R1 Prevention Knowledge and Practices

FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO PREVENT UNWANTED FOREST FIRES
FIRESMART
TECHNICAL REPORT 1 (WP1): COMPILATION AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL KNOWLEDGE/PRACTICE IN FOREST FIRE PREVENTION
Grant Agreement number: Project acronym Project title Funding Scheme: Thematic Priority 243840 Support Action FIRESMART FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO PREVENT UNWANTED FOREST FIRES SEVENTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME - THEME ENVIRONMENT Area 6.2.1.6 Integrated forest research/ Topic ENV.2009.2.1.6.1 Sustainable forest management as a tool to prevent unwanted forest fires. 02 February 2010 24 months GMV AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE S.A.U. firesmart@gmv.es
Project starting date: Project duration: Project coordinator:
www.firesmart-project.eu
Code: Date: Version: Page:
FIRESMART-INIA-TR-WP1 30/07/10 V1.0 2 of 123
Deliverable reference number Date of deliverable Issue. Revision Abstract
D5 30/07/2010 This report concerns the work carried out within the framework of WP1: Compilation and preliminary analysis of current knowledge /practice in forest fire prevention. The compiled information was obtained from two sources: (i) managerial and technological, and (ii) scientific, and was included in an open access database, available on-line. A questionnaire on forest fire prevention was designed, sent to and completed by managers and scientific experts from European countries in order to obtain an overview of opinions. Preliminary analysis of references, compiled contents, and completed questionnaires are presented. With regard to the scientific perspective, a synthesis of the studies reported in relevant literature on Fire causes in Europe, Wildlandurban interface, Preventive silviculture and Fuel breaks, is presented in Annexes.
Name and Organisation responsible for this deliverable Names and Organisation of beneficiaries contributing for this deliverable
INIA GMV, CEMAGREF, AI, CEPF, EIMFOR, FORESTIS, JRC
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Seventh Framework Programme Dissemination Level : PU PP RE CO Public Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services) Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services) Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services) PU
FIRESMART
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIRESMART ..........................................................................................................................................1 TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................3 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ..............................................................................................................5 FIGURE 3-21. PERCENTAGE OF ENTRIES BY ITEM TYPE IN THE SCIENTIFIC COLLECTION..........................6 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................8 1.1. PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT...................................................................................................8 1.2. FIRESMART CONCEPT ..............................................................................................................8 1.3. BACKGROUND .........................................................................................................................8 1.4. ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................................... 10 2. OBJECTIVES, TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WORK ......................................................................... 11 2.1. PROJECT OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 11 2.2. TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WP1........................................................................................ 11
2.2.1. OVERALL WP1 PLAN AND STUDY LOGIC ............................................................................................11 2.2.2. WP1 MULTISCALE AND MULTI-PERSPECTIVE APPROACH ....................................................................13
3. METHODS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK PERFORMED ................................................................ 17 3.1. COMPILATION AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES IN FOREST FIRE PREVENTION ............................................................................................................... 17
3.1.1. FIRESMART DATABASE ESTRUCTURE ................................................................................................17 3.1.2. INTEGRATING THE INDEPENDENT DATABASES INTO A UNIQUE DB: FIRESMART DB. ..........................18
3.1.2.1. Migrating the information to a unique web-accessible database ................................ 19 3.2. SOURCES, COMPILATION METHODS AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS ................. 21
3.2.1. COMPILATION OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL AND MANAGERIAL MATERIAL ...............................................21
3.2.1.1. Sources of information and methodological approach .............................................. 21 3.2.1.2. In Italy .............................................................................................................. 23 3.2.1.3. In France ........................................................................................................... 26 3.2.1.4. In Central and Eastern Europe .............................................................................. 29 3.2.1.5. In Spain............................................................................................................. 31 3.2.1.6. In Portugal ......................................................................................................... 36
3.2.2. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS FROM THE PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL/MANAGERIAL MATERIAL .......................................................................................................................................39 3.2.3. COMPILATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL ....................................................................................43
3.2.3.1. Sources of information and methodological approach .............................................. 43 3.2.3.2. Preliminary analysis of contents and conclusions derived from the scientific material compiled ....................................................................................................................... 44 4. QUESTIONNARIE ON FOREST FIRE PREVENTION IN EUROPE ............................................................. 51 4.1. OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................... 51 4.2. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 51
4.2.1. DEFINING THE RESEARCH AIM .........................................................................................................51 4.2.2. IDENTIFYING THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE ....................................................................................52 4.2.3. DECIDING HOW TO COLLECT REPLIES ..............................................................................................52 4.2.4. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN .................................................................................................................52 4.2.5. RUNNING A PILOT SURVEY ...............................................................................................................59 4.2.6. CARRYING OUT THE MAIN SURVEY ...................................................................................................59
4.3. ORGANIZING INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE RESPONSES AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS .. 59 5. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 65
FIRESMART www.firesmart-project.eu FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO PREVENT UNWANTED FOREST FIRES
6. ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................................... 66 6.1. DATABASE DESIGN: SELECTED FIELDS AND ZOTERO INSTRUCTIONS (INIA) ............................ 66 6.2. TEST AREA 4: DEPARTEMENT BOUCHES DU RHONE (CEMAGREF) ............................................. 71
6.2.1. FOREST MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN THE TEST AREA ......................................................................... 71 6.2.2. FOREST FIRE CAUSES IN THE DPARTEMENT BOUCHES DU RHNE ................................................... 74 6.2.3. TRAINING, AWARENESS AND COMMUNICATION ACTIONS ................................................................. 76
6.3. A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC WORKS FOUND IN LITERATURE (CEMAGREF)............................. 79

6.3.1. - FOREST FIRE CAUSES IN EUROPE .................................................................................................. 79
6.3.1.1. Data collection .................................................................................................... 79 6.3.1.2. Synthesis of causes ............................................................................................. 79 6.3.1.2.1. Comparison Northern Europe Southern Europe............................................ 79 6.3.1.2.2. Comparison Europe Canada ........................................................................... 86 6.3.1.3. Review on the main driving factors ........................................................................ 87 6.3.1.3.1. Human factors .................................................................................................... 88 6.3.1.3.2. Environmental factors........................................................................................ 91 6.3.1.4. References ......................................................................................................... 93
6.3.2. - WILDLAND-URBAN INTERFACES..................................................................................................... 96
6.3.2.1. Introduction........................................................................................................ 96 6.3.2.2. WUI definition ..................................................................................................... 97 6.3.2.3. WUI characterization ........................................................................................... 97 6.3.2.4. WUI and wildfire risk............................................................................................ 97 6.3.2.5. WUI typology ...................................................................................................... 98 6.3.2.6. WUI management ............................................................................................... 99 6.3.2.7. References ....................................................................................................... 100
6.3.3. PREVENTIVE SILVICULTURE IN MEDITERRANEAN FOREST TO MITIGATE FIRE RISKS: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS? .................................................................................................................................... 103
6.3.3.1. Introduction...................................................................................................... 103 6.3.3.2. Characterization of fire behaviour as function of main stand parameters .................. 104 6.3.3.3. Influence of stand attributes on fire risk ............................................................... 105 6.3.3.4. The role of thinning in fire behaviour ................................................................... 109 6.3.3.5. Influence of other fuel reduction treatments in combination with thinning ................ 113 6.3.3.6. Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 115 6.3.3.7. References ....................................................................................................... 115
6.3.4. FUEL BREAKS ................................................................................................................................ 117
6.3.4.1. Role of fuel breaks ............................................................................................. 117 6.3.4.2. Positioning........................................................................................................ 117 6.3.4.3. Composition and nature ..................................................................................... 117 6.3.4.4. Wind velocity and direction fluctuations on a fuel-break ......................................... 118 6.3.4.5. Fuel impact on fire propagation ........................................................................... 118 6.3.4.6. Slope effects on fire behaviour ............................................................................ 118 6.3.4.7. Dimensions....................................................................................................... 118 6.3.4.8. Management ..................................................................................................... 119 6.3.4.9. Impact of fuel breaks on non-native species abundance ......................................... 119 6.3.4.10. References ...................................................................................................... 120 END OF DOCUMENT.......................................................................................................................... 123
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1-1. Acronyms Table 2-1. Tasks included in WP1 Table 2-2. Fire prevention-related topics considered in the test areas Table 3-1. FIRESMART database structure Table 3-2. Work areas by country and level of work Table 3-3. Type of material requested by partners Table 3-4. Main institutions contacted in Italy Table 3-5. Main institutions contacted in France Table 3-6. Organizations link to CEPF Table 3-7. CEPF: Main collaborating institutions Table 3-8. CEPF entries by item type Table 3-9. Main institutions contacted in Spain Table 3-10. Number of entries for each level of information in Spain Table 3-11. Number of entries according to the item type in Spain Table 3-12. Main institutions contacted in Portugal Table 3-13. Number of entries according to the different types identified in Portugal Table 3-14. Number of entries and percentage according to the different levels in Portugal Table 3-15. Total of entries in the Technological collection for each beneficiary and item type Table 3-15. Total of entries in the Technological collection for each beneficiary and item type Table 3-16. Number of entries by geographical level and beneficiary, in the Technological collection Table 3-17. Number of entries by item type compiled in the Scientific collection Table 6.3-1. Main causes of forest fires, its percentage and mean number of fires/year for countries in Southern Europe Table 6.3-2. Main causes of forest fires, its percentage and mean number of fires/year for countries in Northern Europe Table 6.3-3. Main type of negligence, its percentage for each country in Northern Europe Table 6.3-4. Main type of negligence, its percentage for each country in Southern Europe Table 6.3-5. Comparison of fuel reduction treatments according to different recent studies Figure 2-1. Study logic showing links and interactions among WP1 Tasks Figure 2-2. Cagliari Province, Italy Figure 2-3 Bouches-du-Rhne, France Figure 2-4. Valencia Autonomous Region Figure 2-5. Pinhal Interior Norte, Portugal Figure 3-1. http://www.dspace.org/ Figure 3-2. From individual ZOTERO databases to DSPACE Figure 3-3. Ad-hoc SW application to perform the automate migration of ZOTERO RDF files to DSPACE environment Figure 3-4. The different levels of the National System of Defense Against Forest Fires structure and the different type of stakeholders involved in Italy Figure 3-5. Number and percentage of AI entries by geographical level Figure 3-6. Number and percentage of AI entries by item type Figure 3-7. The different levels and type of stakeholders involved in France Figure 3-8. Number of CEMAGREF entries by item type Figure 3-9. The structure of Spanish Administration and the different type of stakeholders involved Figure 3-10a. Main collaborations established in Spain Figure 3-10b. Areas of the information collected in Spain
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Figure 3-11. Percentage of entries from the test area (NUTS 2 and NUTS 3) by item type in EIMFOR database Figure 3-12. Number of entries by Autonomous Regions and Percentage of participation of the Autonomous Regions of Spain in EIMFOR database Figure 3-13. The different levels of the National System of Defense Against Forest Fires structure and the different type of stakeholders involved Figure 3-14. Percentage of FORESTIS entries according to the different item types identified Figure 3-15. Percentages of each item type in the Technological collection Figure 3-16. Countries represented in the Technological database and the corresponding beneficiary Figure 3-17. Percentage of collaboration of each beneficiary in the Technological collection Figure 3-18. Percentage of entries by geographic level in the Technological collection Figure 3-19. Percentage of entries by beneficiary in the test area and in the national level, in the Technological collection Figure 3-20. Localization of test areas and the number of entries for each area, in the Technological collection Figure 3-21. Percentage of entries by item type in the Scientific collection Figure 3-22. Wildfire Conference took place every four years and it is a meeting point of Managers, Technicians, Engineers, Scientifics and Politicians. The conclusions of thematic sessions, conferences and the general conclusions offer a first step to develop a list of obstacles and to propose solutions Figure 3-23. The E-library from EUFIRELAB web site (left) and Fire intuition tool (a Fire Paradox outcome) are the two main sources of information about scientific European documents related to wildfire prevention in Europe Percentage of FIRESMART topics based on advanced keywords searches in DSPACE Figure 3-24. Percentage of entries according to the different topics, in the Scientific collection Figure 3-25. Percentage of entries by country, in the Scientific collection Figure 3-26. European countries with scientific information related to wildland fire prevention Figure 3-27. European regions (NUTS2 and NUTS3) with scientific information related to wildland fire prevention Figure 4-1. Number of questionnaires sent out to and received (answered) from stakeholders by beneficiary Figure 4-2. Percentage of completed questionnaires (answered) by country of the respondents Figure 4-3. Map of European countries with respondents to the questionnaire on forest fire prevention Figure 4-4. Percentage of completed (answered) questionnaires by fieldwork group of the respondents Figure 4-5a. CEMAGREF: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents Figure 4-5b. AMBIENTE ITALIA: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents Figure 4-5c. CEPF: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents Figure 4-5d. EIMFOR: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents Figure 4-5e. FORESTIS: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents. Figure 4-5f. INIA: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by fieldwork of the respondents Figure 6.1-1. ZOTERO instructions Figure 6.1-2. Fields (left) and a template to fill the fields (right) Figure 6.2-1 Test area 4: Dpartement Bouches du Rhne (France) Figure 6.3-1. Distribution of fire frequency by causes in Northern European countries Figure 6.3-2. Distribution of fire frequency by causes in Southern European countries Figure 6.3-3. Comparison of fire frequency by causes in Northern Europe and Southern Europe Figure 6.3-4. Break-down of causes due to negligence in Northern European countries Figure 6.3-5. Break-down of causes due to negligence in Southern European countries
Figure 6.3-6. Comparison of fire frequency by causes due to negligence/accident in Northern Europe and Southern Europe Figure 6.3-7. Comparison of the distribution of fire frequency by causes in Europe (values calculated according to tables 1 and 2) and in two provinces of Canada (values calculated on the period 20022007 for Alberta and 2002-2008 for Quebec, (Source: Ministry of natural resources, Canadian forest services) and mean number of fires per year Figure 6.3-8. Limiting fire size and fire consequences on the vegetation can be handled at the landscape level and the stand level. In this study the focus is put on the stand level and examines the influence of stand structure and composition on resistance and resilience Figure 6.3-9. Main parameters of crown fire behaviour. a) Flame lengths required to ignite conifer crowns as function of base height and for different foliage moisture content (Alexander, 1988; Van Wagner, 1977) b) Rate of spread required for crown fires to be sustained as function of stand crown bulk density (Alexander,1988; Van Wagner, 1977) c) Crown fire spread rates for different slopes and wind speeds (Rothermel, 1991) Figure 6.3-10. Different schematic spatial organisations of stands. a) disposition along an age and dimension gradient favourable to fire spread, b) disposition with vertical discontinuities more susceptible to limit fire propagation Figure 6.3-11. Usual types of thinning in even-aged stands. A theoretical distribution in diameter classes is indicated (white bars) as well as the parts removed by thinning (grey bars). For each type main characteristics possible advantages and drawbacks are indicated Figure 6.3-12. Schematic stand structure types and susceptibility to fire risk according to a gradient of management. Each type of structure can be analysed as regards fire behaviour (crown fire, crown surface), fire parameters (propagation, intensity) and fire severity (high, medium or low level of damages)
FIRESMART
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT
The aim of this document is to present an overview of the current situation with regard to forest fire prevention in Europe, obtained by the collection and compilation of information from different sources. This is a preliminary step in research on forest fire prevention practices in European countries, and it is being followed by (i) an in-depth analysis of previously compiled information on these practices, in order to identify gaps and obstacles that hamper prevention of unwanted fires. For this purpose a SWOT analysis of the current situation in fire prevention is being carried out taking into account socioeconomic, institutional and legislative considerations (to be delivered in December), and finally (ii) elaboration of practical recommendations for forest fire prevention at local, National and European levels the methodological approach and the results obtained so far from the on-going SWOT analysis. This report includes the work done from the 1st of February 2010 to the 31th of July 2010 (T0+6)
1.2. FIRESMART CONCEPT

Forests are systems in which a multitude of social, economic and environmental elements converge. The correct integration of these three aspects is key to the success of sustainable development. The development of synergies between stakeholders is crucial for any Support Action. The concept of FIRESMART is to connect different communities in relation to forest fire prevention. FIRESMART is thus envisaged as a tool that connects all those involved in fire prevention, particularly those involved in the silvicultural chain, that is: forest managers, land managers, fire managers and policy makers, as well as forest-based industrial operators, rural development associations and crop & livestock associations. The general public will also be addressed in this Support Action because of the implications for protection of the environment and, in particular, in the occurrence of fires (over 90% of fires in Mediterranean environment are caused by man). Future problems associated with wildland fires in Europe will be highly dependent on successful transfer of science and technology. In this sense, the FIRESMART Web page will constitute a crucial tool for the communication and exchange of information between the stakeholders in the field of forest fire prevention.
1.3. BACKGROUND
Effective forest fire prevention is a pre-requisite for good forest management in fire prone areas. It involves complex implementation of different measures at various scales and levels, and is approached by EU countries according to different methodological considerations and priorities, organizational, institutional and legal frameworks. Fire prevention integrates a broad spectrum of activities ranging from land and, in particular, forest management, along with raising public awareness, environmental education and personnel training. Fire prevention also implies preparedness and coordination among the different institutions involved in wildfire management and suppression. Legislation provides the legal framework for the different activities to be carried out and identifies duties and responsibilities, as well as functions at the different scales. At a national/regional level, the legal framework normally includes restrictions to control fire ignition in specific periods, especially in high risk areas. However, in most countries/regions there is no legislation requiring that forest management plans are examined from the point of view of fire prevention effectiveness. The current theories state that Living with recurrent wildfires requires a change of paradigm by shifting from a predominant short-term driven fire control policy towards longer-term policies aimed at acting on the structural causes of fires and integrating fire and forest management strategies. There is a need to integrate socio-economic realities and ecological imperatives (A Mediterranean Forest research Agenda 2010-2020). However, at least some preventative actions are taken, although they may not be fully integrated in forest management, with the main driver being the availability of financial resources.
FIRESMART
The complexity of the issue requires a sound science-based strategy, which is often poorly developed in many fire prone regions in the EU. There are currently no guidelines for forest fire prevention at the EU level. Unlike fire suppression activities where coordination among institutions and countries has been achieved, a comprehensive approach regarding fire prevention activities has yet to be developed. This should combine the activities (forecasting, planning, preparation and mitigation) of the great variety of institutions involved in fire prevention, whose effectiveness is clearly limited by the lack of coordination between administrations. Fire prevention measures should be scientifically based and practically validated, but this does not always seem to be the case. Some practices appear to be insufficiently investigated or incorrectly applied, and detailed analysis of local conditions neglected. Traditional practices often play an inappropriate role and in many cases prevention practices are not updated regularly. Wildfire prevention must be considered as one of the pillars of integrated forest management and the need for a detailed careful evaluation of the present prevention approaches is widely recognized. The aim of the FIRESMART project is to make a significant contribution to the prevention of unwanted forest fires by identifying obstacles and constraints for effective prevention, and by deriving recommendations aimed at integrating fire prevention in sustainable forest management systems. For this purpose, the Consortium has already identified three major clusters of problems, related to the following: the scientific basis for prevention measures, the integration of prevention measures in forest management, the institutional roles and legal framework to be addressed.
Previously, in the framework of the EUFIRELAB project (2002-2006), state-of-the-art developments were carried out in the following nine domains: fuel description and modeling, fire behavior modeling, fire ecosystem functioning and biodiversity, socio-economy, decision support tools, fire measurement methods, fire risks and hazards, fire suppression and interface management. Prior to the EUFIRELAB project, the EU had funded several research projects in the field of forest fires (SPREAD, WARM, FIRE TORCH, SALTUS, FIRE STAR, FIRE PARADOX, EUROFIRE, etc), and which generated important scientific information. FIRESMART will organize and make the base-knowledge in fire prevention available by applying standard criteria. This will affect the compilation and analysis of the current state-of-the-art in Europe, as well as (and this is a key point of this project), basic knowledge concerning fire prevention approaches (theories, policies and practices) used in different European countries at different territorial levels and by different types of stakeholders (different administrative levels, private forest owners, etc). This is considered an improvement on the current scientific/technological status. Despite the progress achieved in fundamental research for the Mediterranean region, practical experience highlights important limitations, which must be detected in order to develop suitable means of preventing unwanted fires, taking into account socio-economics, laws and policies, and then to achieve efficient transfer of science and technology, summarizing the existing knowledge and knowhow in this domain.
FIRESMART
1.4. ACRONYMS
Acronyms used in this document and needing a definition are included in the following table:
Table 1-1. Acronyms
Acronym Definition
AI CEMAGREF CEPF DB DOW EIMFOR EUFIRELAB
AMBIENTE ITALIA CENTRE NATIONAL DU MACHINISME AGRICOLE, DU GENIE RURAL, DES EAUX ET DES FORETS CONFEDERATION EUROPEENNE DES PROPRIETAIRES FORESTIERS ASBL Database Description of work ENTRENAMIENTO E INFORMACIN FORESTAL European project of 5th Framework Programme. Euro-Mediterranean wildland fire laboratory, a wall-less Laboratory for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies in the Euro-Mediterranean Region. European project of 6th Framework Programme An Innovative Approach to Forest-Fire Detection and Monitoring European project of 6th Framework Programme. An innovative approach of integrated wildland fire management regulating the wildfires problems by the wise use of fire: solving the fire paradox. European project of 5th Framework Programme. A decision support system for fuel management and fire hazard reduction in Mediterranean wildland-urban interfaces. European project of 5th Framework Programme. Prescribed burning as a tool for Mediterranean Region: A management approach. ASSOCIAAO FLORESTAL DE PROTUGAL GMV AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE S.A INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE INVESTIGACION Y TECNOLOGIA AGRARIA Y ALIMENTARIA JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics European project of 4th Framework Programme: Spot fires: Knowledge and Modeling European project of 4th Framework Programme Forest Fire Prevention and mitigation Strategic Research Agenda Strategic planning method used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or in a business European project of 5th Framework Programme. Wildland-Urban Interface Fire Risk Management. Work Package Wildland Urban Interface
EUROFIRE FIRE PARADOX
FIRE STAR
FIRE TORCH FORESTIS GMV INIA JRC NUT SALTUS SPREAD SRA SWOT WARM WP WUI
FIRESMART
2. OBJECTIVES, TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WORK

2.1. PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The overall goal of the FIRESMART project is to contribute to the prevention of unwanted forest fires firstly by identifying obstacles that reduce the effectiveness of prevention measures, and secondly by making recommendations aimed at integrating fire prevention in regular forest management. The main expected results involve the assessment of the available options to overcome the actual difficulties in defining strategies and the subsequent proposal of recommendations and practical guidelines for stakeholders involved in forest management. The role of incentives will also be addressed. Finally, findings derived from the project, will represent the theoretical and practical reference for the Consortium for the development of a strategic roadmap that will point the path to follow in the future. This final document will contribute to define the future European Community research and technological development policy in fire prevention as well as to identify synergies with other land planning policies related with forest fires (i.e.: agriculture, urban, risk management, civil protection, land use). This strategic roadmap will also address the need to guarantee close relationships among stakeholders facing the fire prevention issue at the different levels and to strengthen prevention measures by adopting up-to-date management/evaluation processes (e.g. the CIP-Continuous Improvement Process) which constantly check and improve the overall strategy in the light of its efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility. In this way, FIRESMART is not only expected to contribute to policy development, but also to the preparation of future Community research. In the light of the above, to the work in FIRESMART project was broken down into the following parts (each one corresponding to a work-package): 1. Identify and collection information about forest fire prevention practices applied in different European countries/regions (WP1) 2. Identify obstacles that may prevent a fire-smart land/forest management (WP2) 3. Identify possible approaches and assess possible options to overcome the above-mentioned obstacles, taking into account the particular socio-economic, institutional and legislative aspects in each case (WP3) 4. Derive recommendations and practical guidelines for stakeholders involved in the entire sustainable management chain of silviculture. These will cover institutional aspects, practical management advice and incentives to prevent unwanted forest fires (WP3) 5. Have an impact on integral management from regional to national and European level (WP4)
2.2. TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WP1

2.2.1. OVERALL WP1 PLAN AND STUDY LOGIC
The overall WP1 work plan is grounded on a thorough knowledge and understanding of the fire prevention theories and practices currently in use in Mediterranean Europe. WP1 was broken down into four Tasks (see Table 2-1 below), which are connected as shown in the study logic of Figure 2-1.
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Code: Date: Version: Page: Table 2-1. Tasks included in WP1

