Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 329355 www.elsevier.

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A concise introduction to the idealized structural unit method for nonlinear analysis of large plated structures and its application
J.K. Paik a,, A.K. Thayamballi b
a

Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609735, South Korea b Chevron Shipping Company LLC, Camino Ramon, San Ramon, CA 94583, USA

Received 10 December 2001; received in revised form 29 October 2002; accepted 4 December 2002

Abstract The idealized structural unit method (ISUM) has now been widely recognized by researchers as an efcient and accurate methodology to perform nonlinear analysis of large plated structures such as ships, offshore platforms, box girder bridges or other steel structures. This paper presents a summary of pertinent ISUM theory and its application to nonlinear analysis of steel plated structures. Important concepts for development of various ISUM units which are needed to analyze nonlinear behavior of steel plated structures are described. Some application examples are shown, wherein comparisons of ISUM analysis predictions are made with numerical or experimental results for progressive collapse analysis of general types of steel plated structures and ship hulls, to illustrate the possible accuracy and versatility of the ISUM method. The use of ISUM for the analysis of internal collision/grounding mechanics of ships is also illustrated. This paper is in part an attempt to demystify ISUM and its applications for the benet of a designer of steel plates structures (Paik and Thayambali, Ultimate limit state design of steel plated structures; 2002). 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Idealized structural unit method (ISUM); Nonlinear nite element method; Steel plated structures; Nonlinear behavior; Ultimate strength; Internal accident mechanics; Collision; Grounding

Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-51-510-2429; fax: +82-51-512-8836. E-mail address: jeompaik@pnu.edu (J.K. Paik).

0263-8231/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0263-8231(02)00113-1

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1. Features of the idealized structural unit method Under extreme or accidental loading, steel structures can exhibit highly nonlinear response associated with yielding, buckling, crushing and sometimes rupture of individual structural components. Quite accurate solutions of the nonlinear structural response in many such cases can be obtained by application of the conventional nite element method (FEM). However, a weak feature of the conventional FEM is that it requires enormous modeling effort and computing time for nonlinear analysis of large sized structures. Reduction in that modeling effort and the associated solution time while also providing an acceptable level of accuracy in results is the primary benet of the idealized structural unit method. The most obvious way to reduce modeling effort and computing time in FEM applications is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom so that the number of unknowns in the nite element stiffness matrix decreases. Modeling the object structure with very large sized structural units is perhaps the best way to do that. In order to avoid the related loss of accuracy, ISUM requires the use of special purpose nite elements. Properly formulated structural units within such an approach can then be used to efciently model the actual nonlinear behavior of the corresponding large parts of structures. Ueda and Rashed [1,2], who suggested this idea, called it the idealized structural unit method (ISUM). Their rst effort in this regard was to analyze the ultimate strength of a transverse framed structure of a ship as an assembly of the so-called deep girder units. In an almost parallel development to ISUM, Smith [3] suggested a similar approach to predict the ultimate bending moment of a ship hull. He modeled the ship hull as an assembly of plate-stiffener combinations, i.e., stiffeners with attached plating. The load versus end-shortening relationships for these beamcolumn units were obtained using conventional nonlinear FE analysis accounting for initial imperfections (defections and residual stresses). The behavior of the larger structure was then constructed. While this method is quite properly called the Smith method, it may also be classied as a type of ISUM in the particular context for analysis of a structure made up of repetitive structural elements. ISUM is a simplied nonlinear FEM. Unlike the conventional nonlinear FEM, ISUM idealizes a structural component making up the structure as one ISUM unit with a few nodal points. As a typical example, Fig. 1 compares structural modeling for the elasticplastic large deection analysis of a rectangular plate under a reasonably complex load application, as required by the conventional FEM and ISUM for comparable accuracy in results. In conventional FEM, ner meshes would normally be used, while on the other hand the plate is modeled using a single ISUM plate unit for ISUM analysis. It is noted that in this example the entire plate is taken as the extent of FE analysis because of the unsymmetric characteristics related to deformations. Of interest, the relative computational efforts required for the nonlinear analysis of a structure (conventional FEM versus ISUM) are now further illustrated, with denitions as follows

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Fig. 1. Sample comparison of FEM and ISUM models for elasticplastic large deection analysis of a rectangular plate of a / b = 3 under a complex load application. (a) FEM model: no. of nodes=341, degrees of freedom=6 per node, no. of unknowns=1874. (b) ISUM model: no. of nodes=4, degrees of freedom=3 per node, no. of unknowns=6.

Ratio of number of unknowns: m = FEM / ISUM. Ratio of number of iterative loading steps: n = FEM / ISUM. Ratio of computing time: CPU = FEM / ISUM = n mc, with c = 1

3.

