. Consequences to the rganization
The organizational eIIects oI employee stress are many. The adverse consequences include: low
perIormance and productivity, high rates oI absenteeism and turnover, lost customers because oI
poor worker attitudes, increased alienation oI the worker Irom the job, and even destructive and
aggressive behaviours resulting in strikes and sabotage. The stresses experienced by employees
who take on critical roles and are responsible Ior public saIety can sometimes be detrimental to
the well being oI the constituents served.
Sources of Stress
Generally, job stress can arise Irom either the environment oI work i.e. organizational or
situational stress, or Irom the characteristics oI the workers themselves i.e. dispositional stress.
1. rganizational Stressors
Some sources oI organizational stress include:
ork-related factors - these can come in Iorm oI work overload when the job requires
excessive speed, output or concentration, or underutili:ation etc.
1o- or role am-iguity is also a potential source oI job stress and this occurs when job or task
requirements are not clearly outlined
Role conflict - When a worker has to play diIIerent roles simultaneously at work or when his
role at work conIlicts with his Iamily roles, then role conIlict occurs and this can cause stress.
W Organizational Structural Factors - these include physical conditions in the work
environment ranging Irom noise, heat, poor lighting etc. Other structural Iactors such as staII
rules and regulations, poor reward systems, lack oI Ireedom or even lack oI clear career path,
may all bring about stress.
W Interpersonal Stress - this oIten results Irom diIIiculties in developing and maintaining
relationships with other people such as supervisors, peers, or even subordinates.
W Organizational change - a stable work environment is generally comIorting and reassuring to
workers hence the occurrence oI major changes in the organization tend to cause stress.
2. Dispositional Stressors
These are stressors arising Irom the individual characteristics oI the workers themselves. Few oI
these are characterized by excessive drive and competitiveness, a sense oI urgency, impatience
and underlying hostility.
Management of 1ob Stress
EIIective management oI job stress can only be achieved under two conditions. First, the
individual worker must be able to recognize stressors and understand their consequences and
second, organizations must develop stress prevention, as well as stress reduction techniques.
At the individual level some coping strategies include the following:
Setting realistic deadlines Achieving results with adequate challenges is important but work
overloading must be avoided.
ReIusing to take on too much work than it is possible to achieve within a stipulated time.
Avoiding maladaptive reactions e.g. resorting to drugs or alcohol as a Iorm oI escape Irom
stressIul situations.
Problems must not be allowed to Ioster once a stressIul situation arises, it must be resolved.
Exercise properly
Maintaining a proper diet
Relaxing and decompressing
At the organizational level, some proactive measures which management can adopt to
manage stress as follows:
i. Setting clear objectives this helps to minimize job and role ambiguity.
ii. Conducting stress audit this is an eIIective proactive action to combat stress especially
among executives.
iii. Improving person job Iit by maximizing person job Iit through careIul screening,
selection and placement oI employees, organizations can alleviate a great deal oI stress.
iv. Eliminating punitive management by eliminating policies that are perceived to be
threatening or punitive, a major source oI stress will be removed.
Providing a supportive, team oriented work environment. The more organizations can Ioster
good interpersonal relationships among co-workers and an integrated highly Iunctioning team,
the more likely that workers will be able to provide support Ior one another in times oI stress.
Increasing employees` sense oI control through programmes such as job enrichment,
participative decision making, and delegation oI authority all help to increase employees` sense
oI control over their jobs and the work environment.
Improving communication proper organizational communication can prevent workers Irom
job experiencing stress.
Causes of Stress/Factor causing Stress:
Three sets oI Iactor (a) environmental, (b) organizational and (c) individual that act as potential
cause oI stress.
(a) Environmental factors just as environmental uncertainty inIluences the design oI an
organization`s structure, it also changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.
Similarly political instability is a cause oI stress. Political crisis like civil war, riots, hostilities
with neighboring countries etc can lead to stress. Technology uncertainties are a third type oI
environmental Iactor that can cause stress. New innovations can make employee`s skills and
experience obsolete in a very short time, computers, robotics, automation and similar Iorms oI
technology innovations are a threat to many people and cause them stress.
(b) rganizational factors organizational Iactors that cause stress include task, role, and
Interpersonal demands, organizational structure and organizational leadership. Task demands are
Iactors related to a person`s job. They include the design oI individual`s job (autonomy task
variety, degree oI automation), working conditions and physical work layout, the degree oI rules
and regulation and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack oI participation in
decisions that might be potential is sources oI stress.
(c ) Individual factors - Primarily, these Iactors are Iamily issues, personal economic problems
and inherent personality characteristics. People hold Iamily and personal relationships dear.
Marital diIIiculties, the breaking oII oI a relationship and discipline troubles with children are
examples oI relationship problems that create stress Ior employees. Economic problems created
by individuals overextending their Iinancial resources is another set oI personal troubles that can
create stress Ior employees and distract their attention Irom their work.
Types/Forms of Stress
The major types oI stress can be broken down into Iour diIIerent categories: Eustress,
Hyperstress, Hypostress, and Distress.
Eustress - Eustress is one oI the helpIul types oI stress. It is a positive stress that promotes
individuals to achieve goals.
Distress - Distress is one oI the negative types oI stress. This is one oI the types oI stress that
the mind and body undergoes when the normal routine is constantly adjusted and altered. The
mind is not comIortable with this routine, and craves the Iamiliarity oI a common routine. There
are actually two types oI distress: acute stress and chronic stress.
Acute Stress - Acute stress is the type oI stress that comes immediately with a change oI routine.