WP1 (TASK ID)
Task title Compilation of the actual knowledge/practices from a Managerial and technological perspective Compilation of the actual knowledge/practices from a scientific perspective Integration of the information previously compiled and preliminary analysis. Database design
Task coordinator, with support from EIMFOR CEMAGREF, AI, CEPF, FORESTIS CEMAGREF (INIA. JRC) INIA (CEMAGREF, AI,CEPF, FORESTIS, EIMFOR GMV (AI)
Task 1.
Task 1.2
Task 1.3
Task 1.4
Task 1.1.Compilation of actual knowledge/practices from a Managerial and technological perspective. This task consisted in the retrieval of technical studies, reports and guidelines on the experiences and types of practices in forest fire prevention usually adopted at national and local levels. Local data and information were crucial for this particular Task and for the whole project. Since it is not possible to retrieve local data throughout the whole of Europe, four local test areas were identified as test cases. The test areas were selected because: i) ii) they represent areas that are particularly fire-prone, where fire prevention measures are being applied. they illustrate policy integration of policies (forestry, agriculture, rural development).
Task 1.2. Compilation of the actual knowledge from a scientific perspective. This task consisted of collecting the results of previous research projects in the different fields of fire prevention management. Inputs for this activity came from: Scientific papers Deliverables of the EU-funded projects, such as EUFIRELAB, FIRE PARADOX, FIRE STAR, WARM Reports of national research projects. Other worldwide sources such as web pages
Task 1.3. Integration of the information previously compiled and preliminary analysis. A preliminary analysis of the information retrieved in Task 1.1 and Task 1.2 was carried out. In addition, a questionnaire was specifically developed in order to collect from European experts information concerning: efficiency and consequences of current management practices, restrictions, legal issues, social and communication activities in terms of wildfire prevention. Task 1.4. Database design. A database was designed to maintain the documents compiled in Task 1.1 and Task1.2, and to facilitate the further thematic analysis of this information. The FIRESMART database will be an access-restricted Network Working Area as a permanent communication tool to support storage and sharing of documents and data. This restricted area is available to the FIRESMART participants via a secure Web-based interface accessed by means of a personal username and password. Different users can access the system with different functionalities according to their specific user profile. The links and interactions among tasks are shown in Figure 2-1.
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Figure 2-1. Study logic showing links and interactions among WP1 Tasks
In addition, in FIRESMART project, the WPs are chained, and the WP1 was designed to provide inputs to WP2, WP2 will use those inputs and provided and added value that will be used in WP3 and so on.
2.2.2. WP1 MULTISCALE AND MULTI-PERSPECTIVE APPROACH

The information was retrieved taking into account two main perspectives: A managerial and technological approach, and a scientific approach, and at different territorial levels: from local to European level. Excluding the published material, which was retrieved from different sources in the field of forest fire prevention, the rest of the material was mainly retrieved from exhaustive investigations carried out in four test areas, in order to study their practices and strategies in forest fire prevention. The information retrieved from this local level, was complemented with the information obtained from other territorial levels (regional, national, European). The following local test areas were chosen by the beneficiaries of the Consortium FIRESMART involved in this work: Cagliari in Italy (AMBIENTE ITALIA), Bouches du Rhne in France (CEMAGREF), Valencia Autonomous region in Spain (EIMFOR) and Pinhal interior in Portugal (FORESTIS). These test areas were selected because of being particularly active in fire prevention served to three main purposes: 1. To be used as examples of practical management (as these areas are particularly prone to fire occurrence), identifying main advances and limitations in forest fire prevention. 2. To be used as validation for follow up of the final recommendations. 3. To exchange information with the local/regional stakeholders during personal meetings organized in the test areas. Bellow a brief description of each test area is given:
TEST AREA 1: Cagliari Province, Italy This area is located in the South-eastern part of Sardinia (Figure 2-2). It has an extension of 689,539 ha and it shows three different areas: the Capidano Plane in the central part, a mainly agricultural area, and two mountainous regions, in the east and the west. About 40% of the test area is covered by forests which represent about 25% of all Sardinian woodland. The site landscape is a mixture of Mediterranean vegetation types and therefore it is considered particularly sensitive to fire.
Figure 2-2. Cagliari Province, Italy
Forest fires in the Province of Cagliari take place mainly in the eastern and western part, while the central plane is less affected. The main causes are here voluntary ignition (70%); involuntary causes cover 17.5% of the fire events, while 11.5% remain of unknown origin. TEST AREA 2: Bouches-du-Rhne, France The French study area is located in south-eastern France in the Metropolitan area between Aix-enProvence and Marseille (Figure 2-3). It comprises around 167,670 ha corresponding to 59 municipalities. Forestland represents 60% of its surface area, 20% is used for urban purposes and 20% for agricultural purposes. There is a high level of urbanization (420 inhabitants km -2) and high urban pressure. This will make this area particularly interesting as a pilot case to examine forest fire prevention policies and practices
Figure 2-3. Bouches-du-Rhne, France
TEST AREA 3: Valencia Autonomous Region, Spain This Autonomous Region is located in the East of Spain (Figure 2-4) and it is composed by three provinces: Castelln, Valencia and Alicante. It has 5 094,675 inhabitants (year 2009), representing the 11% of Spanish population. The extension of the Autonomous Region is 2 342,981 ha. About the 48% of this surface is forested area. It is divided in eleven regions for the forest management, with a surface of around 200,000 ha. The orography is very abrupt and irregular, the climate is Mediterranean with vegetation adapted to forest fires.
Figure 2-4. Valencia Autonomous Region
TEST AREA 4: Pinhal Interior Norte, Portugal This area is in the Center Region of Portugal (Figure 2-5). It occupies approximately 261,663 ha (grouping 14 municipalities) and has 53 inhabitants km-2. The population density is decreasing and the age index is increasing in most municipalities that are part of the test area.
Figure 2-5. Pinhal Interior Norte, Portugal
Forest stands in the area occupy 133,030 ha (the two main species are maritime pine - 52% and eucalyptus - 35%) and other woodland areas occupy an area of 80,389 ha. The area is severely affected by forest fires. The fire prevention topics considered in the four local test areas, as well as at other territory levels are shown in Table 2-2.
FIRESMART
Table 2-2. Fire prevention-related topics considered in FIRESMART
Fire prevention-related topics Agroforestry Awareness and communication-related activities Existing actions aimed at conciliating interests, including volunteer programmes Fire risk/Fire danger Integrated forest management systems Investigation of fire causes Legislation Politics Planning Preventive infrastructures Preventive silviculture, including use of fire Statistics Surveillance Training courses Wildland-Urban interfaces
FIRESMART
3. METHODS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK PERFORMED

3.1. COMPILATION AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES IN FOREST FIRE PREVENTION
FIRESMART bases on the compilation of an important amount of documentation regarding fire prevention theories and practices (see Section 3.2). In order to systematically organize the collection of information by independent project teams a database was designed according to a structure that could satisfy the analyses needs previously identified. Once the structure was agreed, the actual database was then built in two stages: (i) Databases were built by each partner involved in Task 1.1 (Technological collection), Task 1.2 (Scientific collection), and Task 1.3 (preliminary analysis of the information compiled in the Technological and Scientific collections and designing a questionnaire on forest fire prevention) Local databases were transferred and integrated into an open access single database from now on called FIRESMART database (Task 1.4)
(ii)
To feed the database the Consortium teams devoted their efforts to identify and retrieve material relevant to the project purposes by consulting directly or indirectly several information sources. In a first step this information was gathered by each team independently in accordance with the agreed distribution of the work. Each team then uploaded it into an independent database that followed the general structure provided (see Table 3-1 below).
3.1.1. FIRESMART DATABASE ESTRUCTURE

The design of the FIRESMART database structure was carried out by brainstorming and discussion during the Kick Off meeting (08/04/2010), based on a preliminary proposal by the INIA team. The fields required to compile basic information from technical and scientific point of views were defined. The database had to be able cope with the following facts: The large amount of information to be stored and organized The heterogeneous nature of the information The fact that the information was going to be compiled, independently, by different teams and in different countries The need for the information to be documented so that it could then be organized, according to certain criteria, into the database for further exploitation.
The criteria established to define each field and database content were determined and agreed in order to comply with two main objectives: (i) The ability to compile a large number of documents and contents (ii) The definition of contents to help development of SWOT analysis in subsequent periods (WP2). The main fields defined and database contents were as shows Table 3-1 (see more details in Annex 1).
FIRESMART
Table 3-1. FIRESMART database structure

Field Field name in the database Values
Type of document: this field classifies the type of item according to the type of document selected. Taking into account that several types of documents were studied Title, author, date, publication, Volume, Issue, Pages, identifier (ISSN, DOI, ISBN) and web-links: different fields define basic items that will define the entry
Item type
Alphanumerical code: Eighteen different types of documents (see Annex 1) Text Text Numerical value (year) Text Numerical value Numerical value Numerical value Alphanumerical code Web link Text Text Text Numeric value NUT codes (alphanumerical)
Title Author Date.issued Publication.title Publication.volume Publication.issue Publication.pages Identifier.doi/issn/isbn Identifier.uri
Abstract and keywords: this field contain accurate descriptive words that will draw the reader to the content Language Geographical level: this field was defined to classify the references at local, regional and country level according to the European administrative limits Group of stakeholders most interested: this field was defined to classify references in order of expected interest to three different groups of stakeholders: managers, researchers and politicians Preliminary information for SWOT: this field was defined to obtain information that may be useful for SWOT analysis in WP2 Topics: search criteria had to be defined in order to obtain information regarding all topics defined in DoW) Attached archives: each reference can attach archives including text and additional information
Description.abstract Subject Language Scope Geocode
Stakeholders
Alphanumerical code
Notes
Free text field
Description
Fifteen different topics related to wildland fire prevention were defined (Table 2-2 ) Text, maps, recordings photos, video
Attach files tool
3.1.2. INTEGRATING THE INDEPENDENT DATABASES INTO A UNIQUE DB: FIRESMART DB

A Mozzilla browser plug-in called ZOTERO was selected by FIRESMART teams to implement the designed database structure and thus to compile the fire prevention information locally (each team in their respective office). The main reasons for selecting this tool were that: It is an open-source database It is a powerful, easy-to-use tool that helps in the collection, organization, and analysis of sources and subsequent sharing of research results It is easily accessible from Mozzilla browser: http://www.zotero.org/
Zotero is a non-customizable database, so the solution adopted was to use Zotero fields and tools to adapt the previously defined fields and contents (Table 3-1). The result was a defined internal document (Zotero instructions, Annex 1) used by partners to ensure the coherence of the database contents.
Yet, ZOTERO plug-in is a tool living in each PCs individual Web-browser, that is: it is a personal tool that in the frame of FIRESMART enabled the coherent compilation of prevention material (in digital format) by independent participating teams. As explained above the consistency among the individual repositories was guaranteed by a common database structure and a guide to upload references in ZOTERO database previously circulated among these teams. In spite of its advantages ZOTERO does not facilitate the sharing of resources through the Web. As this is a requirement for FIRESMART purposes, the need arose to evaluate different alternatives that could enable the open sharing of material. After testing several tools, it was decided that the best option to provide Web-access to the documents compiled in FIRESMART would be DSPACE software (http://www.dspace.org/) (Figure 3-1) DSPACE is an opensource Document Management System initially developed by the MIT and Hp Company under the concept of Open knowledge sharing. This SW is currently being used worldwide by a large community of users and developers and among them educational, government, private and commercial institutions to build their Open digital repositories (http://www.dspace.org/introducing/dspace-video.html). This SW can manage and preserve all types of digital contents, and moreover it is completely customizable so it could be customized for FIRESMART needs. In summary DSPACE was chosen to manage, provide access to, preserve and share digital contents (all types) compiled in FIRESMART project mainly because of the following reasons: It is an opensource tool. It enables open (Web) sharing of content that spans organizations, continents and time. It is in fact a Document Management System, and this is of the interest for FIRESMART database exploitation during and after the project. It can be customized for the storage and exploitation of FIRESMART material. It can be integrated in FIRESMART Web site.
Figure 3-1. http://www.dspace.org/
Once DSPACE was selected the next step was to migrate the ZOTERO references previously compiled to this new environment. This had to be done in a secure an automatic way. Next Section describes the procedure followed.
3.1.2.1. Migrating the information to a unique web-accessible database

As explained above fire prevention material was collected by several FIRESMART teams on individual basis. Each team built a personal database with the most relevant documents found at the national and local level in Europe, but also worldwide (with scientific material). Two teams, EIMFOR and INIA,
were then in charge of grouping these under two different criteria i) Technological/Managerial and ii), EIMFOR and INIA scientific references. The two resulting databases (Figure 3-2) were made up by both, the bibliographic references properly documented and the associated file/s (e.g. PDF documents/s). Both were finally exported to a ZOTERO interchange format (RDF format).
ZOTERO INTRUCTIONS
ZOTERO 1 ZOTERO 2 ZOTERO 4 ZOTERO 5 ZOTERO 6
SCIENTIFIC DB
TECHNICAL- MNG DB
RDF file
RDF file
Figure 3-2. From individual ZOTERO databases to DSPACE
ZOTERO interchange format (RDF) cannot be directly imported in DSPACE. Therefore it was necessary to develop and ad-hoc SW application to perform the automate migration of ZOTERO RDF files to DSPACE environment (Figure 3-3). This was solved using a Java code. The first step of this migration was the replication of ZOTERO structure of fields in the DSPACE environment. Additionally several tests were made using a testing database to make sure that the migration could be performed automatically and that all ZOTERO field were properly read.
Figure 3-3. Ad-hoc SW application to perform the automate migration of ZOTERO RDF files to DSPACE environment
One of the advantages of DSPACE is that it is customizable. As said above the tool was customized to be able to read and store every ZOTERO Field as designed in the previous phase. Besides the ingestion of references in DSPACE it is also possible to customize the Web interface adapting it to the needs of the project. Although the current version is just a draft we have already inserted in the main page an introduction, the project and the FP7 logo among other general aspects of the project. This work is on-going and will be finished in the next months. In any case it will be finished by the moment the FIRESMART web site will be open to the public (foreseen for February 2011). Regarding also the customization, three different profiles have been created in DSPACE: Administrator, registered users and normal users. Normal users can browse among all references and access the associated documents. Registered users can submit new references, view statistics on the most consulted items and receive (if they wish) an email every time a new reference is uploaded. The administrator manages the different authorizations and customizes both the database and Tool interface. In DSPACE there is normally a distinction between Communities (like Departments) and Collections (a subset of a Community). For FIRESMART we have created one Community, FIRESMART, and two separated collections, one for storing the Technological-Managerial material,
containing mainly information retrieved at the local scale in the four pilot areas: Technological Collection, and the other for storing the Scientific material: Scientific Collection.
3.2. SOURCES, COMPILATION METHODS AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

This subsection is organized in two parts. The first one concerns compilation and preliminary analysis of the Technological and managerial material carried out by AI, CEMAGREF, CEPF, EIMFOR and FORESTIS. The second one concerns compilation and preliminary analysis of the scientific material carried out by CEMAGREF, INIA, and JRC. The division of the material into Technological/Managerial (Task 1.2) and Scientific (Task 1.2) is somehow artificial, and that it was done for two main reasons: - To facilitate the distribution of the work among beneficiaries - To enable the analysis from different perspective
3.2.1. COMPILATION OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL AND MANAGERIAL MATERIAL

The objective of the Task 1.1 was to retrieve management and technological studies, reports, guidelines and other type of information (published or unpublished material) about the experiences and practices adopted at the national and local level in forest fire prevention. The compilation of the material was done in different levels: Local, National and European level. Most of the work has been focused in the local level through the four Test Areas because they represent fire prone areas in which fire prevention measures are being applied through the integration of policies.
3.2.1.1. Sources of information and methodological approach

The collection and analysis of relevant information regarding fire prevention within the project FIRESMART was performed on the bases of an approach which considers the specific administrative organization of each country. The partners worked at the three levels differed one from another due to the different system of administration, land planning and public/private forest management of each country. To clarify these aspects, the work done by each partner is described by country with the same structure: sources of information, methodology followed and specific conclusions. The Technological/Managerial material was compiled by the beneficiaries AMBIENTE ITALIA, CEMAGREF, CEPF, EIMFOR and FORESTIS as shows Table 3-2 below. In this task, EIMFOR was the coordinating team.
Table 3-2. Work areas by country and level of work AREA ITALY FRANCE EUROPE SPAIN PORTUGAL PARTNER AMBIENTE ITALIA CEMAGREF CEPF EIMFOR FORESTIS LOCAL LEVEL X X X X NATIONAL LEVEL X X X X X
The methodology to request the material was: Elaborate a database of contacts, if it doesnt exist, in national and local level to identify the potential sources of relevant information.
Contact with the main stakeholders and send a FIRESMART summary/letter introducing the project. Request of information and organizing meetings. Elaborate a database with the material requested with ZOTERO tool. The material compiled in this task was classified by the partners, following INIA instructions to fill the ZOTERO database, in:
Table 3-3. Type of material requested by partners BOOK BOOK SECTION COMPUTER PROGRAM CONFERENCE PAPER DOCUMENT INTERVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) MAP POWER POINT PRESENTATION SCIENTIFIC REPORT TECHNICAL REPORT STATUTE THESIS VIDEO RECORDING
MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) WEB PAGE
FIRESMART
3.2.1.2. In Italy
AMBIENTE ITALIA is a private consultancy operating in all Italian regions providing services in the areas of renewable, compliance and permitting, corporate sustainability, planning and environmental impact assessment, sustainable development Its activity regarding forests is focused on the promotion of sustainable management of natural resources including forest protection and fire prevention. It should be highlighted that referring to forest management and, more in general, to the agricultural and forestry sectors, Italy displays a substantially federal organization of the Administration according to an amendment of 2001 to the Italian Constitution which has brought some decentralization in this field (Figure 3-4). The Regions are thus responsible for defining the forest management guidelines, plan the fire preventing measures, ensure fire fighting activities in case forests or pasture land are involved. National bodies like the National Forest Service (CFS) continue to play a role both in law enforcement and civil protection activities. The role of CFS differs from region to region according to local resolutions. The Central Government *Department of Civil Protection* is responsible for the coordination of different activities at national level (definition of national strategies and guidelines, intervention of aerial forces, intervention coordination in case of major incidents/disasters). The activity carried out by AMBIENTE ITALIA considered two levels of the Administration: a national level and a local level. The latter refers to the regional Administrations as their offices are responsible for defining the local forest policy and management strategies. From the point of view of forest management we considered more specifically the territory of the Province of Cagliari (Test area).
Figure 3-4. The different levels of the National System of Defence Against Forest Fires structure and the different type of stakeholders involved in Italy
MOST RELEVANT ACTIONS At the beginning of the activities defined in Task 1.1 the institutions considered as potential sources of relevant information were contacted (Table 3-4), sending a letter introducing the FIRESMART project.
Direct contacts followed and meetings were organized. These personal contacts favored the establishment of positive relationships and an unrestricted access to the information requested.
Table 3-4. Main institutions contacted in Italy Concerned topics National level Forest management (inventory data) Forest offices of several Italian Regions; National Forest Service (CFS); Ambiente Italia, Ambiente & Diritto National Institute for Statistics (ISTAT) Coordination of fire fighting activities Prevention plans in protected areas Awareness and prevention measures (addressing the public) Research activities LOCAL LEVEL NUTS III Cagliari Province Forest policy Forest fire management guidelines and strategy Infrastructure planning Forest fire management Prevention plans Civil protection plans Awareness and prevention measures (addressing the public) Statistical data Infrastructure management Other prevention campaigns Forest management plans of public forests Fire management plans Fire research (modelling) Fire prevention and fire prevention at local level Public awareness razing Universit degli Studi di Sassari Professional associations; (foresters, farmers); Voluntary firemen ONG Provincia di Cagliari Ente regionale Foreste della Sardegna Corpo forestale e di vigilanza Ambientale della Sardegna Regione Sardegna Research Center for Silviculture (CRA) Universities Civil Protection Department (PC) Sources
Fire statistics
The meetings with the stakeholders highlighted some interesting aspects of the fire prevention issue which will be further analysed more in depth. At the moment of writing this report 231 items were collected and uploaded in the FIRESMART database (Technological collection). Most of the publications collected refer to scientific or technical journal papers, followed by studies and analysis regarding fire prevention policy (legal aspects and strategies) and technical results (Figure 3-5). Publications referring to the national level are by far more represented but are often related to issues of regional interest which are managed according to a national strategy (e.g. prevention of forest fires in national parks and other protected areas).
FIRESMART
GEOGRAPHICAL LEVEL SARDINIA REGION - 36 items TEST AREA (P.A.) - 9 items NATIONAL LEVEL OTHER TOTAL
N 45 177 9 231
Figure 3-5. Number and percentage of AI entries by geographical level
The prevailing type of items collected are conference papers and journal articles (Figure 3-6), this underlining that forest policies and fire prevention guidelines have, in order of being effective, to be shared and discussed among several institutions and the public.
ITEM TYPE BOOK BOOK SECTION CONFERENCE PAPER DOCUMENT INTERVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) MAP PRESENTATION (POWER POINT PRESENTATION) SCIENTIFIC REPORT TECHNICAL REPORT THESIS VIDEO RECORDING WEB PAGE TOTAL
A.I. 13 1 69 32 1 59 8 2 8 18 10 1 9 231 Figure 3-6. Number and percentage of AI entries by item type
The content of the material collected underwent a brief analysis showing that: Fire prevention is addressed by several institutions, both at national and local level, Fire prevention activities are not homogenously distributed at national level, and show an irregular time trend at local level, The distribution of the material among the issues initially listed highlights that some topics considered are scarcely addressed, Few material is the result of activities carried out in cooperation between research institutions and forest management agencies, Most of the information collected is freely accessible.
FIRESMART
3.2.1.3. In France
CEMAGREF is a public research institute that targets results directly useable in land and water management. The goal is to produce new knowledge and technical innovations for use by managers, decision-makers and companies in providing answers to the specific question raised by society concerning resource management, land use and development. From national level to local level, the national plans concern mainly the protection against forest fires policies; the risk management and the prevention watch (aerial and terrestrial). Different ministries of the French Government are in charge of these plans: Ministries of Agriculture, Environment and Interior, but the National Forest Office (ONF) as well (see Figure 3-7 the levels and stakeholders involved). At regional level, regional plans concern the fire risk prevention (PPRIF), the forest protection against fires (PPFCI), the forest management, fire cause investigation and the daily fire risk index. Different entities manage these plans: the civil protection at regional level (CIRCOSC), the regional and territorial prefectures, the regional environment institute (DREAL), the delegation to the protection of the Mediterranean Forest (DPFM), the Entente interdpartementale pour la protection de la fort, ONF, and the pluridisciplinary team working on fire causes investigation. At local level, the plans concern the mandatory brush-clearing around houses, municipal and territorial forest management plans, municipal urban plans and municipal fire risk prevention. The municipalities, civil protection at territorial level (SDIS 13 and 83), Direction dpartementale des territories et de la mer (DDTM) and ONF mainly manage these plans.
Figure 3-7. The different levels and type of stakeholders involved in France
The regulation on fire prevention at local level comes from the regulation at national level (code forestier, ministerial orders, etc.). The information retrieved at this level comes from the same source than the one previously given (see Annex 6.2).
FIRESMART
The French test area has been studied for several years by CEMAGREF and the information used for this part of the work comes from CEMAGREFs own database (statutes on fire prevention, technological reports, web site, etc.) and Promthe fire database for the fire causes (see Annex 6.2). At national and local level, the database was complete with the most relevant references on forest fire prevention, mainly related to the regulation in force at the different level. In the Table 3-5 there is a scheme of the sources in national and local level responsible of the different items defined in Task 1.1.
Table 3-5. Main institutions contacted in France Concerned topics National level Forest management (inventory data) National Forest Office (ONF) Sources
Fire statistics Fire fighting policies
Promthe Database on forest fires in southeastern France Ministry of Agriculture Interior, Ministry of
Research activities Fire protection planning LOCAL LEVEL NUTS III Dpartement Bouches du Rhne Forest policy Forest fire management guidelines and strategy Infrastructure planning Forest fire management Prevention plans Civil protection plans Statistical data Infrastructure management Forest management plans of public forests Fire management plans Urban plan Fire research Fire prevention at local level
INRA, CEMAGREF, Universities Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry Ecology, Prfectures (PPFCI, PPR) of
Conseil Rgional Provence-Alpes-Cte dAzur, Conseil Gnral Bouches du Rhne (13) ONF, DDTM (ex DDAF) SDIS 13 Promthe database Conseil Gnral 13 ONF ONF, DDTM Municipalities INRA, CEMAGREF, Marseille (foresters, farmers) Voluntary firemen Universit Aix-
Professional associations
Public awareness raising Formation of FIRE Fighters, test of equipment, protection equipments mapping
ONG (OFME), Conseil Rgional PACA, Municipalities ENTENTE institute) (inter-departemental public
FIRESMART
CEMAGREF NUMBER OF ITEMS / TYPE

ITEM TYPE DOCUMENT TECHNICAL REPORT STATUTE WEB PAGE THESIS TOTAL 6 2 4 NATIONAL LEVEL TEST AREA 1 3 7 2 1 14
STATUTE 50% WEB PAGE 14% THESIS 7% DOCUMENT 7%
TECHNICAL REPORT 22%
Figure 3-8. Number of CEMAGREF entries by item type
All these material belong to the local (Dpartement Bouches du Rhone) or regional (Rgion PACA) levels except 3 statutes belonging to the national level. The statutes ones (62%) and the technical reports (23%) are the most representative information. The Annex 6.2 contains much more exhaustive information. The content of the material in the database is relevant to the forest fire prevention especially at local or regional levels that are the most subject to fire risk in France. The information cover mainly fire prevention, especially concerning the regulation in force around fires.
FIRESMART
3.2.1.4. In Central and Eastern Europe