For the plate shown in Fig. 1, it was found that m 300, n = 5 10 and CPU ratio 5 103 104. For larger sized structures with more complex geometries, the relative discrepancy due to the number of elements between the two methods will become much more signicant as well. By applying ISUM, therefore, the size of numerical computations is much reduced leading to dramatic savings of modeling and computing times, compared to those of the conventional FEM. One trade-off is of course the possible loss of generality of the method, in the sense that ISUM must use specially formulated nite elements that are different, and internally supply more high level on structural component behavior than the elements typical of conventional FEM. Among other matters, this paper presents a concise review of the most updated theory of the ISUM units which are available today for the nonlinear analyses of steel plated structures subjected to extreme or accidental loading. For a more detailed description of the theory of ISUM units and applications presented in this paper, the interested reader is referred to Paik and Thayamballi [4].

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2. ISUM modeling technologies for steel plated structures A steel plated structure may be modeled as an assembly of many simpler mechanical structural elements or idealized elements, each type of which behaves in a known manner under given load application, and the assembly of which is constructed to behave in nearly the same way as the actual structure. Steel plated structures are typically composed of several different types of structural members such as support members (or girders), rectangular plates and stiffened panels. In ISUM modeling, such members are regarded as the ISUM units. It is important to realize that an identical structure may be modeled in somewhat different ways by different analysts even within the context of ISUM, but it is of course always the aim to model so that the idealized structure behaves in nearly the same way as the actual structure. Fig. 2 shows some typical examples of ISUM modeling for steel plated structures. One of the common approaches is to model the structure as an assembly of plate

Fig. 2. Various types of idealizations for a steel plated structure. (a) A typical steel plated structure. (b) Structural idealization by an assembly of plate-stiffener combination units. (c) Structural idealization by an assembly of plate-stiffener separation units. (d) Structural idealization by an assembly of stiffened panels.

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stiffener combinations as shown in Fig. 2(b). This type of modeling may for example not be very appropriate when the stiffeners are relatively weak or unusually strong. In such cases, other types of modeling could be more relevant. For instance, the platestiffener separation models may be used, where plating between stiffeners is modeled as one ISUM plate element, while the stiffener without attached plating is modeled as one ISUM beamcolumn element, as shown in Fig. 2(c). An entire panel together with stiffeners in either one or both directions can also be modeled by one ISUM stiffened panel unit as shown in Fig. 2(d). While a small stiffener with or without attached plating may be modeled as the beamcolumn unit, the girder or support member with deep web may need to be modeled as an assembly of the plate unit and the beamcolumn unit, the former being for the web and the latter being for the ange. In ISUM analyses, the load and boundary conditions are applied in a similar way to the conventional FEM. The initial imperfections (initial deformations and residual stresses) and structural degradation (e.g., effect of corrosion or cracks) as well as geometric and material properties of the ISUM units can be prescribed as parameters of inuence as well.

3. Procedure for developments of ISUM units For the nonlinear analysis of complex steel plated structures, it is apparent that various types of the ISUM units are necessary to make a complete structural model, and that these units should then be developed in advance. Fig. 3 represents the usual procedure to develop the ISUM units. The nonlinear behavior of each type of structural members is idealized and expressed in the form of a set of failure functions dening the necessary conditions for the failure modes (e.g., yielding, buckling, cracking) which may take place and are described by the corresponding ISUM unit.

Fig. 3.

Procedure for the development of an Idealized Structural Unit.