It is an intense type oI stress, but it passes quickly.
Chronic Stress - Chronic stress will occur iI there is a constant change oI routine Ior week aIter
week. Chronic stress aIIects the body Ior a long period oI time. This is the type oI stress
experienced by someone who constantly Iaces moves or job changes
Leadership
Leadership
Leadership is the process oI inIluencing the behavior oI others to work willingly and
enthusiastically Ior achieving predetermined goals. According to Roberts Leadership is
interpersonal inIluence exercised in a situation and directed through communication process,
towards the attainment oI speciIied goal or goals.
According to Terry Leadership is essentially a continuous process oI inIluencing behavior. A
leader breathe liIe into the group and motivates it towards goals. The lukewarm desires Ior
achievement are transIormed into a burning passion Ior accomplishment.
Characteristics of Leadership
Following are the important characteristics oI leadership:
1. Leadership is a continuous process oI behavior; it is not one time activity.
2. Leadership may be seen in terms oI relationship between a leader and his Iollowers which
arises out oI their Iunctioning Ior common goals.
3. Leadership is an exercise to inIluence the behavior oI individuals or group oI individuals.
4. The Iollowers work willingly and enthusiastically to achieve those goals. Thus there is no
coercive Iorce which induces the Iollowers to work.
5. Leadership gives an experience oI help to Iollowers to attain common goals.
6. Leadership is exercised in a particular situation, at a given point oI time, and under speciIic set
oI circumstances.
Leadership traits
A number oI traits that appear regularly in leaders include ambition, energy, the desire to lead,
selI-conIidence, and intelligence. Although certain traits are helpIul, these attributes provide no
guarantees that a person possessing them is an eIIective leader. Underlying the trait approach is
the assumption that some people are natural leaders and are endowed with certain traits not
possessed by other individuals. This research compared successIul and unsuccessIul leaders to
see how they diIIered in physical characteristics, personality, and ability.
O Drive. Leaders are ambitious and take initiative.
O Motivation. Leaders want to lead and are willing to take charge.
O onesty and integrity. Leaders are truthIul and do what they say they will do.
O Self-confidence. Leaders are assertive and decisive and enjoy taking risks. They admit
mistakes and Ioster trust and commitment to a vision. Leaders are emotionally stable rather than
recklessly adventurous.
O Cognitive ability. Leaders are intelligent, perceptive, and conceptually skilled, but are
not necessarily geniuses. They show analytical ability, good judgment, and the capacity to think
strategically.
O Business knowledge. Leaders tend to have technical expertise in their businesses.
Traits do a better job at predicting that a manger may be an eIIective leader rather than actually
distinguishing between an eIIective or ineIIective leader. Because workplace situations vary,
leadership requirements vary. As a result, researchers began to examine what eIIective leaders do
rather than what eIIective leaders are.
Leadership styles
No matter what their traits or skills, leaders carry out their roles in a wide variety oI styles. Some
leaders are autocratic. Others are democratic. Some are participatory, and others are hands oII.
OIten, the leadership style depends on the situation, including where the organization is in its liIe
cycle. The Iollowing are common leadership styles:
1. Autocratic. The manager makes all the decisions and dominates team members. This
approach generally results in passive resistance Irom team members and requires continual
pressure and direction Irom the leader in order to get things done. Generally, this approach is not
a good way to get the best perIormance Irom a team. However, this style may be appropriate
when urgent action is necessary or when subordinates actually preIer this style.
2. Participative. The manager involves the subordinates in decision making by consulting team
members (while still maintaining control), which encourages employee ownership Ior the
decisions. A good participative leader encourages participation and delegates wisely, but never
loses sight oI the Iact that he or she bears the crucial responsibility oI leadership. The leader
values group discussions and input Irom team members; he or she maximizes the members'
strong points in order to obtain the best perIormance Irom the entire team.
3. Laissez-faire (also called Iree-rein). In this hands-oII approach, the leader encourages team
members to Iunction independently and work out their problems by themselves, although he or
she is available Ior advice and assistance. The leader usually has little control over team
members, leaving them to sort out their roles and tackle their work assignments without
personally participating in these processes. In general, this approach leaves the team Iloundering
with little direction or motivation. Laissez-Iaire is usually only appropriate when the team is
highly motivated and skilled, and has a history oI producing excellent work.
Transactional Analysis
In addition to the analysis oI the interactions between individuals, Transactional Analysis also
involves the identiIication oI the ego states behind each and every transaction. Berne deIined an
ego state as "a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding
consistent pattern of behavior."
As a practicing psychiatrist in Carmel, CaliIornia in the early 1950s, Berne treated hundreds oI
patients. During the course oI their treatment, he consistently noted that his patients, and indeed
all people, could and would change over the course oI a conversation. The changes would not
necessarily be verbal - the changes could involve Iacial expressions, body language, body
temperature, and many other non-verbal cues.
In one counseling session, Berne treated a 35 year old lawyer. During the session, the lawyer (a
male) said "I'm not really a lawyer; I'm just a little boy." But outside the conIines oI Dr. Berne's
oIIice, this patient was a successIul, hard-charging, attorney. Later, in their sessions, the lawyer
would Irequently ask Dr. Berne iI he was talking" to the lawyer or the little boy." Berne was
intrigued by this, as he was seeing a single individual display two "states oI being." Berne began
reIerring to these two states as "Adult" and "Child." Later, Berne identiIied a third state, one that
seemed to represent what the patient had observed in his parents when he was small. Berne
reIerred to this as "parent." As Berne then turned to his other patients, he began to observe that
these three ego states were present in all oI them. Berne ultimately deIined the three ego states
as: Parent, Adult, and Child. The Iollowing are detailed descriptions oI the three ego states:

Parent Ego- The parent represents a massive collection oI recordings in the brain oI external
events experienced or perceived in approximately the Iirst Iive years oI liIe. Since the majority
oI the external events experienced by a child are actions oI the parent, the ego state was
appropriately called Parent. Note that events perceived by the child Irom individuals that are
NOT parents (but who are oIten in parent-like roles) are also recorded in the Parent. When
Transactional Analysts reIer to the Parent ego state (as opposed to a biological or stepparent), it
is capitalized. The same goes Ior the other two state (Adult and Child)
Examples oI recordings in the Adult include:
O "Never talk to strangers"
O "Always chew with your mouth closed"
O "Look both ways beIore you cross the street"
It is worth noting that, while recording these events, the young child has no way to Iilter the data;
the events are recorded without question and without analysis. One can consider that these events
are imposed on the child.
There are other data experienced by the child that are not recorded in the Parent. This is recorded
in the Adult, which will be described shortly.

Child - In contrast to the Parent, the Child represents the recordings in the brain oI internal
events associated with external events the child perceives. Stated another way, stored in the
Child are the emotions or feelings which accompanied external events. Like the Parent,
recordings in the Child occur Irom childbirth all the way up to the age oI approximately 5 years
old.
Examples oI recordings in the Child include:
O "When I saw the monster's Iace, I Ielt really scared"
O "The clown at the birthday party was really Iunny!