NATIONAL LEVEL CEPF, as the umbrella organization for European forest owners associations, gathered information mainly by sending out information about the project to the members of the organization together with a request to them to share and send in material. Within the CEPF this communication was done mainly through the Members Update, a fortnightly new letter that is sent out to all members and interested parties. This newsletter reaches approximately 130 specific persons directly, and indirectly many more. The interest for providing information about forest fires was relatively high and several files were collected. The external contacts of the CEPF network have also been used to gather up more information. Direct contacts were made also to known experts in our non-member contacts network. Internet surfing has also been used to find information in some of the countries where the voluntary participation has been low. However, this method didnt provide any extra information in the countries where material is not mainly published in English. All of the CEPF members organizations (see Table 3-6) have been asked to provide the same information, that is information about forest fires, forest fire prevention and forest fire legislation and activities in their region/country/county.
Table 3-6. Organizations link to CEPF Country Albania Austria Belgium Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Norway Portugal Slovakia Spain Name of the organisation Albanian Forest Owners Organisation Land & Forst Betriebe Steiermark Socit Royale Forestire de Belgique Association of Municipal and Private Forest Owners Czech Republic Skovforeningen (Danish Forest Association) Eramets (Estonian Private Forest Union) MTK (Central Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners) Foret Privee Franaise AGDW (German Forest Owner Association) Forest Owner Association Greece Association of Hungarian Private Forest Owners ITGA (Irish Timber Grower Association) Forest Owners Association Latvia (Mezaipasnieki) Forest Owners Association of Lithuania Letzebuerger Privatbesch Norges Skogeierforbund CAP (Confederation of Agriculture of Portugal) Association of Slovakian Forest Owners (nia regionalnych zdruzeni vlastnikov lesov Slovenska) COSE (Confederation of Spanish Forest Owners Organisations) ARCMED (Mediterranian Forest Owners Association) Sweden Switzerland The Netherlands United Kingdom LRF Skogsgarna (Lantbrukarnas Riksfrbund) WVS (Waldwirtschaft Schweiz) FPG (Dutch Land Owners Organisation) ConFor (The Confederation of Forest Industries )
FIRESMART
Table 3-7. CEPF: Main collaborating institutions Concerned topics National LEVEL 1 dissertation 1 document 1 UN report 2 documents 1 document 1 document AGDW Lithuanian Forest Owners Association Macedonian forest owners association AGDW Forestry Commission Wales Bulgarian Agricultural Ministry Sources
The CEPF collected material with information about forest fires to the database. These came from countries such as for example Bulgaria, Germany, Latvia, Austria, Cyprus, and Macedonia. There was more material assessed but only some of it was considered relevant enough to be put into the database.
Table 3-8. CEPF entries by item type ITEM TYPE BOOK DOCUMENT TOTAL CEPF 1 25 26
The willingness to send in material has greatly depended on time available for the different organizations. In many cases the only information has been in the national languages and they have therefore not seen the need of sending it onwards to someone who will not be able to make use of it because they do not know the language. The content of the material in the database is relevant to the forest fire prevention since other information was not put in there from the beginning. It covers mainly prevention, but some of them also give an overview of the legislation around fires and how to manage fires.
FIRESMART
3.2.1.5. In Spain
EIMFOR was the team coordinating the retrieval of management and technological material (WP1.1). EIMFOR, is a private enterprise specialized in training and expert technical assistance in the forestry sector. The main activity is the provision of environmental services in the area of integrated defense against forest fires, for Autonomous and National Forest Service. In the case of Spain, the organization of Administration according to the Spanish Constitution is decentralized into the Autonomous Regions (first political level of Spain). The Autonomous Regions are responsible of defining forest management actions. The role of National Forest Service differs from region to region according to local resolutions. The Central Government is responsible of the coordination of different activities at national level, defined in the Figure 3-9. The methodology used to compile and analyze the most relevant information took into account the structure, hierarchy and different levels of the National and Autonomic Forest Service and the different type of stakeholders involved as it is shown in the Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9. The structure of Spanish Administration and the different type of stakeholders involved
MOST RELEVANT ACTIONS LOCAL/REGIONAL LEVEL INFORMATION The Spanish test area defined on the proposal (Valencia province) was modified because some important material retrieved concern the level of the Autonomous Region, and not only the provincial. In order to get access to the information of interest, EIMFOR contacted first with the local managers to inform them about the progress of the FIRESMART project and initiate the collaboration. A report was elaborates with the items to collect the information and a draft of an index to ensure to obtain the principal working files of the test area. A three days visit to the test area was organized on May 19th 2010. The objective of the meeting was: Check the material contributed (report by EIMFOR). Have access to data, studies and other relevant information.
www.firesmart-project.eu FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO PREVENT UNWANTED FOREST FIRES
FIRESMART
Visit some preventive infrastructures, an auto protection plan, some natural parks, and talk with some surveillance workers and responsible of preventive actions and preventive plans.
NATIONAL LEVEL INFORMATION The national contact was done taking into account the hierarchy defined in our Public Administration to ensure the support and the collaboration of the different levels in the project, that is: 1st. MARM - Ministry of the Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs 2nd. CLIF (Committee of Forest Fire Fighting - Public Managers). The result was different collaborations (national level). 3rd. National Forest Service 4th. Private and Semipublic Companies 5th. Associations of Environmental Education 6th. Forestry Owners Associations
Table 3-9. Main institutions contacted in Spain Concerned topics National level Fire statistics Awareness and prevention measures (addressing the public) Training Specific Actions in Preventive Silviculture and burning Awareness and prevention campaigns Awareness and prevention campaigns Training Forest fire management Forest management plans Communication reports Forest policy Integrated Forestry Management System Projects of Silviculture directed to prevention Forest fire management guidelines and strategy Fire fighting Infrastructures Plans Forest-urban interface plans and actions Forest plans of Surveillance Interest conciliation actions Awareness and communication actions Volunteer programs Training Agreements between forest public administration and electric/train companies. Local Level Autonomous Region of Valencia Forest policy Integrated Forestry Management System Projects of Silviculture directed to prevention Forest fire management guidelines and strategy Fire fighting Infrastructures Plans Forest-urban interface plans and actions Forest plans of Surveillance Interest conciliation actions Awareness and communication actions Volunteer programs Training Agreements between forest public administration and electric/train companies. Interest conciliation actions Awareness and communication actions Fire fighting Infrastructures Plans Projects of Silviculture directed to prevention Environmental, rural and marine affairs Department Sources
ONGs PROFOR(. Associations of Forest Owners CCOO (Communist Labor Union) Environmental Department in all Autonomous Region of Spain, National Forest Service
Consejera de Medio Ambiente de la Generalitat Valenciana (Environmental Department in the Autonomous region of Valencia)
Local Forestry Associations; Municipalities; Private enterprises
FIRESMART
The Autonomous Region of Valencia, Catalua, Andaluca, Asturias, Castilla y Len and Islas Baleares provided us some management files, not published material that is used in each area. As a result of this contacts, main collaborations were established through most of the Spanish territory, as can be seen Figure 3-10a, b.
Figure 3-10a. Main collaborations established in Spain
Figure 3-10b. Areas of the information collected in Spain
At national and local level, the database was completed with the result of several searches on line. The following visits EIMFOR scheduled to different parts of Spain in order to have access to data, studies and other relevant information: Autonomous Region of Madrid (1 day June-). EIMFOR visited the most recent preventive infrastructures actions implemented. EIMFOR was accompanied by public managers and a group of fire prevention workers. Ministry (MARM), (1 day- July-) The Ministry is very interested in the project and accepts to collaborate with it. They contribute with some material to be analyzed and then uploaded in the database.
Some of the Autonomous Regions keep in contact with us to contribute with more information to the project and update the database with new technological material. The quantitative analysis of Tables is shown below with its corresponding graphics. At the moment of writing this report, EIMFOR has gathered in the database 244 items from almost all regions of Spain and that correspond to all topics defined and presented in Table 2-2. The priority was the collaboration with the Autonomous Region of Valencia that represents a 32% of the database, however a nationwide search was also made to locate material concerning regions with a different forest fires problematic from those found in the test area.
FIRESMART
Table 3-10. Number of entries for each level of information in Spain GEOGRAPHICAL LEVEL REGIONAL/LOCAL NATIONAL TOTAL N 79 165 244 % 32.4 67.6
It is worth mentioning that the most representative types of material are the management-type ones (60%) followed by the web pages (18%) with fire prevention contents. In the Table 3-11, the total of entries from Spain and the percentage are shown.
Table 3-11. Number of entries according to the item type in Spain ITEM TYPE - SPAIN DOCUMENT WEB PAGE MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) STATUTE VIDEO RECORDING PRESENTATION (POWER POINT PRESENTATION) TECHNICAL REPORT BOOK COMPUTER PROGRAM MAP INTERVIEW TOTAL EIMFOR 147 45 15 11 6 5 4 4 2 2 2 1 244 % 60.2 18.4 6.1 4.5 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.4
EIMFOR directed the effort of requesting grey material from national and local level. As the Figure 311 shows, this material represents the 61% of the database.
Figure 3-11. Percentage of entries from the test area (NUTS 2 and NUTS 3) by item type in EIMFOR DB
The Figure 3-12 below shows a geographical analysis of the information compiled. The material analyzed in this figure is the result of the collaboration with the Autonomous Regions and the research by internet. It can be seen that the regions showed in the Figure 3-12, collaborate more or less with the same number of files. The figure also shows the high percentage of entries (25%) coming from Association of Owners and private companies.
SOURCE JUNTA DE EXTREMADURA GENERALITAT CATALUA GOBIERNO DE ARAGN GOBIERNO DE LA RIOJA GOBIERNO DE ISLAS BALEARES JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA JUNTA DE CASTILLA LA MANCHA JUNTA DE CASTILLA Y LEN MARM (MINISTRY) PRINCIPADO DE ASTURIAS REGIN DE MURCIA ASSOCIATIONS OF OWNERS AND OTHERS TOTAL
N 14 3 3 2 15 27 4 16 12 12 16 41
NUMBER OF ITEMS /AUTONOMOUS REGION

JUNTA DE EXTREMADURA 9%
GENERALITAT CATALUA 2%
GOBIERNO DE ARAGN 2%
ASSOCIATIONS OF OWNERS AND OTHERS 25%
GOBIERNO DE LA RIOJA 1% GOBIERNO ISLAS BALEARES 9% JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA 16%
REGION DE MURCIA 10%
PRINCIPADO DE ASTURIAS 7%
MARM (Ministry) 7%
JUNTA DE CASTILLA Y LEN 10%
JUNTA DE CASTILLA LA MANCHA 2%
165 Figure 3-12. Number of entries by Autonomous Regions and Percentage of participation of the Autonomous Regions of Spain in EIMFOR database
Preliminary analyses of the information collection process allowed deducing that Spanish test area contributed with material related to almost all topics defined as relevant at local level, and it was completed during the visit of this territory. EIMFOR will keep the collaboration active during the project. The collaborating managers are very interested in the progress of the database, the project and the future dissemination of it. EIMFOR added all kind of material into the database. As the 60% of the information requested by EIMFOR is unpublished material, it is necessary to analyze it to ensure its contribution for the objective of the project.
FIRESMART
3.2.1.6. In Portugal
FORESTIS, as a national organization that supports local landowners organizations at several levels, gathered, analyzed and spread a lot of technical information regarding the most important forest issues. FORESTIS structure has a specialized department to achieve these objectives. One of the most important themes regarding forest issues that affect the activity of our forest private land owners and the management of forest land is forest fire. The methodology used to compile and analyze the most relevant information about forest fire prevention was developed according the Portuguese framework, and had into account the different levels of the National System of Defense Against Forest Fires structure and the different type of stakeholders involved (Figure 3-13).
Figure 3-13. The different levels of the National System of Defense Against Forest Fires structure and the different type of stakeholders involved
MOST RELEVANT ACTIONS Identify the type of information and sources according to the topics defined (see Table 2-2). It was identified the different type of information available according the defined topics and level of application (national or local): This stage identified a priori relevant information to the project taking into account the topics defined and the application level (national or local), facilitating the next stages: identification of different information sources and the different entities that produce or possesses such information. Identify the several Stakeholders that produce or possess information (national and local level).This phase included the identification of the different agents who own or hold relevant information. This was particularly important for the structure of demand and collection of information. The Table 3-12 shows an example of the main results of these two stages.
FIRESMART
Table 3-12. Main institutions contacted in Portugal Concerned topics National level Awareness raising; Campaigns Forest Fire Prevention Sources National Forest Resources Office (DGRF); Forestis Government; National Forest Authority (AFN) Government; National Forest Authority (AFN); Forestis
Legal framework; Legislation Forest Management; Planning; Sustainability; Technical Regulations Guidelines
and
Forest Fires; Forest Sappers; Prescribed Fire; Surveillance and Prevention; National Forest Fire Prevention Planning; Fire Fighting; Forest Fire Statistics LOCAL LEVEL PIN Region (Pinhal Interior Norte) Awareness raising Fuel Modeling Research; Fuel Management Forest Policy; Planning; Local Characterization; Forest Strategy and Regulations Forest Fire Prevention Plans; Management; Civil Protection; Infrastructure Planning; Awareness and Prevention Measures; Legislation; Forest Sappers; Fire Fighters Common Lands Usage Policy and Planning
Government; National Forest Authority (AFN); Civil Protection Department; National Forest Resources Office (DGRF); Forestis
National Forest Resources Office (DGRF); Forestis Laboratory of Industrial Aerodynamics - Forest Fire Research Laboratory (ADAI-CEIF) ONGs; Local Forestry Associations; Municipal Forest Offices Local Forestry Associations; Municipal Forest Offices
Local Forestry Associations
Compile and analyze existing information According to the methodology defined by FORESTIS, this stage involves three steps: a) Compile and analyze dispersed information available in each FORESTIS department; b) New search of information on different sources; c) Contact with several entities mainly at a local level. Preliminary analyses of the information collection process allowed deducing that in Portugal until now it was possible to gather in the DB file 103 entries that correspond to 162 documents, according the different types identified (Table 3-13). The most representative types are Management Plans (39%) followed by legal aspects (28%).
Table 3-13. Number of entries according to the different types identified in Portugal TYPE Legislation Management Technical Reports Web Pages Statistic data Awareness and communication Others TOTAL N 29 40 9 6 4 8 7 103 % 28 39 9 6 4 8 7
The most representative material is at a national level (77%). However, many of it directly or indirectly influences the interventions at regional or local level. 23% are exclusive of regional or local application (Table 3-14).
Table 3-14. Number of entries and percentage according to the different levels in Portugal GEOGRAPHICAL LEVEL National Local/Regional TOTAL N 79 24 103 % 77 23
The item type more representative that was collected were Documents (unpublished material) and Statute (Figure 3-14).
TYPE BOOK BOOK SECTION COMPUTER PROGRAM CONFERENCE PAPER DOCUMENT EMAIL INTERVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) MANUSCRIPT MAP NEWSPAPER ARTICLE PRESENTATION (POWER POINT PRESENTATION) SCIENTIFIC REPORT TECHNICAL REPORT STATUTE THESIS VIDEO RECORDING WEB PAGE TOTAL
FORESTIS 5 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 3 0 10 34 0 0 7 103
TECHNICAL REPORT 9% MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI MAP PUBLICATION) 1% 3% STATUTE 33% DOCUMENT 39%
WEB PAGE 7%
FORESTIS NUMBER OF ITEMS / TYPE

BOOK 5%
PRESENTATION (POWER POINT PRESENTATION) 3%
Figure 3-14. Percentage of FORESTIS entries according to the different item types identified
In a brief, it can be considered that: There is a lot of information concerning prevent forest fires, The collection of information covered, in general, all items identified as relevant at national, regional and local level, There is a high number of information related to the planning exclusively dedicated to prevention of forest fires or where this subjects are significant, The statutes (legal documents) are a part significant of the collection, Most of the information is not published. ZOTERO File The information collected was subsequently analyzed and loaded into the ZOTERO tool in accordance with the methodology set out by the beneficiaries, which involved filling in all the fields defined. Finally, it was examined the final file, and made some corrections to the data loaded.
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3.2.2. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS FROM THE PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL/MANAGERIAL MATERIAL
Quantitative analysis According with the proposal, the searching of information for this task has been distributed by country/beneficiary. Each beneficiary is responsible of the information in the national and local/regional level at his country. The way to upload the information to the database is different depending on the structure of the country and the material requested. At the moment of writing this report, the Technological collection of FIRESMART project is composed by 624 entries. The number of entries does not correspond necessarily to the number of files uploaded because there is material about the same subject compiled into one entry and there is material broken down into sections, and each section is an independent entry. Table 3-15 shows about the type of items that compose the database, the management documents are the most represented with 245 entries, which means the 39.7% of the total of entries. The item type Document compile material that dont fit in other item types. These are not necessary grey material. However, the difference between the results of the collection processed by each partner is due to the methodologies and priorities in the research of management and technological material. Depending on the working area (European level, national level or local level), each partner contributes with the most relevant information regarding fire prevention, considering the specific administrative organization per country. In this Task 1.1, the beneficiaries EIMFOR and CEMAGREF contributed with Technological information. Scientific information from CEMAGREF is compiled in Task 1.2 (Scientific collection). The other beneficiaries, FORESTIS, AMBIENTE ITALIA and CEPF have gathered Scientific and Technological material. This is why the Journal Article (scientific publication) and the Conference Paper are represented by the 11% each one of the Technological collection.
Table 3-15. Total of entries in the Technological collection for each beneficiary and item type N ITEM TYPE BOOK BOOK SECTION COMPUTER PROGRAM CONFERENCE PAPER DOCUMENT INTERVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) MAP POWER POINT PRESENTATION SCIENTIFIC REPORT TECHNICAL REPORT STATUTE THESIS VIDEO RECORDING WEB PAGE ITEM TYPE TOTAL
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AI 13 1 0 69 32 1 59 0 8 2 8 18 0 10 1 9 AI 231
CEMAGREF 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 11 1 0 2 CEMAGREF 20
CEPF 1 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CEPF 26
EIMFOR 2 0 2 0 147 1 11 15 2 4 0 4 6 0 5 45 EIMFOR 244
FORESTIS TOTAL 5 0 0 0 40 0 0 1 3 3 0 10 34 0 0 7 FORESTIS 103 21 1 2 69 245 2 70 16 13 9 8 37 51 11 6 63
% 3.4 0.2 0.3 11.2 39.7 0.3 11.3 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.3 6.0 8.3 1.8 1.0 10.2
TOTAL 624
The type of items defined for the Technological database not represented is Newspaper Article, Manuscript and Email. This data is represented in the Figure 3-15 with the percentages of each item type.
% OF ITEM TYPE REPRESENTED IN THE DATABASE

VIDEO RECORDING 1% THESIS 2% TECHNICAL REPORT 6% SCIENTIFIC REPORT 1% POWER POINT PRESENTATION 1%
STATUTE 8%
BOOK SECTION 0% COMPUTER PROGRAM 0% BOOK 3%

CONFERENCE PAPER 11%
WEB PAGE 10%
DOCUMENT 39% MAP 2%
MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) 3% JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) 11%
INTERVIEW 0%
Figure 3-15. Percentages of each item type in the Technological collection
The composition of the database is not definitive, so each beneficiary can modify or delete an entry and upload new material with the permission of the coordinator of the project, GMV. Thus, the collaborations are still open, and the beneficiaries can continue with the searching of relevant information for the project if it is necessary. The analysis made for each beneficiary shows that the search of information has been done looking for the information that represents the topics defined at the beginning of the work package (Table 2-2). Geographical analysis The countries represented in the Technological collection are shown in the Figure 3-16. The legend joins the countries depending of the beneficiary that has requested the material on them.
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Figure 3-16. Countries represented in the Technological collection and the corresponding beneficiary
The percentage of collaboration of each beneficiary in the Technological collection (national and local level) is represented in the Table 3-15 (number of entries per beneficiary) and the Figure 3-17 (percentage per beneficiary).
% OF DOCUMENTS IN THE DATABASE
CEPF FORESTIS 4% 16%
CEMAGREF 8%
EIMFOR 37%
AI 35%
Figure 3-17. Percentage of collaboration of each beneficiary in the Technological collection
From the 624 entries of the Technological database created, the geographical level analysis shows that a 74% are of national level application, and the 26% corresponds to the Test Areas (Figure 3-18).
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GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
26%
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

LOCAL/REGIONAL LEVEL: TEST AREA
74%
Figure 3-18. Percentage of entries by geographic level in the Technological collection
As show the Table 3-16, CEPF dont have any test area because it represents several countries of Europe (Bulgaria, Germany, Latvia, Cyprus, Austria, Macedonia, Norway, Sweden). The table shows the number of entries by geographical level and partner and the total by beneficiary. These data in percentage is represented in the Figure 3-19, and in the figure 3-20 is represented the location of the different test areas with the number of entries from each one.
Table 3-16 Number of entries by geographical level and beneficiary in the Technological collection FORESTIS CEMAGRE F EIMFOR
BENEFICIARY
CEPF
AI
TOTAL
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL LOCAL/REGIONAL LEVEL: TEST AREA TOTAL
165 79 244
186 45 231
6 14 20
79 24 103
26 0 26
462 162 624
74 26
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
LOCAL/REGIONAL LEVEL: TEST AREA

CEPF 0%
CEPF 6% FORESTIS 17% CEMAGREF 1% EIMFOR 36%
FORESTIS 15%
CEMAGREF 8%
EIMFOR 49% AI 28%
AI 40%
Figure 3-19. Percentage of entries by beneficiary in the test area and in the national and international level, in the Technological collection
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Figure 3-20. Localization of test areas and number of entries for each area, in the Technological collection
3.2.3. COMPILATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL

By scientific material was understood research works, in the different considered fields of fire prevention management, which are available in the following formats: Scientific Journal Article, (SCI publication), Conference Paper, Book, Book section, Magazine Article (No SCI publication), Public Scientific and Technical Report (Deliverables of the EU-funded projects and Reports of National research projects carried out in Europe) and Ph D Theses.
3.2.3.1. Sources of information and methodological approach