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A set of stiffness matrices representing the nonlinear relationship between the nodal force vector and the nodal displacement vector are then formulated until or after the particular limit state is reached. The post-failure phase is of interest, for instance, in assessing post-limit state behavior, which one may want to do, say, in determining the ultimate strength of a complex structure with one or more failed elements. The ISUM units (elements) so developed are used within the framework of the nonlinear matrix displacement procedure applying the incremental method, much like in the case of conventional FEM. Many types of the ISUM units have so far been developed for the nonlinear analyses of steel plated structures. For the purposes of ultimate strength analyses, the deep girder unit [1,2], the tubular beamcolumn unit [5], the I-section beamcolumn unit [6], the rectangular plate unit [712] and the stiffened panel unit [5,79] are available. For analysis of the internal mechanics in collisions and grounding, the rectangular plate unit, the stiffened panel unit and the gap/contact unit have been developed [13]. It is important to realize that individual developers of the ISUM units may employ somewhat different approaches from each other to idealize and to formulate the actual nonlinear behavior of the structural members. Also, the features of existing ISUM units may be advanced continually by their developers to accommodate more factors of inuence or to improve the computational accuracy. Even though the geometric features of the ISUM units are identical, their characteristics or usage in terms of structural behavior may be different from the purpose of the analyses, e.g., for ultimate strength or accidental mechanics. ISUM has been successfully applied to the nonlinear analysis of ship structures in overload situations, e.g., [1315,27] among others and in collision or grounding accidents, e.g., [1619] among others, and also for other marine structures [20,21]. It is also noted that ISUM can be readily applied to the nonlinear analysis of land based structures such as box-girder bridges or cranes. In the following sections, ISUM formulations for many types of units that are presently available to a designer for the nonlinear analyses of steel plated structures are summarized. 4. The beamcolumn unit Fig. 4 shows the ISUM beamcolumn unit which may be used by a designer with or without attached plating, the former being typically called the platestiffener combination model, i.e., a stiffener with attached plating. This unit has two nodal points, i.e., node number 1 at the left end and node number 2 at the right end. A deected (or buckled) beamcolumn member is for the purposes of analysis replaced by an equivalent straight (undeected) member, but with a reduced level of axial stiffness due to existence of the lateral deection. This idealization leads to a decrease of degrees of freedoms to be considered at each node. As a result, rotational degrees of freedom at each node are not always needed to represent the nonlinear behavior of the unit and only three translational degrees of freedom (i.e., in the x, y and z directions) at each node are included in the formulation of the ISUM unit, which accounts for possible failure modes such as yielding and exural or lateral-torsional buckling.

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Fig. 4. (a) The ISUM beamcolumn unit (a) with attached plating and (b) without attached plating (b: nodal points).

In the numerical computations, the end conditions of the unit can be applied in the same way to the conventional FEM. For instance, all of the three translational degrees of freedom may need to be restrained for a xed nodal point. The magnitude of the resulting load effects (e.g., stress, displacement) may thus be different from that for a simply supported end case, for instance. It is important to realize that an ISUM unit will behave in accordance with the insights and knowledge built in by its developer. While one may of course try to idealize the nonlinear behavior of the unit under more relevant end conditions, the formulations typically assume that the beamcolumn unit is simply supported at both ends. As long as the beamcolumn members are bounded by relatively strong support members, this approximation will give practical and adequate results on the pessimistic side. Since the incremental method is used in ISUM analyses, the nodal force and displacement vectors of the beamcolumn unit are given in the incremental form, as follows { R} { U} { Rx1 { u1 Ry1 v1 Rz1 w1 u2 Rx2 Ry2 v2 Rz2}T (1a) (1b) w2}T

where { R} is the nodal force increment vector, and { U} the nodal displacement increment vector.

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The relationship between the nodal force increment and the nodal displacement increment can be expressed by { R} [K]{ U} (2)

where [K] is the tangent stiffness matrix which is a nonlinear function of the nodal displacements. As the applied loads increase, the beamcolumn unit can buckle or yield until the ultimate limit state is reached. The tangent stiffness matrix K can then vary depending on the condition of the structure with regard to the occurrence of such failures together with loading details at any point in time. Fig. 5 represents the idealized behavior of the beamcolumn unit for the purpose of ultimate strength analysis. It is important to realize that in contrast to plates, this beamcolumn unit would not have reserve strength once buckling occurs, and thus the unit reaches the ultimate limit state immediately after buckling. The effect of strain-hardening is neglected in the present formulations of the unit. The tangent stiffness matrix [K] of Eq. (2) or the condition of failures of the beamcolumn unit under combined axial and lateral loads can be evaluated by analytical approach. The tangent stiffness matrix of the failure-free unit denoted by [K]E is given by taking into account the effects of large deection, combined axial and lateral loads and initial imperfections. The ultimate strength or the gross yield

Fig. 5.

Idealized structural behavior of the ISUM beamcolumn unit for analysis of ultimate strength.

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capacity can be expressed in the closed form. The tangent stiffness matrix of the beamcolumn unit in the post-ultimate regime denoted by [K]U is also given by a closed-form expression.