Adult - The Adult is the last ego state. Close to one year oI age, a child begins to exhibit gross
motor activity. The child learns that he or she can control a cup Irom which to drink, that he or
she can grab a toy. In social settings, the child can play peek-a-boo.
This is the beginning oI the Adult in the small child. Adult data grows out oI the child's ability to
see what is diIIerent than what he or she observed (Parent) or Ielt (Child). In other words, the
Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and Parental data. Berne describes
the Adult as being "principally concerned with transIorming stimuli into pieces oI inIormation,
and processing and Iiling that inIormation on the basis oI previous experience"
1ARI indow

Known to SelI Not Known to SelI
Known to Others

Not Known to Others

The Johari Window, named aIter the Iirst names oI its inventors, Joseph LuIt and Harry Ingham,
is one oI the most useIul models describing the process oI human interaction. A Iour paned
"window," as illustrated above, divides personal awareness into Iour diIIerent types, as
represented by its Iour quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the Iour
panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.
In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Let's describe mine:

1. The pen Self - The "open" quadrant reIers to a states about an individual such as behaviors,
Ieelings, motives, wants, needs and desires that he knows and willing to share with others. In
Iirst meet to a new person, the size oI the opening oI this Iirst quadrant is not very large, since
there has been little time to exchange inIormation. As the process oI getting to know one another
continues, the window shades move down or to the right, placing more inIormation into the open
window, as described below.
2. The Blind Self - The "blind" quadrant reIers to a state about an individual known to others but
not known to him. Other people know what is happening to him but he is not aware oI it. OIten
such blind behavior is copied by the individual Irom signiIicant people unconsciously right since
the childhood. For example, perhaps in our ongoing conversation, you may notice that eye
contact seems to be lacking. You may not say anything, since you may not want to embarrass
me, or you may draw your own inIerences that perhaps I am being insincere. Then the problem
is, how can I get this inIormation out in the open, since it may be aIIecting the level oI trust that
is developing between us? How can I learn more about myselI? UnIortunately, there is no readily
available answer. I may notice a slight hesitation on your part, and perhaps this may lead to a
question.
3. The idden Self - The "hidden" quadrant reIers to states about individual known to him but
not known to others. This is private and only the person concerned knows what is happening.
The hidden selI is within the vision oI the individual but he does not want to share with others.
People learn to hide many Ieelings and ideas right Irom their childhood.
4. The Unknown Self - The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither the individual
nor other people know about him. The unknown selI is mysterious. Many times motives and
Ieelings go very deep and no one, including the person concerned, knows about these. These
acts, Ieelings, and motives remain vague and unclear to people until they allow them to surIace.
For example, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt to understand its
signiIicance, a new awareness may emerge, known to neither oI us beIore the conversation took
place. Being placed in new situations oIten reveal new inIormation not previously known to selI
or others.