In accordance with the agreements made at the Kick Off meeting (8/04/2010), the Task 1.2 work was distributed as follows: INIA was required to compile and analyse international items in relation to Preventive silviculture including the use of fire and Spanish items related to all defined topics. CEMAGREF was required to compile and analyse references related to the topics: Fire risk and fire causes (with the assistance of JRC), Preventive silviculture, Wildland Urban Interface and Fuel-breaks. Scientific information was compiled from several web sites and bibliographic databases. The main types and sources of information were as follows: Scientific journal articles included in the Science Citation Index (SCI) were reviewed by use of the ISI Web of Knowledge (WOK) Additional scientific references and EU project references (Public deliverables) were compiled from EUFIRELAB and FIRE PARADOX (Fire intuition tool) and additional European projects such us FLAME, WARM, The main important source of information was the e-library from EUFIRELAB project, which contains over 2000 references
FIRESMART
Conference papers were compiled from WOK, EUFIRELAB (e-Library), International Conferences of Forest Fire Research (Coimbra) between 1998 and 2006, the 2nd International Conference on Prevention Strategies for fire in Southern Europe (Barcelona 2005) and the 4th International Wildfire Conference 2007 (Seville) Data available from the EFFIS fire experts (National and regional databases) and different institutions (Ministries and Forest services, etc.) Datasets in Timber Bulletin from 1994 to 2001, Forest Fires in Europe from 2001 to 2008 Data available in IFFN reports from 1990 to 2005 and other national or international reports (FAO, EFIMED, etc.) Reports of Spanish research projects. Spanish Conference papers from National Forestry Congresses (every four years) were compiled from the Spanish Society of Forest Sciences Web page (SECF, Sociedad Espaola de Ciencias Forestales) Scientific and technical articles not included in the SCI were compiled from the SECF Web page (Cuadernos de la SECF a journal of the Spanish Society of Forestry Sciences work groups ) and Professional Association magazines
3.2.3.2. Preliminary analysis of contents and conclusions derived from the scientific material compiled
Quantitative and geographical analysis
At the moment of writing this report 439 items were collected and uploaded in the FIRESMART Scientific database. Most of them were compiled and uploaded by INIA. Table 3-17 and Figure 3-21 show respectively the number and the percentage of entries according to the different item types. SCI Journal Articles represent the 45% and the Conference papers the 34%. Regarding Conference papers most of them were compiled from: 4th International Wildland Fire Conference (Wildfire 2007), International Conference on Forest Fire Research (1998, 2002, 2006), II International Conference on prevention strategies of fires in southern Europe (Barcelona 2005), and National Spanish Forest Congresses (from 1991 to 2009). Some documents are related to wildfire prevention from both scientific and technical points of view. This type of documents and the conclusions of some Conferences such as Wildfire 2007 were a first approach in detecting obstacles and proposing solutions to prevent forest fires in Europe (Figure 3-22). Scientific reports from European projects related to forest fire prevention were consulted, and 30 Deliverables including Web pages interesting to the project and included in the database. The most interesting European projects that contain information related to forest fire prevention in Europe were EUFIRELAB and FIRE PARADOX (Figure 3-23).
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Code: Date: Version: Page: Table 3-17. Number of entries by item type compiled in the Scientific collection
ITEM TYPE
BOOK BOOK SECTION COMPUTER PROGRAM CONFERENCE PAPER DOCUMENT JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) SCIENTIFIC REPORT TECHNICAL REPORT THESIS WEB PAGE TOTAL
2 6 2 151 1 196 39 25 13 1 3 439
SCIENTIFIC REPORT 6% MAGAZINE ARTICLE (NO SCI PUBLICATION) 9%
Others TECHNICAL REPORT 1% 3% WEB PAGE BOOK SECTION 1% 1%
Scientific collection
CONFERENCE PAPER 34% JOURNAL ARTICLE (SCI PUBLICATION) 45%
Figure 3-21. Percentage of entries in the Scientific collection by item type
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Figure 3-22. Wildfire Conference takes place every four years and it is a meeting point for Managers, Technicians, Engineers, Scientifics and Politicians. The conclusions of thematic sessions, conferences and the general conclusions offer a first step for developing a list of obstacles and proposing solutions
Figure 3-23. The E-library from EUFIRELAB web site (left) and Fire intuition tool (a Fire Paradox outcome) were the two main sources of information about scientific European material related to wildfire prevention in Europe
The lack of scientific knowledge was explored using several searches with different criteria, in order to detect the information compiled in relation to FIRESMART topics (Table 2-2). Results show that over 30% were related to preventive silviculture, the use of fire and infrastructures, 24% to planning, mainly at landscape level, and 17% to fire risk and causes of fire. This preliminary analysis detected a lack of scientific knowledge in important forestry topics such as Agroforestry (<1%), Integrated forest management systems (6%) and Wildland urban interface (4%) (Figure 3-24). This is interesting because different European Framework Programs have funded Research Projects, such as WARM, FIRESTAR, and FIRE PARADOX, which are related to these topics. Nevertheless there were very few scientific references from these projects with direct application to forest fire prevention. On the other hand, lack of scientific information about topics more closely related to technical issues was expected, such as awareness and communication actions, conciliation of interests and volunteer programs, statistics, surveillance, training courses, legislation and politics. As already mentioned, to our knowledge there were no research programs at the European level that include these keywords as main topics related to forest fires, therefore there were no corresponding significant scientific results. In addition, most of the references found were from conference papers and not indexed journals (non
SCI), therefore the scientific community does not consider them as relevant works or relevant scientific topics. Although these topics are very important from a managerial point of view, they were not considered important in terms of scientific literature. Most scientific journals do not include these topics within their main scopes (only politics is included as scope in some forestry journals such as Forest Policy and Economics, and surveillance in remote sensing journals if advanced technologies to detect forest fires are considered), which is probably another reason explaining the low number of SCI papers related to these topics.
Figure 3-24. Percentage of entries according to the different topics, in the Scientific collection
Over 50% of scientific collection references were compiled from European countries, near 40% from the USA and the remainder from other countries such as Canada, Australia, Russia, Israel and South Africa (Figure 3-25). All of these countries are greatly affected by wildfire, so that there is an apparently correlation between production of scientific knowledge and wildfires. This preliminary quantitative review shows that the scientific effort at European level (for example several European Projects related to wildfires such us SPREAD, SALTUS, FIRESTAR, WARM, FIRE PARADOX) were focused on wildland fire prediction and modelling. Only a small number of compiled articles were classified as being related to preventive silviculture sensu stricto. In any case, those references were selected because they involved an application of modelling to prevent unwanted forest fires or to improve prescribed burning prescriptions. Last year there was a special consideration of the efficacy of fuel treatments in USA. The USDI-USDA Joint Fire Science Program (www.firescience.gov) provided funding for a long-term study to assess how ecological components or processes may be changed or lost, if fire "surrogates" such as cuttings and mechanical fuel treatments are used instead of fire, or in combination with fire. This initiative led to development of a project called Fire and Fire surrogates (FFS) Study with the aim of determining and quantifying the efficacy of fuel treatments for forest fire prevention and its ecological implications. Although silvicultural treatments can mimic the effects of fire on structural patterns of woody vegetation, there are virtually no comparative data on how these treatments mimic the ecological functions of fire. For many, the long term goal of such treatments is
to restore historical ecosystem structure and function. Thus while silvicultural treatments may create patterns of woody vegetation that appear similar to those that fire would create, the consequences for nutrient cycling, seed scarification, plant diversity, disease and insect abundance and wildlife are mostly unknown. Similarly, although combining managed fire with silvicultural treatments adds the critical effects of combustion, we know little about ecological effects, economics, and fire hazard reduction of these methods. With regard to this project, a large number of references included in the SCI were published between 2009 and 2010. This experimental approach (assessing forest fuel treatments to prevent forest fires by use of experimental plots) has only be researched from the point of view of fire risk in Europe, or by using prescribed burning as an alternative to other traditional management. European Research groups generally publish low numbers of articles involving the assessment of the efficacy of other treatments such as silviculture thinning, pruning, and shrub treatments (controlled grazing, slash, combination of mechanical and prescribed burning treatments, and so on) and the comparison among all of them. Nevertheless, the analysis of grey information (Task 1.1.) shows that the interest in these topics from a managerial point of view is extremely high.
Scientific collection Others

Australia 2% 5% USA 39%
EU 51% Canada 3%
Figure 3-25. Percentage of entries by country, in the Scientific collection
A preliminary analysis of the European origin of scientific collection shows that references from Mediterranean countries (European region most affected by wildland fires) include the largest number of items and additional references from other European countries (Figure 3-26). Additional geographic information (Figure 3-27) was compiled using NUTS limits at different scales (NUT2 and NUT3). Results show that Spain (including Canary Islands), northern Portugal, southern France and Corsica, north and southern Italy and Sardinia, and southern Greece were the regions that produce relevant scientific information about wildfire prevention. A preliminary analysis of scientific information at local level (NUT3) shows the existence of some important provinces with documented scientific experimental plots related to wildland fire prevention (Figure 3-27). In this first approach only studies in which the location is mentioned in the abstract are shown. The information related to NUT2 (regional level) and NUT3 (local level) will shortly be improved, with a more in depth analysis of the scientific material and the referenced for additional experimental plots.
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Figure 3-26. European countries with scientific information related to wildland fire prevention
FIRESMART
Figure 3-27. European regions (NUTS2 and NUTS3) with scientific information related to wildland fire prevention
Conclusions derived from the scientific material compiled

A synthetic document of the studies reported in relevant literature on Fire causes in Europe, Wildland-urban interface, Preventive silviculture and Fuel breaks, performed by CEMAGREF, is presented in Annex 6.3.
FIRESMART
4. QUESTIONNARIE ON FOREST FIRE PREVENTION IN EUROPE

4.1. OBJECTIVES
One important task (Task 1.3.) in Work Package 1 was to design a questionnaire in order to obtain information about: the efficiency and consequences of current management practices, restrictions, legal issues, social and communication-related activities in terms of wildfire prevention. The questionnaire was addressed to the two main target groups identified (Managers and Scientists). This chapter considers the processes involved in designing such a questionnaire.
4.2. METHODOLOGY
The basic process was carried out by INIA, with the collaboration of EIMFOR, and support from Professor Juan Ignacio Aragons (Facultad de Psicologa, Universidad Complutense de Madrid), and included the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Defining the research aim Identifying the population and sample Deciding how to collect replies Designing the questionnaire Running a pilot survey Carrying out the main survey
4.2.1. DEFINING THE RESEARCH AIM

The purpose of the questionnaire was to retrieve information on the opinion of experts about the efficiency and consequences of current management practices, restrictions, legal issues, social and communication activities. in terms of wildfire prevention. The aim of the data analysis which will be performed in WP2 is to identify obstacles that may prevent a fire-smart land/forest management. After reviewing relevant literature that was previously compiled, a series of key aspects or critical matters were identified and listed to be considered in the questionnaire. Consequently, and taking into account the subsequent analysis of the questionnaires: The selected critical aspects were combined in different categories, which were very similar to the topics considered in THE DATABASE (See Table 2-2): Categories Awareness and communication-related activities, and other activities aimed at conciliating interests Risk and Causes Integrated forest management systems and agroforestry systems Politics and legislation Preventive silviculture, preventive infrastructures and surveillance systems Wildland urban interface Links among education, training and R+D
Next, some of the main obstacles to forest fire prevention were chosen and gathered in groups o o Politics, determining legal factors, skills and responsibilities, and problems related to administrative coordination. Public awareness, educational campaigns, conflicts of interest, perception and investigation of fire causes.
FIRESMART
o o
Technical factors, lack of scientific knowledge, personnel training courses. Economic, social and environmental aspects.
A crucial part of the design was to ensure that the questionnaire addresses the needs of the study, bearing in mind the method of data analysis, to be performed in WP2 Furthermore, to avoid asking too many questions -which might have led to a poor response rate the most relevant questions from the selected key aspects or critical matters were chosen. Each question was identified as an independent or dependent variable and linked to a detected obstacle.
4.2.2. IDENTIFYING THE POPULATION AND SAMPLE

The same questionnaire was to be presented to European Managers (public and private) and Scientists. We therefore identified different groups of stakeholders who may be interested in the FIRESMART project, and whose opinion we were interested in:
Public managers at national, regional and local levels Private managers at national and regional, local levels Researchers and University Lecturers Others (NGOs ,.)
In accordance with the reviewed literature, it is quite common for survey response rates to be around 20%, so that five times as many questionnaires as are required must be sent out. In order to determine the sample size it is usual to work back from how many responses (completed questionnaires) are required for the analysis. A rough rule is to expect about 20-30 responses in each of the major sub-categories of the sample (stakeholder groups and country at national/regional level). Therefore, in order to obtain the required number of answers, we decided to send as many questionnaires as possible to representative members of the population. This meant that in some cases we did not know exactly how many questionnaires were sent out, as they were re-distributed by potential respondents.
4.2.3. DECIDING HOW TO COLLECT REPLIES

Questionnaires can be delivered to the respondent by various means, including post, e-mail attachments or by publishing on a web site for interactive completion. We decided, for practical reasons (time and costs) to send most of the questionnaires by e-mail, but also by post (AMBIENTE ITALIA), with a letter of presentation to the potential respondent explaining what the questionnaire is about and why its completion is of value for the FIRESMART project. In some cases, phone contacts were made prior to sending the questionnaire (CEMAGREF, EIMFOR, FORESTIS).
4.2.4. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

The process of designing the questionnaire was be split in to three elements: 1. Determining the questions to be asked, 2. Selecting the type of each question and specifying the wording 3. Designing the sequence of questions and overall layout. Finally, the following questionnaire was designed:
FIRESMART
FIRESMART
FIRESMART
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4.2.5. RUNNING A PILOT SURVEY

To detect any flaws in the questions, unclear questions or statements, and correct these prior to the main survey, the questionnaire was tested by six (Spanish) experts 1 Public Manager at National level 2 Scientists 2 Managers (Private sector) 1 University Lecturer
4.2.6. CARRYING OUT THE MAIN SURVEY

After the pilot survey, the questionnaire was translated into: Spanish: INIA (GMV): French: CEMAGREF; Italian: AMBIENTE ITALIA; Portuguese: FORESTIS: and German: CEPF. The questionnaire was sent out twice: first at the end of June with a return deadline of 12 July. Then the questionnaire was then sent out again, to remain the interest of the responses, with a deadline at the end of July.
4.3. ORGANIZING INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE RESPONSES AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
In this Report, only a preliminary data analysis is presented, regarding the number of questionnaires sent out and received, per beneficiary involved (Figure 4-1), country of the respondents (Figures 4-2 and 4-3), and work field of the respondents (Figure 4-4). The following Figure (Figure 4-1) shows the number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered) per beneficiary involved (CEMAGREF, AMBIENTE ITALIA, CEPF, EIMFOR, FORESTIS and INIA). As mentioned in 4.1.2., there are no data available on the number of questionnaires sent out, but 1854 questionnaires were sent out directly for the Consortium and 460 completed questionnaires were received from respondents (11 of them were received by GMV). With these data, the percentage of success has been 25%, which is in accordance with the reviewed literature.
2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
4CE PF 5EI M FO 6R FO R ES TI S 3AI IA 2CE M AG R 7IN To ta l EF
Sent Answered
Figure 4-1. Number of questionnaires sent out to and received (answered) from stakeholders, by beneficiary
FIRESMART
Regarding the country of the respondents (Figure 4-2), the highest number of completed questionnaires was from Spain (62%), followed by Italy (13%) and Portugal (10%). The percentage of respondents of the rest of European countries was less than 10%.
Figure 4-2. Percentage of completed questionnaires, by country of the respondents
Furthermore, Figure 4-3 shows the European countries with at least one respondent to the questionnaire on forest fire prevention.
Figure 4-3. Map of European countries with respondents to the FIRESMART questionnaire on forest fire prevention
Figure 44 shows the distribution of the completed questionnaires according the work field group of the respondents. The highest percentage of completed questionnaires was from Public Managers (57%).
FIRESMART
Others 4%
ResearchUniversity 21%
Private Managers 18%
Public Managers 57%
Figure 4-4. Percentage of completed (answered) questionnaires by work field of the respondents
The following Figures (4-5a, 4-5b, 45-c, 4-5d, 4-5e 4-5f) show the number and percentage of questionnaires sent out to and received (answered) from stakeholders, per beneficiary involved (CEMAGREF, AMBIENTE ITALIA, CEPF, EIMFOR, FORESTIS and INIA), grouping by work field of the respondents. As mentioned, there are no data available on the number of questionnaires sent out.
CEMAGREF Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
Public Managers Private Managers Others TOTAL
79 5 15+? 99
12 0 4 16
Figure 4-5a. CEMAGREF: Number and percentage of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
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AMBIENTE ITALIA Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
Public Managers Private Managers Scientific Researchers Others TOTAL
124 12 35 24 195
32 5 9 7 53
Figure 4-5b. AMBIENTE ITALIA: Number and percentage of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
CEPF Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
6 129 0 Unknown 135+?
2 11 1 4 18
Figure 4-5c. CEPF: Number and percentage of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
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EIMFOR Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
Public Managers Private Managers Others TOTAL
584 86 ? 670
123 32 33 188
Figure 4-5d. EIMFOR: Number and percentage of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
FORESTIS Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
154 79 51 28 312
7 17 4 8 36
Figure 4-5e. FORESTIS: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
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INIA Stakeholders grouping by work field
Sent
Answered
50 0 393 0 443
42 12 80 5 139
Figure 4-5f. INIA: Number of questionnaires sent out and received (answered), grouping by work field of the respondents
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5. CONCLUSIONS
At the moment of writing this report, the Technological/managerial collection of FIRESMART project is composed by 617 entries retrieved by the beneficiaries involved (AI, CEMAGREF, CEPF, EIMFOR and FORESTIS) from a variety of sources technical studies, reports and guidelines relating fire prevention activities usually taking place at the national and local level. About the type of items that compose the database, the management documents (grey material) represent the 39.7%. A special effort was made to retrieve this kind of unpublished material. The geographical level analysis shows that a 74% are of national level application, and the 26% corresponds to the four selected Test Areas Regarding the Scientific collection is composed by439 entries. The beneficiaries involved in this task (CEMAGREF, INIA and JRC) consulted relevant sources of scientific documents such as the SCI library, Web site of previous projects containing also bibliographic resources, as well as International Conferences services. Over 196 outstanding articles included in the SCI were compiled. CEMAGREF performed a synthesis of the scientific studies reported in relevant literature on Fire causes in Europe, Wildland-urban interface, Preventive silviculture and Fuel breaks, which is included as Annex 6.3 in this Technical Report. All the material gathered by the teams during WP1 has been already migrated to DSPACE; however, it should be taken into account that the database (DSPACE environment) is intended to be an open and alive database, ready to ingest new items for analysis at any time. As for the interface of the FIRESMART DSPACE, it is under construction (http://firesmart.gmv.es:8080/dspace-jspui/). It is worth mentioning that the stakeholders contacted showed their willingness to provide the material and were also very interested in the progress of the database, the project and the future dissemination of it. As a summary, some ideas extracted from both collections can be emphasized: The coordination of national and local level needs to be improved, Forest fire management activities and measures are not subject to regular evaluation of their effectiveness, The cooperation between scientific community and forest management agencies is scarce, The results from forest fire research are poorly known and used by foresters and forest management agencies, The involvement of the public is not carefully planned (involvement of communication experts), nor are prevention campaigns evaluated in their results. The budget for fire prevention activities is not constant in time. Fire prevention activities are not homogenously distributed at national level, and show an irregular time trend at local level. The scientific effort at European level has been mainly focused on wildland fire prediction and modelling. In relation to the FIRESMART questionnaire on fire prevention, designed by INIA, only a preliminary data analysis is presented. The percentage of success has been close to 30% (461 completed questionnaires were received from managers and researchers). The highest number of completed questionnaires was received from Spanish stakeholders (62%). Regarding the fieldwork group of the respondents, the highest percentage of completed questionnaires was from Public Managers (48%). Further analysis will carried out in the frame of Work Package 2. In our opinion, the results obtained from the information compiled and from the questionnaires will be crucial to detect obstacles and to extract interesting conclusions and recommendations for forest fire prevention.
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6. ANNEXES
6.1. DATABASE DESIGN: INSTRUCTIONS (INIA) SELECTED FIELDS AND ZOTERO
ZOTERO instructions
Firesmart WP1-
FIRESMART
Documents and information management: Task1.1 and Task 1.2

ZOTERO (MOZILLA plugin) Opensource Powerful, easy-to-use tool that helps collection, organization, and analysis of sources, as well as sharing the results of the research Accessible from Mozzilla browser http://www.zotero.org/
The following steps are essential: Enter in www.firefox.com Click Other systems and languages and choose English (British) Execute and Install program You are now in Firefox 3.6 Go to www.zotero.org Download and install Zotero Zotero is available in the TOOLS menu and Zotero icon (left corner)
ITEM TYPE CODE Zotero offers the possibility of using a large number of item types with different fields. The FIRESMART Consortium has decided (after carefully exploring Zotero possibilities) to use the Journal Article item for every record (irrespective of the type of document) because most fields have been defined (Fig. 1.), so we can fill in some important fields not considered in Zotero (geographical area, strength /weakness, stakeholders, etc.)
Selected Codes for each Item type Book: BO Book section: BS Computer program: PC Conference Paper: CP Document: DO E-mail: EM Interview: IN Journal Article (SCI Publication): JA Magazine Article (No SCI Publication): MA Manuscript (Unpublished Work): MN Map: MP Newspaper article: NA Presentation (Power Point Presentation): PR Report: Scientific Report RS, Technical Report RT Statute: ST Thesis (Dissertation): TH Video Recording: VR Web page: WP
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JOURNAL ARTICLE FIELDS

Select Journal Article
Criteria to fill the fields
Select full name clicking here
Empty fields (dont fill please!)
These fields are automatically selected
Figure 6.1-2. Fields (left) and a template to fill in the fields (right) were shown
HOW TO COMPLETE THE FIELDS TITLE : In the language of the original copy AUTHOR: Surname N., Institution of the first author in the original language (e.g. Bovio G., Universit di Torino). Add all the information in only one field ABSTRACT (Original language) should contain accurate descriptive words that will draw the reader to the content. Should not be more than 200 words long, but for Documents with an abstract (e.g. scientific publication, proceedings..) the original version should be maintain independently of the number of words PUBLICATION: For a standard approach for different publications, , criteria should be fixed according to selected Item type (see below) Publication field criteria Name of Journal/Magazine/Newspaper: MA, NA, JA, IN Name of Book (BS), Editor, Publisher, City: BO, BS Conference, City: CP Report identification, Institution, City: RS, RT, DO Publisher, City: TH Company/Institution, City: PC, MP Bulletin, City: ST Unpublished material: DO, MN, PR, RE, TH, VR, WP, EM, IN VOLUME: JA, MA, BO, BS ISSUE: JA, MA PAGES: Interval (JA, MA, NA, IN, BS, CP) Number of pages (BO, RS, RT, TH, ST) DATE: Year (not month or day): All item types SERIES :leave empty SERIES TITLE : leave empty SERIES TEXT : leave empty JOURNAL ABBR.: Item type code (slides 16 and 17) LANGUAGE: original language (in English), i.e. Italian, Greek, German
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DOI: JA, MA ISSN: JA, MA or include ISBN here (BO, BS, CP, IN, MP, TH) SHORT TITLE: Title in English URL: link when a website contains information about document ACCESSED: leave empty. ARCHIVE: GEOCODE (according to the NUTS used) LOC. IN ARCHIVE: NUTS (NUTS used: NUTS2 or NUTS3)
GEOGRAPHICAL LEVEL: Archive and Loc. In Archive were proposed for the Geodata code: We proposed the use of the European Administrative limits map (compiled at NUTS, European Commission). It would be interesting to create a GEODATA CODE. We proposed use of the European Administrative limits map (compiled at NUTS3/NUTS2 level; European Commission. We will link both databases and maps and will present the spatial resolution of compiled information All partners must use the same NUTS maps (NUTS2 and NUTS3) in order to standardize the geodatabase LIBRARY CATALOG: leave empty CALL NUMBER: ID for FIRESMART Database. Use consecutive numbers following the partner number in the proposal. (We moved ID to this field because it appears in the Zotero window and we consider that it is useful for organizing items) RIGHTS: GROUP OF STAKEHOLDERS MORE INTERESTED IN. Identify the group or groups: Policy Makers: P Scientists & Educators: S Managers: M
As more than one option may be possible (More than one group) we must use three digits and use 0 for groups not interested in the information. For example: 00M Managers may be interested in this information P0M Policy makers and Managers may be interested in this information 0S0 Scientific and/or Educators may be interested in this information EXTRA: KEY WORDS (in English) STRENGTH/WEAKNESS: Use the NOTES tool to include (optional) comments if you consider that document contributes to the WSTO analysis: Weakness/Strength/Threats/Opportunities with respect to wildland fire prevention in Europe or with respect to the topics (tags) related to the document. You must choose the export Notes option when you want export library. RELATED TOPICS: There is no field in Zotero, so we propose to use Tags (as many tags as topics have been created)
FIRESMART
Agroforestry Awareness and communication-related activities Existing activities aimed at conciliating interests including volunteer programmes Fire risk/Fire danger Integrated forest management systems Investigation of fire causes Legislation Politics Planning Preventive infrastructures Preventive silviculture including use of fire Statistics Surveillance Training courses Wildland-Urban interfaces
As many tags as considered relevant can be added (at least one) Summary Each entry can have more than one document attached. Do not double the number of registrations. If there is no information about a field, we will complete with 0 to make it easier to export information to a database (including notes and tags). Do not fill in empty fields: Series, Series title, Series text, Accessed and Library catalog See the list of the different codes (Item types abbreviations, Stakeholders, ID.) and choose the option for completing the corresponding field The tags must always be filled in exactly the same way (The file containing the selected tags was sent to everyone). The notes can be completed with your opinion about how the document may contribute to the WSTO analysis (optional).
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6.2. TEST AREA 4: DEPARTEMENT BOUCHES DU RHONE (CEMAGREF)

The Dpartement Bouches du Rhne is located in South eastern France (431743475, 41217280 NW and 430836726, 55345358 SE). Its total area is 5 093 km2. Forests and shrublands represent 30% of the dpartement (145 00 ha) located almost exclusively on limestone soils. The climate of the test area is Mediterranean, characterized by a severe drought lasting two to four months in summer, mild and humid winter, and a very low cloudiness. The mean annual temperature is 15.3C and the mean annual precipitation is 630 mm (1979-2008). The area is quite windy. The dominant wind, the Mistral, blows from the North-West 100 days/year on average, with a speed up to 130km/h.
Figure 6.2-1 Test area 4: Dpartement Bouches du Rhne (France)
6.2.1. FOREST MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN THE TEST AREA