5. The rectangular plate unit for analysis of ultimate strength Fig. 6 shows the ISUM rectangular plate unit which has four nodal points, i.e., one at each corner. A buckled (deected) plate in this case is in effect replaced by an imaginary at (undeected) plate, but with the corresponding reduced effective in-plane stiffness. Since the plate conguration always remains at in the numerical matrix computations, rotational degrees of freedom at each nodal point are not necessary to represent the nonlinear behavior of the ISUM rectangular plate unit. As a result, only three translational degrees of freedom at each corner nodal point are used to formulate the nonlinear response like in the beamcolumn unit. The nodal force increment vector { R} and the nodal displacement increment vector { U} of the ISUM rectangular plate unit are then given by { R} { U} { Rx1 { u1 Ry1 v1 Rz1 Rx4 w1 u4 v4 Ry4 w4} Rz4}T
T

(3a) (3b)

The relationship between the nodal force increments and the nodal displacement increments can also be given by Eq. (2). Fig. 7 represents the idealized behavior of the ISUM rectangular plate unit until and after the ultimate strength is reached. In this case, the tangent stiffness matrices and the condition of the ultimate limit state behavior can be evaluated using the theory of plates under combined loads, taking into account the effects of initial imperfections and other types of structural degradation. The tangent stiffness matrix of the failure-free unit denoted by [K]E is calculated

Fig. 6. The ISUM rectangular plate unit (b: nodal points).

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Fig. 7.

Idealized structural behavior of the ISUM rectangular plate unit for analysis of ultimate strength.

by taking into account the effects of both in-plane and out-of-plane large deformations by applying the conventional FE approach [13]. Before the unit reaches the ultimate limit state, the internal stresses at some nodal points may satisfy the yield condition and if so, plastic nodes are then inserted into the corresponding nodal points. In this case, the elasticplastic stiffness matrix [K]P can be derived by applying the plastic node method as a function of the stressstrain matrix [D]E [22]. The ISUM rectangular plate unit reaches the ultimate strength if the ultimate limit state criterion is satised upon substituting the internal stress components. In the postultimate regime of the unit, the stressstrain matrix [D]E should be replaced by the stressstrain matrix in the post-ultimate regime denoted by [DP]U, while the stiffness matrix of the collapsed unit denoted by [K]U is still given by [K]E.

6. The rectangular plate unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics While the collision and grounding mechanics of a plate are also nominally represented by an ISUM rectangular plate unit with four nodal points, as shown in Fig. 6, the characteristics of the unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics are different from those for analysis of ultimate strength. The relationship between the nodal force increment vector { R} and the nodal displacement increment vector

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{ U} is also given by Eq. (2) where { R} and { U} are dened by Eqs. (3a) and (3b). Fig. 8 shows the idealized behavior of the ISUM rectangular plate unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics. As the predominantly compressive load increases, the unit crushes if a crushing condition is fullled. It is assumed that the internal stresses of the crushed unit are unchanged even if the compressive displacement increases. However, the folding process ends if the compressive strain of the unit exceeds a critical value. The unit behaves as a rigid body after the folding process ends. The crushed unit eventually reaches the gross yield condition as the crushing loads increase further. On the other hand, with increase in the predominantly tensile loads, some nodes of the unit will yield if the yield condition is satised and in such a case plastic nodes are inserted into the corresponding nodal points. As long as all of the four nodes do not yield, the unit may not reach the gross yield condition, but it will show an elasticplastic load carrying behavior. If the equivalent tensile strain exceeds the fracture strain, then ductile fracture takes place. Internal stresses of any fractured unit must be released from the analysis, with the unit losing its resistive load capacity. The tangent stiffness matrix of the failure-free unit denoted by [K]E is given by the conventional FE approach [13,22]. As long as energy absorption capacity is concerned, the effect of initial deections may be neglected. The same stressstrain matrix is thus used until either crushing or yielding occurs. As the applied loads

Fig. 8. Idealized structural behavior of the ISUM rectangular plate unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics.

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increase, the unit begins to be folded if the condition of crushing is satised. The stressstrain matrix of the crushed unit is assumed to become zero, while the tangent stiffness matrix is still calculated from [K]E. The folding process of the plate elements under crushing loads may stop if the folding length reaches a critical value which is a function of the geometric and material properties of the plate. After the folding process ends, the unit behaves as a rigid body and thus the stressstrain matrix [D]E may become innite, e.g., with a very large magnitude of the Young modulus. However, if the internal stress components satisfy the yield condition at any node then a plastic node is inserted into the yielded node of the crushed unit and the elasticplastic stiffness matrix is applied. Under predominantly tensile loading, some nodes may yield if the yield condition is satised and the elasticplastic stiffness matrix is applied. The yielded unit may eventually rupture if the strain components satisfy the condition of ductile fracture. The fractured unit releases its internal stresses and takes a zero value in the stress strain matrix [D]E.

7. The stiffened panel unit for analysis of ultimate strength Fig. 9 shows an ISUM stiffened panel unit. The panel with stiffeners in either one or both directions, bounded by support members, is modeled as a unit by means of the ISUM stiffened panel unit. When the stiffeners are relatively strong so that they would not fail prior to plating between stiffeners, the same panel may also be modeled as an assembly of rectangular plate units and beamcolumn units, the latter being without attached plating. For a panel with relatively weak stiffeners so that the overall panel buckling mode

Fig. 9.