At national level The Forest code Forests are regulated by the Forest Code (Code forestier) created in 1827 (www.legifrance.gouv.fr). The measures of forest fire management of the Forest Code are part of the forest code. The titre II livre III of the Forest code is related to the defence and the fire fighting. It deals with the mandatory brush-clearing, the plans of forest fore prevention (PPFCI), the use of fire, etc. The rules related to brush-clearing at national level are mainly given by the Forest code. For the legislative part, it is the clauses L321-5-3, L322-1-1, L322-3, L322-3-1, L322-4, L322-4-2, L322-5, L322-7, L322-8, L322-9-1, L322-9-2, L322-12 and L323-1 and for the regulation part it is the clauses R322-1, R322-2, R322-5-1, R322-6, R322-6-1, R322-6-2, R322-6-3 and R322-7. These clauses give the definition of brushclearing, specify the areas where this regulation is applied, define the perimeter to be brush-cleared and point out the practical term of the work implementation. They also specify the mayor and prefect duties as well as the penalties and measures of constraint incurred by the violators. However, rules from other codes can be related to brush-clearing, more or less directly. The law of forest orientation The law of forest orientation (Loi dOrientation forestire). n 2001-602 of 9 July 2001 allows the update of the previous law (1985) which took its roots directly in the Forest Code of 1827 (www.legifrance.gouv.fr). Decrees related to forest fires - Decree n 2002-679 of 29 April 2002 This decree affecting the application of the Law of Forest Orientation n 2001-602 of 9 July 2001 modifies or complements the regulatory part of the Forest Code related to the defence and fire fighting. Some points are highlighted: Development of rights of way for the settlement of ways for the forest fire management
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Setting up of plans of forest fire prevention Mandatory brush-clearing around houses Prescribed burning
- Decree n 2006-871 of 12/07/06 (NOR:AGRF0601025D J.O. of 14/07/2006 text n56 (page 10631)) The clause 15 of this decree replaces the clause 17 of the Decree n 2002-679 of 29 April 2002 related to the defence and fire fighting.
At territory level
- Circulars on Forest fire prevention These circulars are created for the State services at dpartement level to implement the Forest code for the forest fire prevention. - Interministerial circular of the 28 September 1998 This circular is related to the Forest fire prevention plans (PPRIF: plans de prvention des risques d'incendie de fort). - Circular DERF/SDF/C2002-3017 of the 24 September 2002 This circular is related to the obligations and special powers of the prefect of dpartement regarding the identification of priority lands in intervention and brush-clearing. - Circular DERF/SDF/C2002-3021 of 31 October 2002 This circular specifies the terms of the implementation of the operations of prescribed burning and incineration of vegetation residuals regarding the works of forest fire prevention. The circular of the 31 August 2004 (DGFAR/SDFB/C2004-5033; DGER/SDFP/C2004-2009) specifies the terms of the implementation of the operations of prescribed burning and incineration of vegetation residuals regarding the forest fire prevention. - Circular DGFAR/SDFB/C2004-5007 of 26 March 2004 This circular specifies the guiding principles of development as well as the content of the plans of prevention of forest against wildfires, especially regarding all the necessary coordination for the development of these plans. - Circular DGFAR/SDFB/C2007-5040 of 02 July 2007 This circular defines the conditions of coordination of the forest fire prevention in the Mediterranean area, especially those regarding the implementation of the Conservatory of the Mediterranean Forest (Conservatoire de la Fort Mditerranenne). - Circular DGFAR/SDFB/C2007-5064 of 31 October 2007 This circular is related to (i) the public aids (Conditions of funding) for investments in the forest prevention against wildfires, based on the clause L. 321-5 of the Forest Code, and (ii) the aids for certain forest actions; funded in the framework of the PDRH. Prefectorial orders These are the prefectorial orders of implementation of the measures in forest fire management of the Forest Code. The clause L.322-1-1 of the Forest code, modified by the law of orientation on the forest (09 July 2001) specifies that each prefect must define the modalities of implementation of the forest fire prevention taking into account the particularities of each forest. In order to adapt the definition of brush-clearing given by the clause L 321-5-3 of the Forest code to the local context, the Prefect of Dpartement must provide orders on the practical term of implementation of this clause taking into account the specificities of each forest.
FIRESMART
Most prefectorial orders related to brush-clearing give an accurate technical definition with mandatory distances between trees and between trees and houses. The different orders specifically taken in the dpartement Bouches du Rhne are the following: - Prefectorial orders related to the approval of the plans of forest fire prevention (PPFCI) These orders approve the plans provided for the clause L 321-6 of the Forest Code following the plans stipulated by the European Union (regulation CEE n 2158/92 of Council of 23 July 1992) and will replace them aiming at more important and more integrated objectives. - Prefectorial order of 19/05/04 related to the prescribed burning and/or incineration of vegetation residuals This order forbids all burnings from 01/06 to 30/09. Burnings are authorized from 01/10 to 31/05 except in case of high fire risk defined by the prefectorial or the municipality authorities. - Order related to the training in prescribed burning and/or incineration of vegetation residuals Operations of prescribed burning and incineration of vegetation residuals have to be implemented by people having a training certificate issued by an authorized institution. The order of 15 March 2004 determines the organization and the objectives of this training, the modalities of validation of the experience of people in charge of these works, as well as the list of the authorized institutions. - Prefectorial order N163 of 29/01/07 related to brush-clearing and to the conservation of a brush-cleared vegetation in fire-prone area In fire-prone area, natural areas and urbanized areas depend on the clauses L322-3 to L322-4 of the forest code. In areas at low fire risk, there is no obligation. Special mentions for the forest exploitations, the roads in forest and the railways must be brushcleared maximum 20m from each side depending on the fire hazard. Regarding power lines, the brush-clearing depends on the electrical power and of the fire hazard (maximum 10m from each side and 20m around the pole). - Prefectorial order N389 of 19/02/07 related to the use of fire in fire-prone areas It defines the periods around the year during which the use of fire is authorized or forbidden depending on the fire hazard (6 levels during the summer period, otherwise, depending on the wind speed). First period: 01/02 to 31/03 Second period: 01/06 to 30/09 - Prefectorial order 2008127-1 of 06/05/08 related to the regulation of people in forest, the traffic and parking of vehicles in areas sensitive to forest fire. According to the fire hazard, the traffic in forest can be partially or totally forbidden. - Prefectorial order 2009351-6 of 17/12/09 related to the tree logging in brush-clearing. No need of preliminary declaration as mentioned in the urban code to cut or log trees for implementing the mandatory brush-clearing. - Regional Order 2008-171 related to the funding of investments of Forest fire management (DFCI) in the framework of the programme of rural development of the country (PDRH) The programme of rural development of the country (PDRH) gives the intervention of the European Fund of rural development (FEADER) in the 21 French continental regions excluding Corse. During the period 2007-2013, the rural zones of these regions will receive more than 5.7 billions euro coming from the budget of the European Union to which will be added a national compensation. The PDRH is composed of a common core of measures enforceable in the whole 21 rgions on the one hand, and of specific regional parts of which the planning is given to the regional prefects.
This order gives the regional technical and financial conditions for the allocation of the public aids in the framework of the plan 226C of PDRH related to the forest fire management (DFCI). - Plans of Forest fire prevention (PPFCI). Since 2002, operations of forest investments or forest actions for the forest fire prevention have to be in line with the plan of forest fire prevention (PPFCI) to be eligible for the support of the State or the European Union, especially in the framework of the national plan of rural development (PDRN). Most PPFCI have been validated by prefectorial orders, some of them are currently being elaborated. These plans, provided for the clause L 321-6 of the Forest Code, are in the continuation of those initially stipulated by the European Union (regulation CEE n 2158/92 of the Council of 23 July 1992) and will replace them aiming at more large and better integrated objectives.
At municipality level
- Role of the mayor and of the town regarding Forest fire management (DFCI) Being the representative of the State in his town, the mayor has, since 1984, important responsibilities in term of administrative police, including the duty to guarantee the safety of the citizens. Regarding wildfires, the mayor and the town have three main types of competences: Mayors police power Taking into account of the fire risk in the planning and the land settlement Contracting authority for the creation and maintenance of equipments
In the rgion PACA, brush-clearing is mandatory for all owners of buildings situated at less than 200m from a forest. Its application is the responsibility of the mayors who are invested of reinforced police powers. The toolbox on line on the Observatoire de la Fort Mditerranennes website (www.ofme.org) gives to these people practical elements to inform and to increase the citizens awareness, to control the respect of the legal obligations of brush-clearing and possibly to take coercive measures in order to help them in applying this regulation on their town.
6.2.2. FOREST FIRE CAUSES IN THE DEPARTEMENT BOUCHES DU RHONE

Forest fire database used in the test area
For the southeastern France (concerning the 15 dpartements of southeastern France including the dpartement Bouche du Rhne), a database on forest fires was created in 1973 (Promthe database). In the Promthe database, since 1997, the fire causes are recorded with 4 levels of knowledge: (i) sure, (ii) likely, (iii) supposed and (iv) unknown, then 6 groups of causes are identified: (i) unknown, (ii) natural, (iii) diverse accidents, (iv) diverse intentional (arson), (v) diverse professional works and (vi) diverse individual works. Promthe classification scheme since 1997: FR_SEc_1 FR_SEc_11 FR_SEc_2 FR_SEc_21 FR_SEc_211 FR_SEc_212 FR_SEc_22 FR_SEc_23
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natural lightning accidental due to installations electric line break electric arc rail vehicle
FR_SEc_231 FR_SEc_232 FR_SEc_24 FR_SEc_241 FR_SEc_242 FR_SEc_3 FR_SEc_31 FR_SEc_311 FR_SEc_312 FR_SEc_32 FR_SEc_321 FR_SEc_322 FR_SEc_323 FR_SEc_33 FR_SEc_4 FR_SEc_41 FR_SEc_411 FR_SEc_412 FR_SEc_413 FR_SEc_42 FR_SEc_421 FR_SEc_422 FR_SEc_423 FR_SEc_424 FR_SEc_43 FR_SEc_431 FR_SEc_432 FR_SEc_433 FR_SEc_44 FR_SEc_5 FR_SEc_51 FR_SEc_511 FR_SEc_512 FR_SEc_513 FR_SEc_52 FR_SEc_521 FR_SEc_522 FR_SEc_523
muffler, brakes, fire garbage dump official illegal arson - intentional human origin conflict land use hunting interest land use hunting pastoralism pyromania involuntary due to professional works forest works machinery burning of standing bush burning of cut bush agricultural works machinery burning of standing bush burning of cut bush pastoral fire industrial, public or crafts works machinery burning of standing bush burning of cut bush restart of fire involuntary due to private private works machinery burning of standing bush burning of cut bush leisure activities children's games, firecrackers, fireworks barbecue, stove, campfire
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FR_SEc_53 FR_SEc_531 FR_SEc_532 FR_SEc_533 FR_SEc_534
throwing of incandescent objects butt from walking smoker butt from vehicle distress rocket warm ashes
Statistics on forest fires
For the period 2006-2009, the mean number of fires in the dpartement Bouches du Rhne was 195 fires and the mean burned area was 533 ha. In 2006, the statistics on fire causes in the dpartement Bouches du Rhne were: Unkbown: 82% Natural: 3% Accident: 2% Arson: 8% Negligence in work activities: 1% Negligence in recreational activities: 3% The proportion of unknown causes is very high in this dpartement (82%) compared to the other dpartements of southeastern France. Arson represents 44% of the known causes; it is one of the highest proportions of this cause in southeastern France.
Methodology
A guide was carried out by Cemagref to improve the knowledge of the fire ignition causes and their accurate localisation. This guide was carried out within the Forest Focus framework (FF2004-06 convention about the monitoring of the forest continuum relating to the forest fire) was performed with the French partnerships (forest managers, policemen, firefighters) and the Spanish experts (EIMFOR). It computes different methods used in Spain, Portugal, California and Australia to fit them to the French Mediterranean context. This approach relies on the method of the physical evidences which is very objective and organized in order to leave nothing to chance.
Working teams
The investigations on forest fires are carried out either by gendarmes (police), forest managers or/and mainly by fire fighters.
6.2.3. TRAINING, AWARENESS AND COMMUNICATION ACTIONS

Training Trainings on prescribed burning, incineration of vegetation residuals and fire cause investigation are provided by the Ecole dApplication de Scurit Civile (ECASC) in Valabre (Bouches du Rhne).
Awareness and communication actions
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The Conseil Rgional PACAs website provides some information on forest fires in the region ProvenceAlpes-Cte dAzur (http://www.regionpaca.fr/notre-region/agriculture-mer-et-foret/foret/les-risquesincendies.html) Some documentation related to forest fires can be found on the Observatoire de la Fort Mditerranennes website (www.ofme.org): - Study : Analysis of the PIDAF in Bouches du Rhne In the framework of the Forest Observatory of dpartement (Observatoire Dpartemental de la Fort), gathering all the partners involved in the forest fire management, the Conseil Gnral des Bouchesdu-Rhne has run an analysis of the intermunicipal plans of brush-clearing and forest settlement (PIDAF). This analysis allows having an assessment on the dpartments policy regarding DFCI. - Guide on the plans of prevention of the forest fire risk (PPRif) The plans of prevention of the forest fire risk (PPRif) allow the delimitation of areas interested by this risk and the instruction of prevention, protection actions. A methodological guide has been edited, mainly to help the decentralized State services to constitute the technical and regulatory documents of these PPRif. - Guide : Brush-clearing applied to the houses The brush-clearing of the house surroundings is mandatory for the private owners. It is the most efficient protection against wildfires. The Rgion Provence-Alpes-Cte d'Azur has edited a guide on brush-clearing at their attention, aiming at helping them to do so. This guide informs and gives, using questions/answers, the necessary technical and legal information. - The fuel break network The fuel break network (RCC), was created in 1992 by a need of exchange and communication between the research on forest fire prevention and the people in the field. - Study : Hydraulics at the disposal of PFCI In 2002, the Socit du Canal de Provence carried out a study Hydraulics at the disposal of the forest fire prevention - Publications : Newsletters Info DFCI Cemagrefs Resource department works twice a year on a newsletter giving information on fire prevention actions done in the rgion (www.cemagref.fr). - Guide on the right practices related to forest fires for industrial facilities This guide, published in July 2007 by the Secrtariat Permanent pour les Problmes de Pollution Industrielle (SPPPI) PACA, gives a brief technical view of what are the forest fires then describes the legal and functional framework related to the prevention operations that ought to be set up on industrial sites and at their surroundings. Then, it gives a methodological approach of this topic, aiming at helping the industrialists in their preventive procedures towards the forest fires. - Cemagrefs methodology for characterizing the Wildland-Urban Interfaces In this document are presented a definition of Wildland-Urban Interfaces and a methodology based on remote sensing and on tools of spatial analysis and GIS for the mapping, as automatically as possible, at wide scale and on large areas of these zones. "Aide mthodologique la caractrisation et la cartographie des interfaces habitat-fort, dans le contexte de prvention aux incendies de fort" Lampin C., Long M., Jappiot M., Morge D., Bouillon C. ; septembre 2007 (www.cemagref.fr). - Study on the fire risk in the Wildland-Urban Interfaces
FIRESMART
In her PhD thesis "Caractrisation de la relation entre organisation spatiale d'un territoire et risque d'incendie : le cas des interfaces habitat-fort du sud de la France.", Corinne Lampin-Maillet, from Cemagref, gives a method for characterizing and mapping the Wildland-Urban Interfaces in the context of fire risk. Her work also shows a new method for assessing the fire risk based on territory types, environmental topologic and socio-economic characteristics as well as the review of fires having occurred in the area. - Publications of the OCR INCENDI programme Between June 2005 and June 2008, nine regions of the Mediterranean basin collaborated to improve their techniques and prevention policies against forest fires in the framework of the programme Interreg III C called OCR INCENDI. The Observatory of the Mediterranean Forest provided a technical support to the Rgion PACA, leader of the programme, for the activities related to the restoration of the burned areas (RTI), to the auto-protection and fuel breaks. In this framework, the OFME contributed to the development of several documents, some being available on line (www.ocrincendi.eu). - Auto-protection of people and goods against wildfires The setting up of means allowing the auto-protection of buildings against forest fires is essential because it allows avoiding the monopoly almost all these means for the protection of the inhabited areas to the detriment the forest. It also allows the anticipation of the possibly lack of fire fighting means (in case of huge wildfires threatening simultaneously several dozens or hundreds of houses. The auto-protection of the houses needs: -the implementation of auto-protection operations such as the brush-clearing, building arrangements less sensitive to the fire, the purchase of personal materials of fire fighting - taking into account the fire risk in the land settlement in order not to urbanize the most exposed areas. For instances, the plans of prevention of forest fire risk (PPRIF) are used as a management tool of the urbanization of the towns situated in the zone at risk. The clause R111 of the town planning code also takes into account this risk in its delivery of building licence.
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6.3. A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC WORKS FOUND IN LITERATURE (CEMAGREF)

This review performed by CEMAGREF is a synthesis of different documents from a scientific perspective on the following topics: Fire causes in Europe Wildland-urban interface Preventive silviculture Fuel breaks
6.3.1. - FOREST FIRE CAUSES IN EUROPE

6.3.1.1. Data collection
Data on the different countries needed in order to complete the state of the art on forest fire causes and main driving factors of ignition were collected by different means in the framework of a project on fire causes launched by the Joint research Centre in 2008 (Ganteaume et al., 2008): Cemagrefs bibliographical database, scientific international bibliographical databases on the Web (ISI Web of Knowledge, etc.), websites of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest services of different countries, contacts with the Group of experts on forest fires of EFFIS, contacts with other international Fire Experts, contacts with national and international institutions (Forest, Agriculture, Suppression services, FAO, etc.), International Forest Fire News (IFFN) reports, EU dataset extracted from the reports Forest fires in Europe available from 2001 to 2007 and UNECE dataset extracted from the Timber Bulletin available from 1994 to 2001. For certain countries, from 2002 to 2005, data have been prepared for the UNECE bulletin and computed by JRC using the EFFIS fire database. Results from previous national and European Programmes or networks (FIRE PARADOX, EUFIRELAB, PHOENIX, SPREAD, etc.) were also used.
The data collection encountered different problems. The first of all was the scarcity of scientific papers or technical reports especially concerning forest fire causes sensus stricto, in most countries. In order to fill this gap, data were searched in Forest Fires in Europe (EFFIS) or Timber Bulletin (UNECE) datasets but they were often partial and the temporal series often incomplete (especially concerning the recent data). There are no data at all available in some countries mainly because of the almostlack of forest (Malta, Iceland, for instance).
6.3.1.2. Synthesis of causes

The classification of the forest fire causes differs depending on the countries (different levels, different numbers of causes recorded, different types of causes, etc.) and on the types of dataset. In order to keep a coherent description of the fire causes in each country, the choice was made to present, as far as possible, the four groups of causes used in the current European classification: (i) natural causes (lightning), (ii) causes due to negligence and accident (unintended causes and accidental causes), (iii) causes due to arson (intentional or intended causes) and (iv) unknown (dubious, doubtful) causes.
6.3.1.2.1. Comparison Northern Europe Southern Europe

The synthesis on fire causes in Northern Europe and Southern Europe but also comparisons between these two parts have been made using all the datasets available (average data per country), focusing on the most recent and stable periods. Tables 6.3-1 and 6.3-2 present the main cause of forest fires and its percentage recorded for each country in Southern and Northern Europe over a period corresponding to the last years where the data were the most stable. Southern Europe gathers the countries located on the Northern rim of the Mediterranean Sea. For each country, the mean number of fires by year has been calculated on the same period than for the main cause. This number of fires varies greatly between countries, depending on different parameters as the forested area of the
country. Combined with the proportion of the main cause, it gives an idea of the reliability of the record.
Table 6.3-1 Main causes of forest fires, its percentage and mean number of fires/year for countries in Southern Europe
Country Period Main cause % Fires/year
Albania Bosnia Croatia Cyprus France* FYROM Greece Israel Italy Portugal Serbia & Montenegro Slovenia Spain Turkey
1994-2001 1994-1995 2002-2006 2000-2005 2002-2008 1994-2000 2002-2008 1987-2002 2002-2008 2000-2005 1999-2001 2002-2008 2000-2005 2002-2006
Negligence Negligence Unknown Negligence Negligence Unknown Unknown Negligence Arson Negligence Unknown Negligence Arson Negligence
62 74 51 66 36 77 80 43 60 37 47 45 57 41
395 136 265 269 2138 94 1461 930 8069 28 482 258 104 21 516 1833
*Data recorded only in the Promthe Database
Table 6.3-2 Main causes of forest fires, its percentage and mean number of fires/year for countries in Northern Europe
Country Period Main cause % Fires/year
Armenia Austria Belarus Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland Georgia Germany Hungary
FIRESMART
1995-2000 2006-2008 1994-2000 1994-1999 2003-2005 2002-2005 1994-1997 2002-2005 1995-2001 1995-1997 2002-2007 2002-2007
Negligence Unknown Negligence Negligence Unknown Negligence Unknown Negligence Negligence Negligence Unknown Unknown
99 50 67 51 66 64 43 57 65 100 44 61
11 62 2757 43 329 963 8 65 2496 6 1040 262
Country
Period
Main cause
Fires/year
Ireland Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Moldova Netherlands Norway Poland* Romania Russian Federation Slovakia Sweden Switzerland Ukraine UK
1994 2002-2008 2002-2008 1994-1997 1994-1997 1994-1998 2002-2005 2002-2008 2002-2009 1994-2000 2002-2006 2001-2005 2002-2008 1994-2001 1994-2001
Negligence Negligence Negligence Unknown Negligence Unknown Unknown Arson Negligence Negligence Negligence Negligence Negligence Negligence ND
79 97 83 74 100 50 94 45 77 74 90 46 52 99 ND
149 958 736 4 15 69 163 4395 210 26 977 466 6075 70 4411 347
*Number recorded only in the State Forests
Figure 6.3-1 shows that in Northern Europe, there is a strong variation of the fire frequency for each cause between the different countries. Some countries do not have a deep knowledge of their fire causes and show a high proportion of fires due to unknown causes (Norway, Luxembourg, Hungary, and Bulgaria). Some countries classify all their fires within the same cause (negligence/accident) such as Armenia, Moldova or Ukraine, or at least, a great part of their fires (Belarus, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Russian Federation or Slovakia). Mountainous countries present the highest level of natural fires (Austria and Switzerland). At last, some countries have a high level of arson (Netherlands, Poland) compared to the general trend. The same observation can be made for the Southern Europe (Figure 6.3-2). FYROM, Croatia and Greece have a high proportion of fires due to unknown causes; for some of them (Greece for instance), the main part of these fires would be due to arson. Albania, Cyprus and Bosnia have a lot of fires recorded as unintentional fires. The highest proportions of fires due to arson are found in Italy and Spain compared to the other countries. Sometimes, this can result from differences in the classification of the types of causes depending on the country. The proportion of fires due to lightning is generally low in Southern Europe, the highest occurring in Greece, Slovenia and Turkey. The comparison of Northern Europe and Southern Europe (Figure 6.3-3) shows that the frequencies of fires due to negligence/accident are on average higher in Northern Europe than in Southern Europe. The reverse trend is observed with fires due to arson and to unknown causes. Fires due to natural causes are not as frequent in Northern Europe as in Southern Europe.
FIRESMART
FIRESMART-INIA-TR-WP1
82 of 123
30/07/10
V1.0
Figure 6.3-1. Distribution of fire frequency by causes in Northern European countries (Sources: Timber Bulletin, Forest fires in Europe, national and regional databases)
Figure 6.3-2 Distribution of fire frequency by causes in Southern European countries (Sources: Timber Bulletin, Forest fires in Europe, national and regional databases)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
80%
60%
40%
100%
20%
0%
Frequency
Frequency
Unknown Arson Negligence Lightning
0%
01 20 8 4- 00 99 2-2 e1 0 in 20 ra nd 05 0 Uk er la -20 00 itz 001 006 4-2 Sw en2 2-2 199 ed 200 tion Sw kia era 9 a d 00 ov e Sl an F 2-2 i 00 8 ss ia2 00 Ru an -2 m 02 05 Ro d20 -20 996 2 lan 00 4-1 Po ay2 9 19 8 rw nds 99 7 No la 4-1 99 er 1 th 199 4Ne ova 199 8 g 0 d 0 ol ur M mbo 02-2 xe 20 8 Lu nia 200 ua th 02 Li a20 7 i tv 94 00 La d19 2- 2 7 n 0 la 20 200 Ir e y ar 0 2 ng 20 97 Hu any -19 5 rm 99 01 Ge ia1 -20 g or 996 05 Ge d1 20 an 2- 97 5 nl 00 9 00 Fi ia2 4- 1 2-2 9 0 n to 19 20 Es ark blic nm pu 005 De Re 2-2 h ec 200 999 Cz ria 4-1 a lg 199 00 Bu m 20 iu 4lg 99 08 Be us1 - 20 0 r la 006 00 Be ia2 5- 2 str 199 Au nia e m Ar
6 00 -2 02 20 5 ey rk 00 -2 Tu 01 02 8 - 20 20 00 -2 999 ain 1 02 Sp 20 egro ia n en te ov on Sl M & 05 ia 20 rb 0Se 00 l2 ga 7 rtu 00 Po -2 02 20 02 ly 20 Ita 799 8 l1 00 ae -2 Isr 02 9 20 99 ce -1 ee 94 Gr 19 M 8 RO 00 -2 FY 02 20 5 ce 00 an -2 Fr 00 20 6 us 00 pr -2 Cy 02 20 95 tia oa 19 4Cr 99 01 ia1 20 sn 4Bo 99 ia1 an
Years
Years
b Al
FIRESMART
Date:
Version:
Code:
Page:
Unknown Arson Negligence Lightning
100 90 80 70 60 Frequency (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Northern Europe Southern Europe Lightning Negligence Arson Unknown
Figure 6.3-3. Comparison of fire frequency by causes in Northern Europe and Southern Europe
FIRESMART
Tables 6.3-3 and 6.3-4 present, for each country of Northern and Southern Europe, the main type of cause due to negligence (based on the classification given in the UNECE Timber Bulletin) and its mean percentage calculated for the most recent period with stable data.
Table 6.3-3. Main type of negligence, its percentage for each country in Northern Europe (Sources: Timber Bulletin, Forest fires in Europe, national and regional databases)
Country Period Main type of negligence %
Armenia Belarus Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Georgia Germany Ireland Latvia Lithuania Moldova Netherlands Poland Romania Russian Federation Slovakia Sweden Switzerland Ukraine
1995-2000 1994-1997 1997-2001 1998-2000 1994-2000 1994-2001 2002-2005 1995-1997 2002-2007 1994 2002-2008 2002-2008 1994-1998 1994-1996 2002-2008 1994-2000 1995-2000 2002-2005 1994-1997 2002-2008 1994-2001
General Public General Public Forest activities Agricultural activities General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public General Public Agricultural activities General Public General Public Other General Public General Public
87 86 43 90 65 54 82 80 53 87 83 74 67 100 74 63 87 61 60 57 96
FIRESMART
Table 6.3-4. Main type of negligence, its percentage for each country in Southern Europe (Sources: Timber Bulletin, Forest fires in Europe, national and regional databases)
Country Period Main type of negligence %
Bosnia Croatia Cyprus France* FYROM Greece Israel Italy Portugal Serbia & Montenegro Slovenia Spain Turkey
1994-1998 2002-2006 2000-2008 2002-2008 1994-2000 1994-1996 1994-1996 2002-2008 2004-2005 1999-2001 2002-2008 2002-2005 1994-2001
Agricultural activities Agricultural activities Agricultural activities General Public Other Agricultural activities Agricultural activities Agricultural activities Agricultural activities Other Communication Agricultural activities Other
71 55 37 46 48 37 30 45 47 73 50 36 86
*Data recorded only in the Promthe Database
The analysis of the types of causes due to negligence/accident shows the following trends: In Northern Europe (Figure 6.3-4), fires due to people visiting the forest (general public), such as recreational activities or tourism, were the most frequent and in some countries, it was recorded as the unique or the main fire cause (Latvia, Netherlands, Russian federation, Slovakia, Ukraine). Some countries had a high frequency of fires due to agricultural activities (Bulgaria, Romania) or to forest activities (Belgium). Fires due to other types of negligence/accident (such as military activities) were frequent in Sweden or Czech Republic during the given periods.
100% 80% 60% Frequency 40% 20% Other 0% Ar B Be B Cz De E Ge Ge I La Li M Ne Po R Rus Sl Sw Sw Uk me ela lg ulg ech nm sto or rm r el tvi thu old the lan om sia ova e d itz ra n n k g a e in r a a o ni r us ium ar i a a General public a1 19 1 a1 Rep ark1 ia20 ia 19 ny2 nd19 200 nia2 va1 land d20 nia1 Fed ia2 en19 rlan e 19 99 94 99 99 .1 99 02 95 00 9 0 2- 00 99 s1 02- 99 d 20 2 4- 99 20 4- erat 02- 94-1 200 94-2 5- -1 7-2 8- 99 4- -2 -1 2- 4 Communications 20 99 0 20 4- 20 00 99 20 - 2 19 4 0 20 ion 20 9 08 2 0 00 98 - 1 8 00 7 01 00 20 01 5 19 05 97 -20 01 00 7 07 99 8 00 95 Other industrial activities 08 6 -2 00 Logging and forest operations 0 Agricultural operations
Figure 6.3-4. Break-down of causes due to negligence in Northern European countries (Sources: Timber Bulletin, national and regional databases)
FIRESMART
In Southern Europe (Figure 6.3-5), fires due to other causes were frequent especially in Serbia-Montenegro, FYROM and Turkey. Fires due to agricultural activities were also frequent in this part of Europe, especially in Bosnia, Italia and Croatia. The proportion of fires due to logging and forest operations was the highest in Greece and fires due to general public were the most frequent in Cyprus and Israel. For Italy, the classes Agricultural activities and Forest activities were merged before reporting.
100% 80% 60% Frequency 40% 20% 0% Other General public Communications Other industrial activities Logging and forest operations Agricultural operations
1 00 -2 94 19 ey 5 rk 00 Tu -2 02 01 8 20 20 00 ain 9-2 Sp 99 02 o1 20 ia gr en ne te ov on Sl M & 05 ia rb 20 4Se 00 l2 ga rtu 2 Po 00 -2 98 19 ly 96 Ita 19 499 l1 6 ae 99 -1 Isr 94 19 0 ce 00 ee -2 Gr 94 19 M 8 RO 00 FY -2 02 20 8 ce an 00 -2 Fr 00 20 5 us pr 00 -2 Cy 02 20 tia 98 oa 19 Cr 499 ia1
Figure 6.3-5. Break-down of causes due to negligence in Southern European countries (Sources: Timber Bulletin and national and regional databases)
The comparison between Northern Europe and Southern Europe (Figure 6.3-6) shows that the fires due to general public were, by far, the most frequent in Northern Europe. Fires due to forest activities were less frequent in Northern Europe than in Southern Europe. The others types were more frequent in Southern Europe, especially Agricultural activities and other.
100% 80% 60% Frequency 40%