The ISUM stiffened panel unit (b: nodal points).

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may be predominant, or in the general case where it can be accommodated, however, the ISUM stiffened panel unit may be more appropriate. Like the rectangular plate unit, the stiffened panel unit has four nodal points, i.e., each at every corner. The relationship between the nodal force increment vector { R} and the nodal displacement increment vector { U} is given by Eq. (2) where { R} and { U} are dened by Eqs. (3a) and (3b). In formulating the stiffened panel unit, six types of failure modes need to be considered: overall collapse, biaxiall compressive collapse, beam-column type collapse, stiffener web buckling, tripping and gross yielding [4].

8. The stiffened panel unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics The geometry and dimensions of the ISUM stiffened panel unit for analysis of collision and grounding mechanics are similar to that of Fig. 9. The unit has four nodal points, i.e., each at every corner point. Each node has the three translational degrees of freedom since the deected panel is treated as an imaginary undeected (at) panel but with reduced in-plane stiffness. The force and displacement vectors of the unit are again given by Eqs. (3a) and (3b). The idealizations of the ISUM stiffened panel unit for analysis of the collision and grounding mechanics can be made in a manner similar to that of the rectangular plate unit as described in Section 6 or Fig. 8.

9. The gap/contact unit In collision or grounding accidents, the interface between the striking and the struck bodies will change as the collision or grounding proceeds. In this case, the gap and contact conditions between the two bodies are modeled by means of the gap/contact unit. The gap/contact unit is a special type of the beamcolumn unit described in Section 4. The gap unit has two nodal points and each node has three translational degrees of freedom. In the structural modeling using the gap/contact unit, one node may be positioned at the striking body and the other at the struck body. The gap/contact unit may also be used for connecting two nodes which both are in the struck body as well. Two such nodes are then connected by a gap/contact unit with nonlinear characteristics. As the striking body is pushed into the struck body, the length of the unit in the gap condition will be reduced without resistance, and eventually both nodes will come into contact. Coordinates of both nodes are updated at every incremental loading step. It is considered that the unit is in the contact condition if the length of the unit becomes smaller than a prescribed tolerance. The gap/contact units have only axial stiffness. In the gap condition, the unit does not carry any external forces, but under contact it behaves as a rigid body. Therefore, nearly zero stiffness is assumed for the gap condition, while a very large stiffness

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is assumed for the contact condition. The stiffness equation of the gap/contact unit may then be given, as follows [13] Rx1 Rx2 1 EgcA 1 L 1 1 u1 u2 (4)

where A is the cross-sectional area. It may be assumed that Egc = E10 7 for the gap condition or Egc = E107 for the contact condition, where E is the elastic modulus. In practice, some axial stresses may develop in the gap/contact unit because the assumed stiffness is neither zero nor innite, but this effect is generally quite small and negligible. Also, the node positioned at the striking ship and the other node at the struck ship may overlap if the increment of axial deformation is too large, but this problem can be overcome by using small load increments. 10. Treatment of dynamic/impact load effects Ship collision or grounding accidents are dynamic in nature, and this fact will affect the crushing and rupture response of structures. Three aspects of a dynamic loading situation are possibly relevant, namely material strain rate sensitivity, inertia effects and dynamic frictional effects. With increase in the strain rate for steel, the yield strength of the material increases and the rupture strain may decrease. Due to inertia effects, deformation patterns may be varied. It is known that as the speed of dynamic loading increases, the coefcient of friction becomes lower. When dynamic loads are applied, the crushing response is mainly affected by the material strain rate sensitivity. During crushing response, the material strain rate generally varies with displacements. For simplicity, however, the average value of the strain rate during the dynamic loading phase may be used. The average strain rate for rectangular plates or stiffened plates can be approximately estimated considering that the loading speed is linearly reduced to zero. To estimate the dynamic yield strength of the material, the CowperSymonds equation has been widely used. The crushing effects and yield strength increase as the collision speed gets faster, while any rupture or tearing of steel occurs earlier. The dynamic rupture strain is obtained by inverting the CowperSymonds equation for the dynamic yield stress. The inertia effects may be ignored when the strain rates are less than about 50 s 1. Friction effects may play an important role during the grounding process, while they can be ignored for crushing of structures since the relative velocity between striking and struck bodies is then normally comparatively small. In the illustrative ISUM calculations given below of crushing and rupture behavior taking account of dynamic effects, theoretical developments derived for a quasi-static condition are employed, but with the use of the dynamic yield stress or the dynamic fracture strain in place of their static counterparts. Hence certain effects such as dynamic amplication are not included in the calculation of structural response. For further details, the interested reader may refer to [4,16].

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11. Application examples In the following sections, some typical examples for nonlinear analysis of steel plated structures are illustrated. The ISUM method is used in the calculations. Results from ISUM are compared against conventional numerical FE analysis or experimental results for the same problem to illustrate the accuracy achieved. For purposes of these comparative calculations, the ISUM theory we used has been implemented within a computer program called ALPS/ISUM which stands for nonlinear Analysis of Large Plated Structures using Idealized Structural Unit Method. For convenience, ALPS/ISUM is divided into three sub-programs, namely ALPS/GENERAL, ALPS/HULL and ALPS/SCOL. ALPS/GENERAL is a program for analysis of progressive collapse behavior of general types of steel plated structures. ALPS/HULL is a special purpose program for analysis of progressive collapse behavior of ship hulls. ALPS/SCOL is a program for analysis of internal mechanics of steel plated structures in collision or grounding. 11.1. Progressive collapse analysis of a cantilever box-girder Ultimate strength of a cantilever box-girder is analyzed in this case by ISUM and conventional nonlinear ANSYS FEM [23]. The box-girder is xed at one end and free at the other end, and it is subjected to concentrated load at the free end, as shown in Fig. 10. The cross section of the structure is square, and three transverse diaphragms are arranged within. The dimensions, material properties and initial imperfections of individual plate elements are as follows: plate units: a bt = 1000 1000 15(mm); Youngs modulus: E = 205.8 GPa; yield stress: s Y = 352.8 MPa; Poissons ratio: n = 0.3; initial deection: wopl / t = 0.15; welding residual stresses: srcx = srcy = 0.0.

Fig. 10.

An internally stiffened cantilever box-girder.

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Figs. 11 and 12 show typical examples of structural modeling for use in this case by ANSYS and ALPS/GENERAL, respectively. In ISUM modeling, each plate element is modeled as one ISUM rectangular plate unit, while a number of ne meshes are used in conventional FE modeling where a half of the box-girder with respect to the center line is taken as the extent of conventional nonlinear FE analysis considering the symmetric behavior. Fig. 13 shows the applied load versus deection curves at the free end of the structure, as obtained by ANSYS and ALPS/GENERAL computations. For reference, the plastic collapse load of a cantilever beam can be predicted when local buckling is not accounted for [4], as follows: Mp 1 36 (10003 9703) 9.8 1925.56 kN Pc L 4000 4

Fig. 11. (a) Undeformed shape for the conventional nonlinear FE model for the cantilever box-girder. (b) Deformed shape for the conventional nonlinear FE model for the cantilever box-girder at the ultimate limit state.

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Fig. 12.

ALPS/GENERAL model for the cantilever box-girder.

Fig. 13. The force versus deection curves at the free end of the cantilever box-girder, as obtained by ISUM and conventional nonlinear FEM.

Fig. 13 also represents the selected structural failure events. As the applied loads increase, the compressed ange near the xed end collapses and the box-girder reaches the ultimate strength it the transverse oors near the xed end fail. It is a benet of structural designers to have detailed information about the progressive

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collapse behavior until the ultimate strength is reached. It is seen from Fig. 13 that the ISUM results correlate well with the more rened nonlinear FE analysis. Of interest, the computing time used was 2 min for the ISUM analysis and 4.5 h for the FE analysis using a Pentium III personal computer. The structural modeling effort for ISUM analysis is of course much smaller than that for FE analysis. 11.2. Progressive collapse analysis of a box-column Ultimate strength of a box column is now analyzed in this example by ISUM and conventional nonlinear ANSYS FEM [23]. The structure is simply supported at both ends, as shown in Fig. 14. It has a number of transverse diaphragms (oors). The dimensions, material properties and initial imperfections of the structure are as follows: plate elements: a b t = 500 500 7.5(mm); Youngs modulus: E = 205.8 GPa; yield stress:sY = 352.8 MPa; Poissons ratio: n = 0.3; initial deection function of plate elements: Ao / t = 0.05; column type initial deection function for the whole structure: wo = dosin(px / L) where do / L = 0.0015; welding induced residual stresses: srcx = srcy = 0.05 for ISUM analysis and srcx = srcy = 0.0 for ANSYS analysis. Figs. 15 and 16 show typical examples of structural modeling for this case, by conventional ANSYS FEM [23] and ALPS/GENERAL, respectively. In ISUM modeling, each plate element is modeled as one ISUM rectangular plate unit and due to the symmetry, a half length of the box column is taken as the extent of analysis. For conventional nonlinear FE analysis, a quarter of the box column is subdivided into a number of ne meshes. For convenience related to computational effort, some coarse meshing was adopted for the conventional nonlinear FE analysis

Fig. 14.