Other 20% General public Communications 0% Other industrial activities Logging and forest operations Agricultural operations
Figure 6.3-6. Comparison of fire frequency by causes due to negligence/accident in Northern Europe and Southern Europe
6.3.1.2.2. Comparison Europe Canada

A comparison of fire frequency by causes between Europe (South and North) and Canada (East and West) shows that the proportion of fires due to lightning was by far higher in Canada, especially in the Western Province of Alberta, than in Europe (Figure 6.3-7). Negligence/Accident was the main cause of fires regardless of the continent but arson was less frequent in Canada than in Europe. Generally, the fire causes were well known in Canada (less than 5% of unknown causes in Alberta, 0% in Quebec) compared to the situation in Europe, especially in the South (36% of unknown causes on average).
sn Bo
Northern Europe
Southern Europe
FIRESMART
70 1872 fires/year 60 50 40 Frequency (%) 30 20 10 0 Alberta (West. Canada) Quebec (East.Canada) Northern Europe Southern Europe 670 fires/year 1500 fires/year 4145 fires/year Lightning Negligence Arson Unknown
Figure 6.3-7. Comparison of the distribution of fire frequency by causes in Europe (values calculated according to tables 1 and 2) and in two provinces of Canada (values calculated on the period 20022007 for Alberta and 2002-2008 for Quebec, (Source: Ministry of natural resources, Canadian forest services) and mean number of fires per year
6.3.1.3. Review on the main driving factors

Nowadays wildfires in Europe result mainly from the socio-economic development and the consequent change in life habits. They are linked to modern models of life, increased mobility, tourism and recreational activities which increase the number of visitors in the forest. But fire is also a traditional instrument for the management of Mediterranean ecosystems and the long established use of fire in agriculture, silviculture and livestock breeding is well documented (Bonora et al., 2002). The seriousness of the problem is that natural causes have been compounded by human action. The traditional rural socio-economic systems which once characterised the Mediterranean region have collapsed during the last few decades; as a result, rural abandonment spread in the north (for e.g., in Spain, Italy and Greece), and rural mismanagement and overexploitation of nature resources in the south (for e.g., in Turkey, Lebanon and Cyprus). In parallel, huge and very rapid land-use changes have occurred, implying urbanisation, coastal tourism development and infrastructure construction. The rapidity of the changes did not leave room for the required resources and efforts to allow people to adapt to the changes in a sustainable way. There have been several consequences of these trends in land-use change such as decreased market value for timber, land-use conflicts, lack of economic compensation, loss of a direct link between man and his environment, degradation of Mediterranean vegetation and increase in number of visitors to forests (WWF, 1993). The main driving factors of ignitions have then been classified in two categories: (i) human factors, dominant in Europe, (ii) environmental factors mainly due to fuel, physiography and weather. The distribution of the fire occurrence varying in time and space, their spatial and temporal distributions were also reviewed. Despite its importance, the influence of human factors on the spatial and temporal patterns of wildfire occurrence is not well understood (Sturtevand and Cleland, 2007). In fact, while other variables associated to fire danger such as temperature or relative humidity are routinely generated, temporal and spatial data required to rate human risk simply do not exist or are rarely available (Martell et al., 1987), i.e., and there is a lack of accurate data on human activities within forested areas (Vega-Garcia et al., 1995). In the Eufirelab project, several factors impacting forest fires were identified (Lampin et al., 2002):
the demographic pressure factor depending mainly on the density of inhabitants and their proximity to the forest (economic characteristics, age, presence of tourists, communication infrastructures, etc, are taken into account); the forest probability factor assumed that the risk decreases if the forest land has a high degree of productivity, on the contrary, it is easier to burn if it is abandoned; the social tension factor indicating the degree of presence of opposing land use, illegal exploitation, wrongful fire use, and all types of conflicts that affect forest and its periphery; the forestry culture factor which is the symbolic system of collective representations concerning the forest and the derived products and services; the organisational logic factor which is considered through correct management and forest fire fighter organization. The knowledge of forest fire causes and the motivations of arsonists are necessary to inform, prevent and prosecute the people responsible for the fire. The analysis of the past fires allows the determination of the spatial and temporal characteristics of the fire risk in order to establish efficient plans of prevention and fire fighting. A good knowledge of the forest fire causes, related motivations and its spatial-temporal distribution is critical for the design of prevention policies adapted to the socio-economic, cultural and environmental circumstances of each region.
6.3.1.3.1. Human factors

Human agents are of great importance in fire risk assessment, especially in the Mediterranean countries where they are the main causes of forest fires either by accident/negligence or arson (Henderson et al. 2005). Syphard et al. (2008) found that as in California, in the worlds 5 Mediterranean climate ecosystems, the spatial relationship between human and fire is not linear regardless of the land cover type, the natural fire regime or the overall population, the presence of people strongly affects the frequency of fire. Both mean and median population densities were consistently and substantially higher in areas with fire than without. In most countries, the specialized literature on human ignition factors is poor. Most commonly, when those factors were considered, the estimations were based on indirect assessments (proxy or surrogate variables) of human activity or on data on accessibility to forested areas. The first studies on human factors were based on indirect variables, obtained mainly from censuses and survey sources (Cunningham and Martell, 1976; Altobellis, 1983; Donoghue and Main, 1985) and were mostly nonspatial. Later on, the human factors were analyzed spatially. For instance, relations between fire occurrence and distance to roads, to settlements or to specific land uses have been documented in several studies (Chuvieco and Congalton, 1989; Vega-Garcia et al., 1995; Vasconcelos et al., 2001; Prestemon and Butry, 2005; Mollicone et al., 2006; Maingi and Henry, 2007; Vasilakos et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2007). The human risk problem requires a comprehensive assessment within a spatial framework, which must include not only geographic or environmental variables (i.e. average distance to roads, to populated or recreational areas, length of wildland/urban interface) but also socioeconomic factors (unemployment rates, rural population age, population density, etc.) that may cause high fire ignitions (Martinez et al., 2009). Fire ignitions often occur closer to human activities, such as roads and populated places (Russell-Smith et al., 1997; Cardille et al., 2001; Pew and Larsen 2001). In the case of accidental fires, humans often inadvertently spread fire from their location (i.e. camp fire, cigarette thrown from car window, etc.), so one would expect these fires to occur near roads, towns, and campgrounds. In the case of intentional fires, arsonists need access to wooded areas that provide an escape route. There are also certain regions, such as Galicia in NW Spain and neighbouring parts of Portugal, where arson is a major problem that has its roots in social conflicts; government plantations have been established on lands that were previously rangeland for the local community (Moreira et al. 2001, Tabara et al. 2003). In Greece, applying stepwise and OLS methods on data covering the period 1978-1987, Lekakis (1995) concluded that political events and economic development leading to an increased demand for land along with some cultural and ecological phenomena were responsible for the destruction of the Greek forests. Regarding human presence and socio-economic impacts, the most important factors are the month of the year followed by proximities to urban areas, landfills and main roads; distance from recreational areas seems to have the smallest effect (Vasilakos et al. 2008). A major factor is abandonment of countryside by rural populations that practised traditional professions in the forest
(resin tapping, pasture, wood production etc), which resulted in enormous accumulation of natural fuel material. Other factors are negligence, existence of disposal area within wildlands, burning for renewal of pasture lands, arsons for economic motives and interests, lack of a complete and final general land Cadastre, lack of definitive forest maps, lack of mapping of burned areas on an annual basis according to the Ministry of rural development and food. In Italy, statistical analysis shows that the most part of fire events is classified as arson, including incidents not directly connected with a will to damage, but however derived by an irresponsible behaviour. The irresponsible actions are statistically referred to some social aspects, in particular: depopulation of mountain zones and reduction of agricultural districts, reduction of spread agricultural practices, decreasing economic interest on forest products, increasing road network, increasing recreational role of forest and decreasing of forest management (http://www.corpoforestale.it/wai/serviziattivita/AntIncedioBoschivo/Lo%20studio%20e%20le%20sol uzioni/Le%20cause.htm) In Southern Italy, Lovreglio et al. (2010), using the Delphi Method, identified as major cause of negligence the use of fire in agriculture (particularly stubble burning) and as major cause of voluntary fires, motives related to seasonal workers (fires used as an instrument to force or maintain employment. In Spain, the direct or indirect influence of people is quite evident. The works of Badia-Perpinya and Pallares-Barbera (2006) and Romero-Calcerrada et al. (2008) showed that the high number of ignitions was a result of the high accessibility of the urbanforest interface areas, which led to a greater presence of people in woodlands. Proximity to urban areas and roads was found to be the most important causal factors. Romero-Calcerrada et al. (2008) suggested that these characteristics and recent socio-economic trends in Spain may be producing landscapes and wildfire ignition risk characteristics that were increasingly similar to Mediterranean regions with historically stronger economies, such as California, where the urban-wildland interface is large and recreation in forested areas is high. Badia-Perpinya and Pallares-Barbera (2006) also pointed out that the abandonment of traditional activities had transformed fertile soil into woodland areas, and changing uses of land and low breakage networks had favoured large forest continuity, making the territory more vulnerable to the spreading of forest fires. As high population density and easy accessibility has increased mobility within metropolitan area, their results showed that the dense use of the territory favouring ignitions in forest areas was explained by a clearly positive relationship between the high occurrence of fires and locations close to transport networks and urban areas. In their work, Martinez et al. (2009) found that human factors associated to high forest fire risk along 13 years of fire occurrence data were found to be linked to agricultural landscape fragmentation, agricultural abandonment and development processes. The variables used in their models were: (1) density of agricultural machinery, (2) density of agricultural plots, (3) persistence of livestock under traditional management, (4) unemployment rate, (5) rural population decrease between 1950 and 1991, (6) urbanforest interface density, density of roads (7) and railways (8), (9) urban population increase between 1950 and 1991, (10) density of the interface between risk infrastructures (waste dumps, mines, quarries, areas under construction, roads more than 100m wide) and forest areas, (11) percentage of municipal land in protected natural areas, (12) agricultural area which became forest land in 19701990, all increased the human risk of wildfire and (13) the increment in owners of agrarian holdings in 19891999. In Portugal, in order to evaluate the distribution of wildfire ignitions, 127 492 fires detected in the country were analyzed during the period 2001-2005 in relation to variables such as population density, proximity to urban areas and road network, land cover types, altitude, causes and final burned area. Results showed that the largest part of fire ignitions were concentrated in the northern and centre littoral areas, in the most populated municipalities, and were intentionally caused. Although municipalities with more than 100 persons per sqkm represent only 21% of the territory, they concentrated more than 70% of fire ignitions occurring in Portugal, but only about 14% of total burned area. 85% of fire ignitions occurred at less than 500m from urban areas and 98% were within a distance of 2km. Fire ignitions were also located very close to the main roads (70% at less than 500m, and 98% at less than 2km). Most ignitions were located in agricultural and social/urban areas (60% and 25%, respectively), and only 15% in forested or uncultivated areas (8.5% and 6.5%,
respectively). About 80% of ignitions occurred at elevations below 500m, and 85% of fire ignitions originated a burned area lower than 1ha, and only 0.3% of them originated large wildfires with 500ha or more. These results emphasised the crucial role of human distribution and activity in the spatial distribution of wildfire ignitions, and could be very useful in fire risk management and in prevention strategies implementation (Catry et al., 2007). In France, Alexandrian and Gouiran (1990) found several tendencies concerning the temporal distribution of the fires according to their causes. A first tendency opposed intentional fires lighted in summer, in the end of the afternoon or in the evening to fires due to agricultural or forest works lighted in autumn-winter during the day. The first ones are often lit close to a road, around cities highly populated and where the forest area is small because it has already burned several times whereas the second ones are more likely to be lighted near an isolated dwelling in a large forest area. A second tendency concerned the fires lighted by lightning, typical of the end of the summer; the ignition point being located within the forest, in remote areas. A third tendency opposed accidental fires, threatening a small area to intentional fires burning large areas. In Slovakia, the most common reason for fire initiation is humans and their careless manipulation of fire, mainly in this period. Forest fires very often occur as a consequence of the fires gradual transition from urban and agricultural sites to forest. The most common source of this transition is unmanaged grass burning, which is still a component of agricultural sites management, regardless of all warnings (Tucek and Majlingova, 2009). In Albania, socio-economic factors (economic, demographic, social, cultural and organisational) define the human environment that can affect the outbreak of a fire. The measurement of the impact of these factors allows the Administration to plan preventive actions aimed at solving social conflicts (and changing human actions) that increase fire risk. Research in this area is very scarce, but promising, according to the surprising contributions that can already be observed. Socio-economic logic is used to reduce the impact of these factors reasoning that cause arsons or intentional fires. Until now in Albania, an analysis of socio-economic factors related to forest fires is not yet done, but based on publications of EUFIRELAB (2004) these factors could be: forestry profitability (the forest accumulated value and present productivity); demographic pressure (population distribution and density, measuring population evolution and demographic pressure over time); social tension (level of social conflict, particularly the existence of conflicting forest land uses); organisational logic (forest fighting effectiveness and efficiency, both of the forest fighting administration and forest management models), and forestry culture (degree of dissonance between the social dominant values and norms regarding the overall requirements for the sustainability of the forest). Human misuse of fire (accompanied with deforestation during the past years) and over-grazing practices were no doubt largely reasons for most of the forest destruction. Unfortunately unrestricted grazing and uncontrolled fires -caused accidentally and often due to agricultural burnings-, still occur throughout Albania (IFFN). In Switzerland, in general 70-75% of all fires are human caused and 25% are natural. Most humancaused fires have their outbreak near forest roads, hiking trails or settlements. Natural-caused fires show no such tendency (Langhart et al. 1998). Even if in Russia statistics are unreliable, satellite-based analyses show that the density of ignitions decreases with the distance to roads, and a modelling of these data suggests that for all of Russia, 90% of ignitions are anthropogenic (Zakharov, 1977; Noga, 1979; Sofronov, 1981; Odintsov, 1995; Sergienko, 1996, 1999; Furyaev, 1996, Achard et al. 2008). With increasing exploitation of natural resources (timber, oil, gas, minerals), an increase in the number of fires is to be expected, both due to a high number of people per se, and to the expanded road network allowing access into remote areas. Indeed, most fires took place close to settlements, roads, agricultural fields and other forms of human infrastructure (Karpachevskiy, 2004). A new era of catastrophic fires began in the 1930s and 40s and especially in the 1950s and 60s, as the Soviet authorities sent thousands of people into the sparsely populated taiga to survey and exploit the areas precious natural resources. Thousands of
kilometres of ground and railroads penetrated to the taiga, making it more accessible for people and, since that time, tens of millions of hectares of pristine taiga in European Russia, Siberia and the Russian Far East have been destroyed by fire. In the boreal forest of Alberta (Canada) and in the mixed chaparral and conifer forest of Southern California, it has been found that the probability of human-caused wildfires occurrence decreased with increasing distance from different human infrastructures (Chou et al., 1993; Vega Garcia et al., 1993; Syphard et al., 2008), and that in the boreal forest of Canada this probability increased with dryness (Martell et al., 1987; Lawson et al., 1993; Vega Garcia et al., 1995). In the temperate rainforest of Vancouver Island (Canada), the probability of burning was negatively correlated with distances to municipalities, campgrounds, dirt roads, railroads, and paved roads. Recreation and miscellaneous fires tended to be significantly smaller than logging fires and were most common in areas with highest probability of human-caused fires (Pew and Larsen, 2001). In the southern USA, wildfires in several forests occurred more frequently on public lands than on industrial and non-industrial private forests, and the probability of wildfires increased with proximity to urban areas (Zhai et al., 2003). In Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan in the 19851995 period, another study found areas with higher population density, higher road density, and lower distance to non-forest were more likely to burn (Cardille et al., 2001). Fire occurrence was also correlated with distance to roads (54% of the total variation in density of fires was explained by the distance to roads) and populated places (85% of the total variation observed in fire density was explained by the proximity of populated places) but no relationships between fire occurrence and county-level unemployment rates were found (Maingi and Henry, 2007). In Argentina, in addition to the environmental factors, fire occurrence in the different regions is affected by such human factors as cultural practices, varying population density, tourism affluence and characteristics of fire suppression activities (IFFN). In Australia, fire frequency was higher on pastoral lands and further away from roads (at distances of 5 to 25km from roads compared to distances within 5km of roads) (Vigilante et al., 2004). In Syria, among the socio-economic causes of wildfire, the large land abandonment of the rural areas in the hills and in the mountains should be underlined. Apparently, this social phenomenon has no relation with fire occurrence frequency. Indeed this rural abandonment implies a total lack of land management and a disappearance of human presence in the territory. As an example, the rural tradition terrace system for crops and orchards, built with dry masonry walls or vegetation contours, create a discontinuity in the landscape to the fire spread. The large accumulation of fuels often allows fires set for agricultural purposes to spread out of control. Furthermore, the scarcity of forest dwellers makes fire suppression more difficult. High population density makes the woodlands more prone to risk because of the incorrect human behaviour. Because a majority of the wildfires are ignited intentionally or unintentionally by humans, population density is included in the fire risk parameters. The distance to roads is also included to further capture the human/wildfire causal relationship. Travel corridors increase the probability of human presence which could in turn result in wildfire ignition. Hence, areas closer to roads attain a higher ignition probability (COBASE, 2006).
6.3.1.3.2. Environmental factors