A box column with both ends simply supported.

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Fig. 15.

Conventional FE model for a quarter region of the box column.

Fig. 16.

ALPS/GENERAL model for a half length of the box column.

such that local plate buckling effect (i.e., local geometric nonlinearity) is not taken into consideration in the ANSYS analysis, although the inuence of plasticity (material nonlinearity) and column type buckling (global geometric nonlinearity) are accounted for. On the other hand, the ALPS/GENERAL takes into account both local and global buckling effects as well as plasticity. Fig. 17 shows the computed axial compressive load versus mid-span deection curves for the box column. The Euler elastic column buckling load which intentionally neglects the inuence of local plate buckling is also plotted in the gure. When the structure involves both local and global buckling, the ultimate buckling strength of the box column is about 67% of the Euler column buckling load. It is evident that the effect of local geometric nonlinearity as well as global geometric nonlinearity can be of crucial importance for nonlinear analysis of slender structures (e.g., box column). Of interest, the computing time used was 3 min for the ISUM analysis and 6 h for the FE analysis using a Pentium III personal computer.

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Fig. 17. The axial compressive load versus deection curves of the box column, as obtained by ISUM and conventional nonlinear FEM.

11.3. Progressive collapse analysis of a ship hull A physical test for investigating the progressive collapse characteristics under a vertical sagging moment was undertaken on a welded steel frigate ship structure model with 1/3 scale to the original ship dimensions [24,25]. ALPS/HULL is now used to analyze the progressive collapse behavior of the Dow test model and the results are then compared with the experimental results. In the ALPS/HULL computations, both sagging and hogging cases are considered. Fig. 18 shows the ALPS/HULL model for the test structure. For simplicity, the

Fig. 18. (a) Mid-section of the Dow frigate test structure. (b) ALPS/HULL model for the progressive collapse analysis of the Dow frigate test structure.

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hull module between two transverse frames is taken as the extent of the present analysis, while it is not difcult to take the entire structure as the extent of the ISUM analysis if needed. Plating between stiffeners is modeled using the ISUM rectangular plate unit and stiffeners without attached plating are modeled using the ISUM beam column unit. The webs of deep girders in bottom structures are also modeled using the ISUM rectangular plate units, while their anges are modeled using the ISUM beamcolumn units. Fig. 19 shows the progressive collapse behavior of the Dow test structure under sagging or hogging moment, as obtained by ALPS/HULL. The Dow test result for sagging is also plotted. In the ALPS/HULL computations, the magnitude of initial imperfections is varied. It is seen from Fig. 19 that the effect of initial imperfections on the progressive collapse behavior is of signicance. Also, ALPS/HULL provides reasonably accurate results when compared with the experiment. Of interest, the computing time used was 2 min for the ISUM analysis using a Pentium III personal computer. 11.4. Analysis of internal mechanics of a LNG carrier side structure As a hypothetical collision scenario, it is now considered that the bow of another LNG carrier with the same size as the object LNG carrier in the full load condition strikes the mid-side structure of the object LNG carrier. At the initiation of the collision event, the striking ship is assumed to be at 50% of the full design speed, while the struck LNG carrier is considered to be at standstill at a pier. The penetrating depth of the striking ship from the initial contact to the boundary of the LNG cargo tanks or to the bow position which may cause the fracture of LNG cargo tanks varies in accordance with the fore-end shape of the striking ship

Fig. 19. Progressive collapse behavior of the Dow test structure under vertical moment.

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Fig. 20.

MSC/DYTRAN model for the LNG carrierLNG carrier collision.

and the initial contact positions and related details for the two ships. The bulbous bow shape under the sea water level and/or the fore-end shape of the striking ship determines the initial contact position for the two ships and may also affect the absorbed energy in the side structure of the struck ship. Both the striking and struck LNG carriers are assumed to be in the full load condition. Two computer programs, namely MSC/DYTRAN [26] and ALPS/SCOL, are used to obtain the collision forcepenetration curves as the collision proceeds. Figs. 20 and 21 represent the structural models used for MSC/DYTRAN and ALPS/SCOL, respectively. In the MSC/DYTRAN model, the entire ship structure is included using ne meshes around the impact location while coarser meshes are used at the other parts

Fig. 21. ALPS/SCOL model for the LNG carrierLNG carrier collision.

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away from the collision location. In the ALPS/SCOL model, a quarter of the midship cargo hold of the struck ship including the LNG tank together with the striking ship bow is taken as the extent of the analysis, using ISUM plate and stiffened panel units to model the struck structures and gap/contact units to represent the gap and contact conditions between the struck ship side and the striking ship bow. In the MSC/DYTRAN computations, the motion of both striking and struck ships with the surrounding water is taken into consideration, while the ALPS/SCOL computations assume that the struck ship is xed while the striking ship penetrates with the constant speed. In both models, it is assumed that the striking ship bow is a rigid body which does not dissipate any strain energy. The fracture strain of the structural members in both ship hull and cargo tank structures is supposed to be 10% in the ALPS/SCOL models which use large sized elements, while it is assumed to be 20% in the MSC/DYTRAN models which use ne meshes. This is because the MSC/DYTRAN method using a ne mesh can automatically handle the localized tearing behavior inside the plate members, while the ALPS/SCOL method using large sized elements must necessarily account for such behavior at a macroscopic level. In the failure state of nite elements, the strain is typically concentrated at the tip of crack or around fractured area. The representative fracture strain should then become smaller in large sized elements to properly account for the effect of localized fracture inside the plate unit. Hence in the ALPS/SCOL model, a fracture strain that is likely to be more characteristic of weld metal fracture is used. With the larger value of fracture strain, the energy absorption capability of the structure will of course increase. The computations were continued until the struck LNG carrier reaches the accidental limit states in the following two conditions, namely (a) the striking ship bow penetrates the boundary of the struck ship cargo tank, and (b) the LNG cargo tanks start to rupture. In reality, the energy dissipation capability of the struck LNG carrier must be evaluated at the earlier of these two limiting conditions. Fig. 22 shows the deformed shape of the ALPS/SCOL model. Figs. 23 and 24 show the collision force versus penetration curves and the absorbed energypenetration curves, respectively, the two curves in each gure being obtained by MSC/DYTRAN and ALPS/SCOL. Oscillations in the forcepenetration curves obtained by MSC/DYTRAN are primarily due to the simulation being based on timevariant impact theory. Also, the behavior of localized failure including tearing and folding is more accurately described by the MSC/DYTRAN method using very ne meshes, while the ALPS/SCOL method is more concerned with an average nature of the failure response. As evident, both MSC/DYTRAN and ALPS/ SCOL predictions correlate well with one another, and thus it may be taken with reasonable certainty that the ISUM computed results for the energy dissipation capability of the struck LNG carrier are accurate enough for the purposes of design stage safety assessment. For other types of accident scenarios varying the type of striking ship or loading condition, the interested reader may refer to [17]. Of interest, the computing time used for the ALPS/SCOL analysis was about 4 h using a Pentium III personal computer, while it was more than 14.4 h for the

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Fig. 22. Deformed shape of the ALPS/SCOL model immediately after the struck LNG cargo tank starts to fracture.

Fig. 23. The collision forcepenetration curves (SS-F=collision of LNG carrier to LNG carrier in the full load condition).

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Fig. 24. The absorbed energypenetration curves (SS-F=collision of LNG carrier to LNG carrier in the full load condition).

MSC/DYTRAN analysis using the SGI Power Challenge XL Series computer. As evident, the former will be of a benet when a quick estimate is more important for carrying out a series of collision analyses with a variety of accident scenarios.

12. Concluding remarks While the ISUM has been recognized by researchers as an efcient and accurate methodology for nonlinear analysis of large plated structures such as ships, offshore platforms, box girder bridges and other steel structures, the authors are of the opinion that the number of structural designers who use ISUM are currently quite limited. This may be partly because an educational effort on details of the basic idea of ISUM is necessary, and the literature on the theory and application of ISUM is not sufcient for this purpose at the moment. The twin aims of the present paper have thus been to summarize the ISUM theory and to illustrate some examples of its application to nonlinear analysis of steel plated structures. Important concepts for developments of the various ISUM units which would be typically needed by a designer to analyze the nonlinear behavior of steel plated structures are described. Some examples of ISUM application to analysis of ultimate strength and internal accident mechanics of ships and steel plated structures are illustrated. The accuracy of ISUM predictions is studied by comparison with the corresponding results from conventional nonlinear nite element analyses and from experimental results, as appropriate. The accuracy is illustrated to be good, and per-

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haps more importantly, it is shown that a level of accuracy comparable to conventional methods can be achieved at a fraction of the cost and effort associated with the conventional methods. ISUM technology is now mature, and can clearly be useful to a structural designer in many contexts, including design assessment based on the true ultimate strength and the general damage tolerant design of structures.

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