Few fires occur in more remote areas. In terms of abiotic influences on fire, fire burns and spreads more easily in dry fuels (Pyne et al., 1996). Topographic effects are more varied. Moisture differences and fuel loads are driven by topography, but these differences are more or less pronounced in different regions (i.e. steep or flat terrain, dry or moist climate). Greece with its Mediterranean weather conditions has intense forest fires. These fires are due to the favourable meteorological conditions (high summer temperatures, powerful winds), to the flammability the Mediterranean vegetation which covers most of the affected regions, as well as to the mountainous relief that creates problems both in the field of prevention and in the field of suppression of forest fires. Compared to the other Mediterranean Countries (member states of the EU), Greece has the largest mean burned area per fire. To a large extend, this is due to the scattered extent of the Country (continental and islander area), to the wind factor that blows during the summer (August mainly), to the dry summer and to the vegetation that is similar only in the southern part of Italy (Sicily) and in no other circum-Mediterranean Country of EU. In regard to weather conditions, the
most significant parameter for fire ignition in Lesvos Island (Greece) is the occurrence of rainfall in the last 24h followed by temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. With respect to the vegetation and topography fire hazard, 10-h fuel moisture content is the most significant variable followed by fuel models, aspect, and elevation (Vasilakos et al., 2008). In central Spain, it was found that fires aggregated on southern slopes and that re-burned areas had low elevations and lower slopes, and were probably the most productive areas (Vazquez and Moreno, 2001). In Portugal, Viegas and Viegas (1994) showed that the precipitation during summer produces a decrease of the burned area, especially if it occurs in the beginning of the fire season. In Slovakia, meteorological factors represent a significant factor for fire initiation (Tucek and Majlingova, 2009). In Finland, studies of the influence of weather on forest fires included lightning-caused ignitions (Kernen, 1929) and estimation of fuel moisture based on weather data (Franssila, 1959). The influence of weather can be divided into three separate factors (lightning, fuel moisture and wind) on the basis of the different mechanisms by which they affect forest fires. Lightning causes ignition, fuel moisture influences both ignitions and fire behaviour and is influenced by the weather before the fire and wind during a fire affects fire behaviour. The fire pattern in a region associated with natural ignition sources is traditionally referred to as a "natural fire regime". In Norway, this will mean fires ignited by lightning. Coniferous tree species and understorey vegetation, together with humus and litter on the forest floor, constitute the best fuel. Vegetation and organic soil conditions are therefore important in determining where the majority of natural fires can occur in Norway. The natural fire regime closely follows climate. Heavy precipitation is typical, and parts of Western Norway receive more than 4m. Thunder storms can periodically move in from the sea as part of large low pressure cells, and local thunder storms can also form above the landmass during summer. Lightning is frequent, but the high humidity creates much less optimal conditions for natural ignition as compared to more continental areas. The highest frequency of natural fires is expected in the boreal forests of the country's eastern lowlands, south westward to the divide, and in the most continental part of central Norway. The rugged topography, with its many depressions, valleys, bogs, lakes and wetlands, creates natural fire barriers. Measured on an international scale, relatively small areas are therefore expected to burn in individual fires. Differences in frequency of lightning, distribution of fuels, and the varying climatic conditions create distinct frequency gradients with respect to the occurrence of natural fires (IFFN, 1998). In Russia, frequency of fire depends on many factors: the spatial structure of landscapes, their ecological regimes, the fuel characteristics of forests and adjoining vegetation, typical fire weather during the burning period, inter-annual climate variability (recurrence of extreme drought), population density, accessibility, level of forest fire protection, etc (IFFN). Wildfires developed more often in forests under a more continental climate (e.g. in Eastern Siberia) and in drier habitats with sandy soils (e.g. on the fluvial-glacial plains of Western Siberia) (Karpachevskiy, 2004). Within parts of the boreal region there are still areas where a predominantly natural fire regime still reigns, and which is still largely beyond human control. In remote parts of Alaska, Canada and Siberia lightning ignitions supply most of the ignitions, particularly during episodes of severe drought (Granstrm, 2008). Weather conditions can be responsible of a great number of fires but above all, of large burned areas in some countries, mostly situated in Northern regions. Indeed, lightning-ignited fires contribute to 85% of the burned area and to 35% of the fires reported in Canada (Weber and Stocks, 1998). Lightning fires burn a disproportionate share of area because they are more likely to occur in remote areas, where they are harder to detect and to reach. This can lead to lightning-caused fires burning for longer periods of time before they are extinguished (Podur et al., 2003). In Alberta (Canada), it takes, on average, over 1400 lightning strikes to start a fire, whereas in British Columbia (Canada) less than 50 strikes are required. In British Columbia, there was a high degree of spatial overlap of lightning fire occurrence patterns produced in the 19611994 fire seasons. Elevation, the distribution of lightning strikes, Severity Rating values (Van Wagner, 1987) and vegetation composition were identified as the primary agents controlling lightning fire occurrence (Wierzchowski et al., 2002). In the temperate forests of Vancouver (Canada), the probability of burning was positively correlated with summer temperature and negatively correlated with precipitation (Pew and Larsen, 2001). In Ontario (Canada), a spatial statistical analysis of lightning-caused fires from 1976 to 1998 conducted with the spatial point pattern (SPP) method (Cressie, 1993), concluded that the
principal determinants of the spatial clustering of lightning-caused fire occurrence were localized according to dry weather and lightning-storm occurrence (Podur et al., 2003). In Yosemite National Park (USA), altitude-dependence for lightning causes was found (Van Wagtendonk, 1991) but not in Yellowstone Park where a dependence on fuel type and fuel moisture content was observed (Renkin and Despain, 1992). Although humans are responsible for the vast majority of fire ignitions in the eastern Kentucky (USA), weather conditions, topography, and other abiotic factors play a critical role in fire spread and behaviour (Pyne et al. 1996). There, human and abiotic factors influencing wildfire occurrence and distribution were studied from 1985 to 2002. The results showed that the total burned area was negatively associated with the 3-month mean Monthly Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) from the National Climate Data Center of the US Department of Commerce for October-December. Higher elevations were associated with higher fire occurrence and significant differences were observed in median slope with steeper slope associated with a higher fire occurrence (Maingi and Henry, 2007). Syphard et al. (2008) showed that the ignitions were most likely to occur close to roads, trails and housing development but were also related to the vegetation type. In contrast, biophysical variables related to climate and terrain explained most of the variation in fire frequency, fire being more likely to spread when located farther from urban development. Lightning-strike densities do not correlate well with fire start locations for several reasons, including fuel type, fuel condition, and atmospheric conditions (Rorig and Ferguson 1999). Rorig and Ferguson (2002) showed that the number of lightning-caused fires corresponded more closely to high instability and high dew point depression than to the total number of lightning strikes in the region. Lutz et al. (2009) showed that the decreasing spring snow pack exponentially increased the number of lightningignited fires. The snow pack mediated the lightning ignition by decreasing the proportion of lightning strikes that usually cause the fire. Extending from 22S to 55Lat S, Argentina presents a great diversity of ecosystems associated with the different climates. Fire is present in the different vegetation associations, varying in frequency, intensity and time of the year in response to the different habitat types, frequency of lightning storms, strong dry winds and rainy seasons (IFFN). In the Australian Capital Territory, no relationship between elevation, slope, aspect, or topography and lightning fires has been found (McRae, 1992). However, the highest fire frequencies were observed on basalt substrates, as edaphic factors drive vegetation patterns in the area (Vigilante et al., 2004). In Kakadu National Park (Australia), relationships between precipitation patterns (dry v. wet season) and fire occurrence were also found (Russell-Smith et al., 1997). In Syria, the hilly and mountainous slopes covered by mature mono-specific pine plantations, Mediterranean maquis mixed with olive tree, Mediterranean forest young mono-specific pine plantations and the forested mountainous steep areas next to the agriculture lands appear as the most exposed to fire risk because of the human pressure but also because of the prevailing presence of maquis and clusters of natural forests. As a result, the sandy and gravel soil appears as the most exposed to fire risk. (COBASE, 2006).
6.3.1.4. References
Achard F., Eva H. D., Mollicone D., Beuchle R., 2008. The effect of climate anomalies and human ignition factor on wildfires in Russian boreal forests. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society BBiological Sciences 363, 2331-2339. Alexandrian D. and Gouiran M., 1990. Les incendies de forts en France. Revue Forestire Franaise. XLII. N spcial, 34-41. Altobellis A.T., 1983. A survey of rural population density and forest fire occurrence in the South, 1956-1970: USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans. Research Note SO-294. Badia-Perpiny A. and Pallares-Barbera M., 2006. Spatial distribution of ignitions in Mediterranean periurban and rural areas: the case of Catalonia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 187196. Bonora L., Conese C, Lampin C., Martin P., Martinez J., Molina D., Salas J., 2002. Towards methods for investigating on wildland fire causes. Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory, a wall-less Laboratory for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies in the Euro-Mediterranean Region. Deliverable D-05-02. Cardille J.A.,Ventura S.J.,Turner M.G., 2001. Environmental and social factors influencing wildfires in the upper Midwest, United States. Ecological Applications 11, 111127.
Catry F.X., Damasceno P., Silva J.S., Galante M. Moreira F., 2007. Spatial Distribution Patterns of Wildfire Ignitions in Portugal. Conference Wildfire 2007, Seville (Spain). Chou Y., Minnich R., Chase R., 1993. Mapping probability of fire occurrence in San Jacinto Mountains, California, USA. Environmental Management 17, 129-140. Chuvieco E. and Congalton R.G., 1989. Application of remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems to Forest fire hazard mapping, Remote Sensing of Environment 29, 147-159. COBASE 2006. Risk and Sustainability Study and proposals on The Impact of Desertification, Watershed Management, and Wild Fires on Rural Development and Poverty in one Coastal Area of Syria (Latakia Governorate) A quest for synergies in the implementation of Rio Convention and related instruments. Participatory and Integrated Forest Fires Management Plan GCP/SYR/010/ITA. p50. Cressie N.A.C., 1993. Statistics for Spatial Data. Wiley, New York. Cunningham A.A., Martell D.L., 1976. The use of subjective probability assessments to predict forest fire occurrence. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 6, 348356. Donoghue L.R., Main W.A., 1985. Some Factors Influencing Wildfire Occurrence and Measurement of Fire Prevention Effectiveness, Journal of Environmental Management 20 (1), 87-96. EUFIRELAB, 2004. Towards methods for investigating on wildland fire causes (Coordinated by Martin P.). D-05-02. Franssila, M. 1959. Kulovaaran ja stekijiden vlisest riippuvuudesta (in Finnish, summary in English, The dependence of forest fire danger on meteorological factors). Acta Forestalia Fennica 67. Society of Forestry in Finland. Furyaev V.V., 1996. Rol pozharov v protsesse lesoobrazovaniya. [The Role of Fires in the Process of Forest Formation]. Novosibirsk, In Russian. Ganteaume A., Jappiot M., Long M., Lampin-Maillet C., Duch Y., Savazzi R., Bonora L., Conese C., Piwnicki J., Ubysz B., Szczygiel R., Galante M., Ferreira A., Suarez-Beltran J., 2009. State of the art (Final Report). Deliverable D 1.2. Contract number 384 340 Determination of forest fire causes and harmonization for reporting them. European Commission-JRC, p 277. Granstrm A., 2008. Forest fires in a changing climate. Review of the current knowledge from a Swedish perspective. Review for the Swedish Contingencies Agency. p 31. Henderson M., Kalabokidis K., Marmaras E., Konstantinidis P., Marangudakis M., 2005. Fire and society: a comparative analysis of wildfire in Greece and the United States. Hum Ecol Rev 12(2), 169 182. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 5 - June 1991, p. 2-3. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 9 - July 1993, p. 2-5. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 15 - September 1996, p. 22-23. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 18 - January 1998, p. 72-74. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 23 - December 2000, p. 54-57. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 28 (January June 2003) p. 37-40. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 28 (January June 2003) p. 73-81. International Forest Fire News (IFFN) No. 33 (January June 2005) p. 17-25. Karpachevskiy M., 2004. Forest fires in the Russia taiga. Taga Rescue Network. p 8. Kernen, J. 1929. Blitzschlag als Znder der Waldbrande im nrdlichen Finnland (in German). Acta Forestalia Fennica, 34, .25. Lampin C., Molina D., Pilar M., Caballero D., 2002. The Interest of Socio-Economical Sciences in Wildland Fires: a State of the Art. Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory, a wall-less Laboratory for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies in the Euro-Mediterranean Region Deliverable D-05-01. Langhart R., Bachmann A., Allgwer B., 1998. Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Fire Occurrence (Canton of Grison, Switzerland). In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Forest Fire Research / 14th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, Luso, Portugal, November, 16 20, Vol.2, 2279-2292. Lawson B.D., Armitage O.B., Dalrymple G.N., 1993. Ignition probabilities for simulated people-caused fires in British Columbia's lodgepole pine and white spruce-subalpine fir forests. In: Proceedings of the 12th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology. Society of American Foresters, Bethesda, MD, 493505.
Lekakis J.N., 1995. Social and Ecological Correlates of Rural Fires in Greece. Journal of Environmental Management 43, 41-47 Lovreglio R., Leone V., Giaquinto P., Notarnicola A., 2010. Wildfire cause analysis: four case-studies in southern Italy. iForest 3, 8-15. Lutz J.A., van Wagtendonk J.W., Thode A.E., Miller J.,D., Franklin J.F., 2009. Climate, lightning ignitions, and fire severity in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. International Journal ofWildland Fire 18, 765774. Maingi J. K., Henry M. C., 2007. Factor influencing wildfire occurrence and distribution in eastern Kentucky, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 23-33. Martell D.L., Otukol S., Stocks B.J., 1987. A logistic model for predicting daily people-caused forest fire occurrence in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17, 394-401. Martnez J., Vega-Garcia C., Chuvieco E., 2009. Human-caused wildfire risk rating for prevention planning in Spain. Journal of Environmental Management 90, 12411252. Mollicone D., Eva H.D., Achard F., 2006. Human role in Russian wild fires. Nature 440, 436437. McRae R.H.D., 1992. Prediction of areas prone to lightning ignition. International Journal of Wildland Fire 2, 123130. Moreira F., Rego F. C., Ferreira P. G., 2001. Temporal (1958-1995) pattern of change in a cultural landscape of northwestern Portugal: implications for fire occurrence. Landscape Ecology 16, 557-567. Noga L.G., Tikhonov V.V, 1979. O vozniknovenii lesnykh pozharov ot groz. [On the occurrence of forest fires from lightning.] Lesnoe khozyaistvo, no. 6, p. 58-59. In Russian. Odintsov D.I., 1995. Okhrana lesov ot ognya zadacha obshchaya. [Forest protection against fire as a common task.] Lesnoe khozyaistvo, no. 2, p. 28-31. In Russian. Pew K.L., Larsen C.P.S., 2001. GIS analysis of spatial and temporal patterns of human-caused wildfires in the temperate rainforest of Vancouver Island, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 140, 118. Podur J., Martell D. L., Csillag F., 2003. Spatial patterns of lightning-caused forest fires in Ontario, 1976-1998. Ecological Modelling 164, 1-20. Prestemon J.P.and Butry D.T., 2005. Time to burn: modeling wildland arson as an autoregressive crime function. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 87, 756770. Pyne S.J., Andrews P.L., Laven R.D., 1996. Introduction to Wildland Fire 2nd edn. (JohnWiley & Sons: NewYork). Renkin R.A., Despain D.G., 1992. Fuel moisture, forest type, and lightning-caused fire in Yellowstone National Park. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22, 3745. Romero-Calcerrada R., Novillo J., Millington J. D. A., Gomez-Jimenez I., 2008. GIS analysis of spatial patterns of human-caused wildfire ignition risk in the SW of Madrid (Central Spain). Landscape Ecology 23, 341354. Rorig, M. L., and S. A. Ferguson, 1999: Characteristics of lightning and wildland fire ignition in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Applied Meteorology 38, 15651575. Rorig M.L. and Ferguson S.A., 2002. The 2000 Fire Season: Lightning-Caused Fires. Journal of Applied Meteorology 41, 786-791. Russell-Smith J., Ryan P.G., Durieu R., 1997. A LANDSAT MSS-derived fire history of Kakadu National Park, monsoonal northern Australia, 198094: seasonal extent, frequency and patchiness. Journal of Applied Ecology 34, 748766. Sergienko V.N. , 1996. Sokhranim li nashi lesa? [Will we be able to preserve our forest?] Lesnoe khozyaistvo, no. 3, p. 5-6. In Russian. Sergienko V.N. , 1999 Borba s lesnymi pozharami: problemy I zadachi. [Fight against forest fires: problems and tasks.] Lesnoe khozyaistvo, no. 4, p. 47-51. In Russian. Sofronov M.A., Vakurov A.D., 1981. Ogon v lesu. [Fire in the forest.] Novosibirsk: Nauka. In Russian. Sturtevand B.R., Cleland D.T., 2007. Human and biophisical factors influencing modern fire disturbance in northern Wisconsin. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 398413. Syphard A.D., Radeloff V.C., Keuler N.S., Taylor R.S., Hawbaker T.J., Stewart S.I., Clayton M.K., 2008. Predicting spatial patterns of fire on a southern California landscape. International Journal of Wildland Fire 17, 602613. Tabara D., Sauri D., Cerdan R., 2003. Forest fire risk management and public participation in changing socio-environmental conditions: A case study in a Mediterranean region. Risk Analysis 23, 249-260.
Tuek J. and Majlingov A., 2009. Forest fire vulnerability analysis, 219-230. In: K. Strelcova et al. (eds) Bioclimatology and natural hazards, DOI 10.1007/978-8876-6-19, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. Van Wagner C.E., 1987. Development and Structure of the Canadian Forest Fire Index System. Canadian Forestry Service, Tech. Rep. 35, Ottawa. Van Wagtendonk J.W., 1991. Spatial analysis of lightning strikes in Yosemite National Park. In: Proceedings of the Eleventh Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, Royal Meteorological Society, Boston, 605611. Vasconcelos de M.J.P., Silva S., Tom M., Alvim M., Pereira J.M.C., 2001. Spatial prediction of fire ignition probabilities: comparing logistic regression and neural networks. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 67 (1), 73-83. Vasilakos C., Kalabokidis K., Hatzopoulos J., Kallos G., Matsinos J., 2007, Integrating new methods and tools in fire danger rating. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16 (3), 306316. Vasilakos C., Kalabokidis K., Hatzopoulos J., Matsinos I., 2008. Identifying wildland fire ignition factors through sensitivity analysis of a neural network. Natural hazards 1-19. Vazquez A., Moreno J.M., 2001. Spatial distribution of forest fires in Sierra de Gredos (Central Spain). Forest Ecology and Management 147, 5565. Vega Garcia C., Woodard P., Lee B., 1993. Geographic and temporal factors that seem to explain human-caused fire occurrence in Whitecourt Forest, Alberta. In: Proceedings of Symposium on GIS'93 International. Vancouver, Canada, Vol. 1, 115-119. Vega-Garca C., Woodard T., Adamowicz W.L., Lee B., 1995. A logit model for predicting the daily occurrence of human caused forest fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire 5(2), 101-111. Viegas D.X., Viegas M.T., 1994. A Relationship Between Rainfall and Burned Area for Portugal. International Journal of Wildland Fire 4(1), 11 -16. Vigilante T., Bowman D.M.J.S., Fisher R., Russell-Smith J., Yates C., 2004. Contemporary landscape burning patterns in the far North Kimberley region of north-west Australia: human influences and environmental determinants. Journal of Biogeography 31, 13171333. Weber M.G., Stocks B.J., 1998. Forest fires and sustainability in the boreal forests of Canada. Ambio 27, 545550. Wierzchowski J., Heathcott M., and Flannigan M.D., 2002. Lightning and lightning fire, central cordillera, Canada. International Journal of Wildland Fire 11, 4151 WWF (1993). Fires in the Mediterranean. [online] URL: http://www.env-edu.gr/Documents/Forest%20fires%20in%20the%20Mediterranean.doc Yang J., He H.S., Shifley S.R., Gustafson E.J., 2007. Spatial patterns of modern period human-caused fire occurrence in the Missouri Ozark Highlands. Forest Science 53, 115. Zakharov A.N. and Stolyrchuk A.V. , 1977. Pozhary ot groz v lesakh Tyumenskoy oblasti. [Fires caused by thunderstorms in forest of Tyumen Oblast.] Lesnoe khozyaistvo, no. 7, p. 74-75. In Russian. Zhai Y., Munn I.A., Evans D.L., 2003. Modeling forest fire probabilities in the south central United States using FIA data. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 27, 1117.
6.3.2. - WILDLAND-URBAN INTERFACES

6.3.2.1. Introduction
Wildfires in Wildand-urban interfaces (WUI) are a serious threat to communities in many countries over the world. They cause great damage that has ecological, social and economic consequences and can be significantly destructive as in California during 2003 and 2007, Greece in 2007 or Victoria in Australia during 2009 (Haynes et al., 2010). WUI are directly concerned by wildland fire and regarding the high urban pressure and the accumulation of wildland biomass, they are of high concern in terms of fire risk management (Davis, 1990; Velez, 1997; Cohen, 2001; Mell et al., 2010). This is particularly true regarding two fire risk components: hazard, in terms of fire ignition caused by human activities, and vulnerability, in terms of burned areas threatening inhabited areas (Hardy, 2005; Jappiot et al., 2009).
FIRESMART
6.3.2.2. WUI definition

According to Stewart et al. (2007), the term wildland-urban interface is now used almost exclusively in the context of wildland fire; but in fact there are different ways to define WUI. A wildland-urban interface is an area where houses meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland vegetation. Specifically developed areas that abut wildland vegetation are characterized as WUI (Davis, 1990; USDA-USDI, 1991 in Nowicki, 2002; Radeloff et al., 2005a; Theobald and Romme, 2007). WUIs are also areas where urban areas meet and interact with rural areas (Vince et al., 2005 in Avalapati et al., 2005), i.e. the zone where human development features intermingle with wildland vegetation (Collins, 2005). So the term WUI refers to the conjunction of housing and vegetation characteristics (Stewart et al., 2007; Lampin-Maillet et al., 2010).
6.3.2.3. WUI characterization

Human presence is measured by the density of houses and other infrastructures (Lampin et al., 2006a, 2006b; Caballero, 2004; Camia et al., 2003) or by the density of the population (Kamp and Sampson, 2002) or by the housing configuration considering four configuration types quantitatively defined and classified in: isolated, scattered, dense or very dense (Lampin-Maillet et al., 2009). Vegetation is defined as wildland forests (coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forest), scrublands, transitional lands (mostly clear-cuts) (Stewart et al., 2003; Radeloff et al., 2005b; Lampin et al., 2006a). Fuel maps are essential for computing fire risk across a landscape by characterizing the horizontal and vertical structure of the vegetation. However, making fuel maps is an extremely difficult and complex process (Keane et al., 2001). Data referring to the extent and location of WUIs are empirical and scarce, specifically for the purpose of land and fire management. Some methods developed at national or regional scales already allow the location and mapping of WUIs and provide tools for the elaboration of physical, emergency and self protection plans. However, according to Dumas et al. (2008) and Theobald and Romme (2007), more detailed data are required for planning and management activities and needed for fire risk management.
6.3.2.4. WUI and wildfire risk

The term Wildland-Urban interface (WUI) is used to refer to areas where formerly urban structures, primarily homes, are built in immediate proximity to naturally occurring flammable fuels (Summerfelt, 2001), to areas where homes or other human structures are located within or adjacent to flammable wildland fuels (Snchez-Guisndez et al., 2003). These composite systems are more and more threatened by forest fires, thus creating a new, worrying phenomenon: the wildland-urban interface fire (Pyne et al., 1996). So the Wildland-Urban Interface is where wildland fires destroy the most structures when fuels and weather are conductive to fire (Covington, 2000 cited by Radeloff et al., 2005) and where human-caused fire ignitions are most common (Cardille et al., 2001 cited by Radeloff et al., 2005). The question of how patterns of human settlement affect fire risk is of increasing importance for urban planning (Collinge, 1996; Alberti, 1999) in terms of fire prevention, i.e. the mitigation of fire ignition potential and the mitigation of burned areas in WUIs. According to different authors ( Syphard et al. 2007; Cardille et al. 2001; Pew and Larsen 2001, Haight et al. 2004; Badia-Perpinya and Montserrat-Pallares, 2006), ignition sources are linked to the spatial arrangement of houses and continuous vegetation. Accurate knowledge of the relation between spatial organisation of WUI and wildfire risk is thus required. In most Mediterranean countries, the human component of fire risk is critical, since human beings are the main agents of fire ignition, either by carelessness or arson (Chuvieco et al., 1997). This is particularly true where there is contact with flammable vegetation in wildland-urban interface. This WUI in the European environment and more specifically in the Mediterranean area is therefore a very complex spatial context with many interrelated social, natural resource and wildfire issues (Velez, 1997).
FIRESMART
Finally, wildland-urban fire contingency was found to be frequently associated to large fires and, in most cases, to crown fires development (Alexander et al., 1998). In many aspects, the wildland-urban interface is an artificial environment where structures and introduced vegetation, such as ornamental junipers, are placed in a wildland setting. Neither foresters nor urban firefighters are trained or equipped to cope with fire behaviour in this environment. Consequently, interface fires can be killers (Davis, 1990). To reduce fire risk, it is necessary to identify WUI housing areas that are more susceptible to wildfire. The mapping of the spatial pattern of burn probabilities was assessed by Massada et al. (2009) taking into account normal and extreme weather conditions, but also maps of structure locations and land cover types. Moreover, several works were carried out on modelling fire spread in the WUI and in live fuels in USA by diverse approaches. These modelling approaches used ranged from empirical to numerical to analytical and the scale of modelling ranged from single fuel particles to an entire fire perimeter (Weise and Wotton, 2010).
6.3.2.5. WUI typology

Different criteria are generally assessed in most cases with the application of GIS and remote sensing data. Based on the available bibliography, many research teams have made an effort to characterize and map wildland urban interfaces (Lampin et al., 2007; Lampin et al., 2010a). WUI typologies have been proposed, some of them are presented briefly. At national level In order to provide a spatially detailed national assessment of the WUI across U.S, and to inform both national policy and local land management concerning the WUI and associated issues, a WUI typology was provided (Sylvis Lab, 2005). The process combined housing density and vegetation in a buffer of 2.4 km (buffer distance corresponding to the distance that can be covered by firebrands carried aloft from a wildland fire to a roof of a house). Vegetation map was taken into account with 30m resolution. Six WUI types were defined according to values of housing density expressed in number of housing units per km2 and percentage of vegetation covering in a radius of 2.4km: (i) Low density interface, (ii) Medium density interface, (iii) High density interface, (iv) Low density intermix, (v) Medium density intermix and (vi) High density intermix. At landscape and/or local level With a view of elaboration of physical plan, emergency plan and self protection plan, a WUI typology was defined combining (i) vegetation (sparse or dense), (ii) house density (sparse or dense) and (iii) degree of clustering of both components (Caballero et al., 2004 and Caballero and Beltran 2004). A buffer of 500m around settlement boundary was considered. Six WUI types were defined according to house-vegetation patterns: (i) Sparse Intermix with sparse uniform housing density and dense vegetation, (ii) Clustered Intermix with sparse clustered housing density and dense vegetation, (iii) Intermix with dense uniform housing density and dense uniform vegetation, (iv) Urban interface with dense clustered housing density and dense uniform vegetation, (v) Internal urban interface with dense uniform housing density and dense clustered vegetation, and (vi) Clustered urban interface with dense clustered housing density and dense clustered vegetation. In order to discuss the impact of urban landscape development on wildland areas, urban-forest interface types were computed (Dumas et al., 2008). For that, 3 landscape pattern metrics were used, quantifying both proportion and configuration of land-cover classes, to classify various relationships between houses and forests: percentage of landscape (PLAND), landscape shape index (LSI) and Shannon diversity (SHDI). Five urban-forest interface types were differentiated as follows: (i) houses without forest contact, (ii) compact subdivisions, (iii) compact subdivisions in forested areas, (iv) dispersed subdivisions in forested areas, and (v) scattered houses in forested area. Interface typology was also conducted by identifying the different morphologies defined by urbanization processes and by placing them in the context of the type of landscape where they are located (Galiana et al., 2007).
FIRESMART
For planning and management activities and also for fire risk management, the WUI typology involves the characterization of wildland urban interfaces and their mapping at a large scale over large areas (Lampin-Maillet et al., 2010b). A first approach was developed combining housing density and aggregation of vegetation defining a typology in six types (Lampin et al., 2006b, 2005 and Jappiot et al., 2002).
6.3.2.6. WUI management

Vegetation treatments in the WUI Reduction of the amount of fuel The removal of fuel immediately surrounding a house creates a fire-resistant barrier that reduces the likelihood of a home being destroyed by wildfire (Cohen, 2001). Reducing the amount of fuel within WUI areas is the best prevention from destructive wildfire (Winter and Fried, 2002) and different fuel treatment strategies were compared in the literature (Safford et al., 2008, Ager et al., 2010). To ignite a house without reaching it directly, the fire must provide sufficient radiant heat for long enough to raise the temperature of the surface of the house to its ignition point. Experimental studies and modelling have shown that partial removal of trees within 40 metres of the house protects it against radiant ignition from the flames of a torching and crowning forest fire (Cohen and Butler 1998, Cohen 2001). These studies assumed severe conditions, and lesser distances may suffice. Another study (Davis, 1990) found a precipitous drop in structural ignition with a distance of only 20 metres between the house and forest vegetation. Therefore, a treatment extending 60 metres from the house provides a margin of safety to account for particularly steep slopes or tall trees, and protects against scorching of exterior walls (Nowicki, 2002). This removal of fuel can be mandatory for homeowners and communities. For example in France (Forest Orientation Law of July, 2001), it is mandatory to clean brush around houses, located to less than 200 metres to forests and garrigues, in a radius of 50 metres (sometimes 100 metres) and along roads in a radius of 10 metres (sometimes 20 metres). Some local regulations are completed by technical recommendations in order to insure the effectiveness of the operation such as in Corsica (Rigolot et al., 2003). Commission can also be developed such as Prescott Area Wildland Urban Interface Commission (PAWUIC) in USA to be involved with managing fuel reduction programs, fire safety awareness, and developing local bioenergy and wood products markets to use the biomass removed from the local wildland urban interface (Iversen and Van Demark, 2006). Avoiding the accumulation of fuel A new way of looking at reducing fire hazards in the WUI in the context of ongoing efforts to protect communities from all hazards was to propose the Four E-Model that included education, engineering, enforcement but also ecosystems management to avoid the accumulation of wildland fuels. To costeffectively manage fuel specific land management techniques are needed in order to maintain the ecosystem within an acceptable range of fuel conditions (Keller, 2005). In the same way Prescott Area Wildland Urban Interface Commission (PAWUIC) in USA developed the idea that maintaining healthy forests will sustain safer communities and local economics (Iversen and Van Demark, 2006). Prescribed burning The use of prescribed burning in WUI requires education to explain what is done and what the ecological consequences are. The responsibility of owners is to maintain a protection structure around their houses, as it is indicated in the prevention fire law. The prescribed burning is a good opportunity to coordinate all suppression resources and to try reintroducing the fire culture and practicing fire management instead of fire suppression (Martinez and Leonard, 2002). Prescribed burning in wildland urban interface requires often less effort than the planning, co-operation and co-ordination necessary prior to ignition (Miller and Wade, 2003). But opportunities to use prescribed fire for the sake of ecosystem restoration may be greatly enhanced in wildland/urban interface areas if home ignitability is reduced (Cohen, 1999).
FIRESMART
Treatments on homes structures in the WUI Every year in USA, Canada and Australia, among other countries, frequently houses themselves are part of the fuel which initiates and propagates the fire, according to the sustained ignition of building materials used (Caballero and Beltran, 2003).The research for the Structure Ignition Assessment Model (SIAM) that includes modelling, experiments, and case studies, indicates so that effective residential fire loss mitigation must focus on the home and its immediate surroundings. Home ignitability, rather than wildland fuels, is the principal cause of home losses during wildland-urban interface fires. Key items are flammable roofing materials (e.g. cedar shingles) and the presence of burnable vegetation (e.g. ornamental trees, shrubs, wood piles) immediately adjacent to homes. Current strategies for wildland fuel reduction may be inefficient and ineffective for reducing home losses. Extensive wildland fuel reduction on public lands does not effectively reduce home ignitability on private lands. Given non-flammable roofs, Stanford Research Institute found that 95 percent of homes survived where vegetation clearance of 10 to 18 metres was maintained around the homes (Cohen, 1999). Some internet sites such as Firewise program (http://firewise.org) or FEMA Advices (http://www.fema.gov) propose recommendations to homeowners to help them for protecting their houses and their surroundings. In Europe similar situations exist, but in most cases, the factors and conditions for forest fire propagation in the settlements are different. Houses in the wildland-urban interfaces are surrounded by vegetation and other fuels such as wild vegetation of the nearby or ornamental vegetation. The fire goes breakthrough in the house destroying partially or totally the building (Caballero and Beltran, 2004). The traditional use of non-flammable material for building of houses (concrete, bricks, stone, clay roof tiles) in Mediterranean countries explains the low flammability of houses themselves. Performance of building materials when facing a flame front have been tested in Europe to propose future recommendations (Caballero et al., 2005). Nowadays some internet sites are going to be developed for homeowners of the European countries to give them recommendations about brush cleaning for example (http://www.eufirestar.org), some bases have been produced to generate regulation paper (http://www.eufirelab.org).
6.3.2.7. References
Ager A.A., Vaillant N. M., Finney M.A., 2010. A comparison of landscape fuel treatment strategies to mitigate wildland fire risk in the urban interface and preserve old forest structure. Forest Ecology and Management 259, 1556-1570. Alberti, M. 1999. Urban patterns and environmental performance: what do we know? J. Plann. Educ. Res. 19 (2), 151163. Alexander, M. E., B. J. Stocks, B. M. Wotton, M. D. Flannigan, J. B. Todd, B. W. Butler, Lanoville.R.A. 1998. The international crown fire modelling experiment: an overview and progress report. Pp. 20-23. In: Proceedings of the second symposium on fire and forest meteorology. January 12-14, 1998, Phoenix, AZ. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society. Avalapati, J.R.R., Carter, D.R., & Newman, D.H. 2005. Wildland-Urban Interface: challenges and opportunities. Forest Policy and Economics 7, 705-708. Badia-Perpinya, A., Montserrat-Pallares, B. 2006. Spatial distribution of ignitions in Mediterranean periurban and rural areas: the case of Catalonia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, 187-196. Bar Massada A., Radeloff V.C., Stewart S.I., Hawbaker T.J. 2009. Wildfire risk in the Wildland-urban interface: a simulation study in northswestern Wisconsin. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 19901999. Caballero D., Beltran I. 2003. Concepts and ideas of assessing settlement fire vulnerability in the W-UI zone. Forest fires in the wildland-urban interface and rural areas in Europe: an integral planning and management challenge, Athens, Greece. Caballero, D. 2004. Conclusions of the Third WARM workshop on forest fires in the wildland-urban Interface in Europe. Madrid, Spain, 26-27th of May. WARM Project Final Report. European Commission. Caballero, D., Giroud, F., Picard, C, Xanthopoulos, G., 2004. EUFIRELAB/ Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory, a "wall-less" laboratory for wildland fire Sciences and technologies in the EuroMediterranean Region - Deliverable D-10-01- Wildland-Urban Interface Management: A state of the art.
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Caballero, D., Beltran, I., 2004. WARM. Conclusions of the III Workshop on forest fires in the wildlandurban interface and rural areas in Erope. Fires of 2003: lessons learnt and how can we use them. Caballero, D., Giroud, F., Picard, C, Xanthopoulos, G., 2005. EUFIRELAB/ Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory, a "wall-less" laboratory for wildland fire Sciences and technologies in the EuroMediterranean Region - Deliverable D-10-02- Towards methods for Managing the Wildland-Urban Interface (intermediate report). Camia, A., Valera, V., Marzano, R., Etchifidis, G., 2003. Spatial analysis in European Wildland-urban interface environment using GIS. Forest fires in the wildland-urban interface and rural areas in Europe: an integral planning and management challenge, Athens, Greece. Cardille, J.A., Ventura, S.J., Turner, M.G. 2001. Environmental and social factors influencing wildfires in the Upper Midwest, United states. Ecological Applications 11, 111-127 Chuvieco, E., Salas, F.J., Vega, C., (1997). A review of Remote sensing methods for the study of large fires-ENV-CT96-0256- Remote sensing and GIS for longterm fire risk mapping. In A review of remote sensing methods for the study of large wildland fires. (Ed. E Chuvieco) pp. 91108. Megafires Project ENV-CT96-0256. Alcala de Henares, Spain. Cohen, J.D., Butler, B.W., 1998. Modelling potential structure ignitions from flame radiation exposure with implications for wildland-urban interface fire management. Thirteen Fire and forest meteorology Conference, Lorne, Australia 1996- International association of wildland fire. Cohen, J. D., 1999. Reducing the Wildland Fire Threat to Homes: Where and How Much? Fire Economics Symposium, San Diego, California. Cohen, J. D., 2001. Examination of the home destruction in Los Alamos associated with the Cerro grande Fire Examination of the home destruction in Los Alamos associated with the Cerro Grande Fire, July 10, 2000. Unpublished report. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. Collinge, S. 1996. Ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation: implications for landscape architecture and planning. Landscape Urban Planning 36, 5077. Collins, T. W., 2005. "Households, forests, and fire hazard vulnerability in the American West: a study case of a Califorlia community." Environmental Hazards 6: pp 23-37. Davis, J. B., 1990. "The wildland-urban interface: paradise or battleground?" Journal of Forestry 6, 88 (1), pp. 26-31. Dumas, E., Jappiot, M., Tatoni, T. 2008. Mediterranean urban-forest interface classification (MUFIC): A quantitative method combining SPOT5 imagery and landscape ecology indices. Landscape and Urban Planning 84, 183190. Galiana, L., Herrero, G., Solana, J. 2007. Caracterizacin y clasificacin de Interfaces UrbanoForestales mediante anlisis paisajstico. El ejemplo de Sierra Calderona (Comunidad Valenciana, Espaa). IV International Wildland Fire Conference, Seville (Spain), 13-18 May de 2007. Book of abstracts. Organismo Autnomo de Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. p. 285. ISBN: 978-84-8014-, 691-3. Haight, R. G., Cleland, D.T., Hammer, R.B., Radeloff, V.C., Rupp, S.S. 2004. "Assessing Fire Risk in the Wildland-Urban Interface." Journal of Forestry 102, 41-48. Hardy, C.C. 2005. Wildland fire hazard and risk: Problems, definitions, and context. Forest Ecology and Management 211, 73-82. Haynes K., Handmer J., McAneney J., Tibbits A., Coates L. 2010. Australian bushfire fatalities 19902008: exploring trends in relation to the Prepare, stay and defend or leave early policy. Environmental Science and Policy 13, 185-194. Iversena, K., Van Demark, R. 2006. "Integrating fuel reduction management with local bioenergy operations and businessesA community responsibility." Biomass and Energy 30: 304-307. Jappiot, M., Gonzalez-Olabarria, J.R., Lampin-Maillet, C., Borgniet, L. 2009. Assessing wildfire risk in time and space. In Living with wildfires: What science can tell us? A contribution to the science-policy dialogue; Ed Yves Birot. P 41-47. Jappiot, M., Sauer, S., Alibert, N. , Philibert-Caillat, C. 2002. Wildland/urban interfaces and fire risk. An automatic mapping IV International conference on Forest Fire Research 2002 Wildland Fire Safety summit, Luso, Portugal. Kamp, M., Sampson, N. 2002. "Using GIS to identify potential wildland-urban interface areas based on population density." www.sampsongroup.com/Papers/wui_paper.pdf. 9 p.
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Keane, R. E., Burgan, R., Van Wagtendonk, J. 2001. Mapping wildland fuels for fire management across multiple scales: integrating remote sensing, GIS, and biophysical modelling. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10 (4): 301-319. Keller, J. A. 2005. "A new look at wildland-urban interface hazard reduction." Fire Management Today 65(3): 8-10. Lampin C., Mantzavelas A., Galiana L., Jappiot M., Long M., Herrero G., Karlsson O., Iossifina A., Thalia L., Thanassis P., 2010a. Wildland-urban interfaces, fire behaviour and vulnerability: characterization, mapping and assessment. (pp 71-92). In J. Silva, F. Rego, P. Fernandes and E. Rigolot (Eds) Towards integrated fire management- Outcomes of the European Project Fire Paradox. European Forest Intstitute Research Report 23. Lampin-Maillet, C., Jappiot, M., Long, M., Bouillon C., Morge, D., Ferrier, J.P., 2010b. Mapping wildland-urban interfaces at large scales integrating housing density and vegetation aggegation for fire prevention in the South of France. Journal of Environmental Management 91, 732-741. Lampin-Maillet, C., Jappiot, M., Long, M., Morge, D., Ferrier, J.P. 2009. Characterization and mapping of dwelling types for forest fire prevention. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 33 (2009), pp. 224-232, doi:10.1016/j. compenvurbsys. 2008.07.003. Lampin, C., Long, M., Jappiot, M., Morge, D., 2007. Dwelling characterization and mapping for forest fire risk prevention. UDMS annual 2007. In Proceedings of the urban data management society symposium 2007 (pp 427-440), Stuttgart, Germany, 10-12 October 2007. Lampin, C., Jappiot, M., Long, M., Borgniet, L. 2006a: Cartographie des interfaces habitat-fort. Une approche spatiale pour estimer le risque dincendie de fort, Revue internationale de Gomatique. European journal of GIS and Spatial analysis. Information gographique et gestion des risques vol16, n3-4 : 2006 pp. 320-S340. Lampin, C., Jappiot, M., Long, M., Mansuy, N., Borgniet, L. 2006b. WUI and road networks/vegetation interfaces characterizing and mapping for forest fire risk assessment, Forest Ecology and Management 234S, pp. S137-S140. Lampin, C., Jappiot, M., Borgniet, L., Long, M., Dumas, E. 2005. SIG -Analyse spatiale- Outils de caractrisation et cartographie des interfaces habitat-fort. International Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis Conference, Avignon, France. Martinez, E., Leonard, S. 2002. Prescribed fire to improve interface protection in front of wildfires. Forest fire research & Wildland fire safety, Coimbra, Luso Portugal. Mell W.E., Manzello S.L., Maranghides A., Butry D., Rehm R.G. 2010. The Wildland-urban interface fire problem current approaches and research needs. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 238-251. Miller, S. R., Wade, D. 2003. "Re-introducing fire at the wildland-urban interface: planning for success." Forestry 76(2): pp 253-259. Nowicki, B. 2002. "The Community protection Zone: Defending houses and Communities from the threat of forest fire." Center for Biological Diversity. http://www.sw-center.org/swcbd/Programs/fire/wui1.pdf.4/15/03. Pew, K.L., Larsen, C.P.S. 2001. GIS analysis of spatial and temporal patterns of human-caused wildfires in the temperate rain forest of Vancouver Island, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 140, 1, 1-18. Pyne, S. J., Andrew, P.L., Laven, R.D. 1996. "Introduction to Wildland fire" New York Wiley: 769p. Radeloff, V. C., Hammer, R.B, Stewart, S.I, Fried, J.F, Holcomb, S.S., McKeefry, J.F. 2005. "The wildland-urban interface in the United States." Ecological Applications 15 (3): pp 799-805. Rigolot, E., Castelli, L., Cohen, M., Costa, M., Duche, Y. 2003. Recommendations for fuel-break design and fuel management at the wildland urban interface: an empirical approach in South Eastern France. Forest fires in the wildland-urban interface and rural areas in Europe: an integral planning and management challenge, Athens, Greece. Safford H.D., Schmidt D.A., Carlson C.H. 2009. Effects of fuel treatments on fire severity in an area of Wildland-urban interface, Angora, Lake Tahoe basin, California. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 773-787. Sanchez Guisandez, M., Cui, W., Martell, D.L. 2003. FIRESMART Strategies for wildland urban interface landscapes. Forest fires in the wildland-urban interface and rural areas in Europe: an integral planning and management challenge, Athens, Greece. SilvisLab, 2005. "The Wildland-urban Interface (WUI) defined." Forest Ecology and Management University of WisconsinMadison. http://silvis.forest.wisc.edu/library/WUIDefinitions2.asp, consultation in June 2010.
Stewart, S.I., Radeloff, V.C., Hammer R.B. 2003. Characteristics and location of the Wildland-UrbanInterface in the United States, pp. 6. Proceedings of the 2nd International Wildland Fire Ecology and Fire Management Workshop, November 16-20, 2003, Orlando, Florida. Stewart, S.I., Radeloff, V.C., Hammer, R.B., Hawbaker, T.J. 2007. Defining the Wildland-Urban Interface. Journal of Forestry 201- 207. Summerfelt, P. 2001. The Wildland-Urban http://www.gffp.org/pine/risk/default.htm 4/14/03. interface. What's really at risk?
Syphard, A.D., Radeloff, V., Keeley, J., Hawbaker, T.J., Clayton, M.K., Stewart, S.I., Hammer, R.G. 2007a. Human influence on California regimes. Ecological Applications 17(5), 1388-1402. Theobald, D.M., Romme, W.H. 2007. Expansion of the US wildland-urban interface. Landscape and Urban Planning 83, 340-354. Vlez, R. 1997. Recent history of forest fires in Mediterranean area. In: Balabanis P, Eftichidis G, Fantechi R (eds) Forest fire risk and management. Proceedings of the European School of Climatology and Natural Hazards, Greece, 27 May4 June 1992. European Commission, Brussels, 1526. Weise D.R., Wotton M. 2010. Wildland-urban interface fire behaviour and fire modelling in live fuels. International Journal of Wildland Fire 19, 149-152. Winter, G., Fried J. S. 2000. Homeowner perspectives on fire hazard, responsability, and management strategies at the wildland-urban interface. Society and Natural Resources 13(1): 33-49.
6.3.3. PREVENTIVE SILVICULTURE IN MEDITERRANEAN FOREST TO MITIGATE FIRE RISKS: WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS?
6.3.3.1. Introduction
Fire spread and impacts are the result of a complex interaction of factors acting at different scales Analysing the possible factors that play a role in the impacts of fire on forests requires a multi-scale approach. At a broad scale, meteorological factors such as wind speed and direction, the temperature regime, air moisture influence fire eclosion, propagation and intensity. At the medium scale of the landscape level, other biotic and abiotic variables are involved as shown by previous studies (Turner and Romme, 1994; Cumming, 2001). Spatial arrangement and the composition of the forests lands and other vegetation types can influence fire severity patterns (Finney, 2001; Cumming, 2001). For instance fire propagation can be hampered by transition from brodleaves species to conifers as reported in boreal countries (Cumming, 2001; Bergeron et al., 2004; Hirsch et al., 2004). Fires do not also equally affect land use types in the Mediterranean areas: croplands, pastures and broadleaves forests were less affected than conifer or mixed stands and shrublands (Moreira et al., 2001; Mouillot et al., 2003). Among the abiotic variables, the medium-scale topographic and climatic variables interact with the previous factors to determine fire size and fire severity. Actions of fire prevention also operate at multiple scales As reported above, landscape structural features were shown to play a role in controlling fire characteristics (e.g. Viedma et al., 2009; Oliveras et al., 2009). Fire prevention can be planned at this scale by controlling land use types arrangement like positioning areas with low fuel load (e.g. croplands, vineyards, orchards) in order to break fuel continuity and limit fire spread (Agee et al., 2000). A second possibility is to establish fire equipments (like roads, fire breaks, water tanks) to improve the efficiency of the firemen operations. These options mentioned in Figure 6.3-8 can be however restricted by capacity of managers to convince land owners to follow a specific management plan and to mobilise sufficient financial resources. At the stand scale, forest owners can influence other parameters to limit fire propagation and their impact on the forest vegetation mainly by controlling stand structure and composition. The present study focuses at the stand level and examines the possible silvicultural preventive operations
FIRESMART
Creating forest structures that can reduce fire severity1 may decrease the need for an aggressive suppression response and could eventually reduce the costs of fire suppression. We examine here the different silvicultural options to mitigate fire risks at stand level.
PREVENTIVE SILVICULTURE Stand management (Silvicultural methods)
Landscape management
Fire equipments (fuel breaks, roads)
Structure (number of layers, dimensions)
Spatial patterns of land use types (vegetation, agricultural areas)
Composition (Broadleaves, conifers, mixed)
Limiting fire size and severity
Increasing stand resistance and resilience to fire
Figure 6.3-8 Limiting fire size and fire consequences on the vegetation can be handled at the landscape level and the stand level. In this study the focus is put on the stand level and examines the influence of stand structure and composition on resistance and resilience
6.3.3.2. Characterization parameters
of
fire
behaviour
as
function
of
main
stand
The importance of stand structure has been demonstrated to be a key factor influencing fire behaviour above other stand characteristics like species composition. Structure defines the amount of biomass that can burn and therefore the energy that can be released during a fire at different stand levels. Indeed stand structure influence fuel availability at the crown level (live and dead material in the canopy of the trees) and at the surface layer (shrub layer, grass layer, litter). The size distribution of the structural components defines the rate at which energy will be released during the fire (Ryan, 2002). Modifications of stand structure by silvicultural operations therefore have implications for fire behaviour, severity and suppression effectiveness. We examine there the role of the main stand structural attributes towards fire behaviour (crown fire, surface fire). The different types of fire hazards in forest stands: a focus on crown fires Forest stands are submitted to different types of fires: ground, surface and crown fires (Pyne et al., 1996). Ground fires are fires burning ground fuels (roots, organic soils, buried logs etc.) whereas surface fires only burn the fuel layer just above the ground fuels. Crown fires burn in elevated canopy fuels that consist of the live and foliage and the fine live and dead branchwood. They tend to show the lowest bulk density of all fuels (Graetz et al., 2007). The two last types concern most fires in European forest. Crown fires are of a special concern because: i) they are more difficult to control than a surface fire (Scott and Reinhardt, 2001; Graetz et al., 2007) owing to faster spread rates and intensities (Rothermel, 1991) ii) they lead to more lethal stand effects and iii) are more dangerous when trying to defend structures in the wildland-urban interface. Three types of crown fires can be differentiated according to Van Wagner (1977):
In the US a minimum objective to reduce fire severity is formalized through the 80-80 rule: 80% of the dominant and codominant residual trees survive a wildfire under the 80th percentile fire weather conditions.
the passive crown fire (or torching or candling) in which the flames spread from a surface fire to the canopy but the fire is not maintained in the canopy, the active crown fire (or running or continuous crown fire) where both surface and canopy fires are linked and advance simultaneously. There is generally a solid wall of flame extending from the surface fuel bed through the upper canopy the independent crown fire that sustains itself without contributions from an underlying fire. This type of fire is rare and occurs in extreme weather and topographic conditions (Van Wagner, 1993). According to the equations of Van Wagner (1977) a surface fire can escalate into a crown fire if the surface fire intensity exceeds the critical crown fire intensity: SFI>CFI SFI is the surface fire intensity (kW/m) and CFI the critical crown fire intensity (kW/m) with SFI = 300*RSS*SFC RSS is the surface spread rate (m/min) and SFC is the surface fuel consumption (kg/m2) CFI = 0.01*(CBH)1.5 * (460+25.9*FMC)1.5 CBH is the crown base height (m) and FMC the foliar moisture content (in %). Whether or not crown ignition is sustained is determined by rate of spread and crown bulk density (CBD) which can be described as the mass of available canopy fuel per unit canopy volume. It should be kept in mind that these equations are based on a number of simplifying assumptions and limitations (Cruz, 1999) and that the transition to crown fire is a complex phenomenon depending on various variable factors difficult to be described by mathematical models (Dimitrakopoulos et al., 2007). Surface fire intensity which controls flame length, crown base height and foliage moisture content are important determinants of crown fire (Van Wagner, 1977). For a given crown moisture content, crown ignition will occur if flame length exceeds a certain length depending of crown base height (Figure 6.39a). Even though a surface fire might ignite tree crowns, the resulting crown fire is however not necessarily sustained. This is determined by the rate of spread and crown bulk density. The minimum spread rate for active crown fire is decreasing with increasing bulk density (Figure 6.3-9b) which depends in turn of species composition and structure. Crown fire spread rate also increases with wind speed and slope (Figure 6.3-9c). From these considerations, it results that surface fuel conditions, crown bulk density and crown base height are key parameters in fire behavior and can be directly managed by thinning or other similar treatments (Graham et al., 1999).
6.3.3.3. Influence of stand attributes on fire risk

Forest cover and composition Stands with a high open crown cover and low understorey fuels have poor vertical fuel continuity and show less crown fire potential whereas stands with high vertical and horizontal fuel continuity have the highest crown fire potential (Finney, 1999; Scott and Reinhardt, 2001). Stands with a dense understorey of shrubs or trees of different height classes belong to this last category. In a recent study on the influence of stand characteristics (structure and composition) on fire hazard potential in Portugal, Fernandes (2009) showed that stand structure and in particular canopy openness rather than cover type was the major determinant of fire vulnerability contradicting frequent assertions made on the importance of vegetation composition on fire hazards. The author classified different types of stands according to increasing potential fire risk: Open tall forest and tall Quercus suber forest < closed low woodlands of deciduous oaks, closed tall tall Pinus pinaster stands and tall Eucalyptus globulus plantations < open and low forest types < dense low stands of Pinus pinaster, eucalyptus and Acacia. In Portugal again, Silva et al. (2009) ranked stand fire proneness according to the following decreasing order: maritime pine forests > eucalyptus forests > unspecified broadleaf
FIRESMART
forests > unspecified conifer forests >cork oak forests > chestnut forests > holm oak forests>stone pine. Paradoxically in the first study open structures exhibited a lower understorey fuel load and are therefore less vulnerable than denser and more closed structures. This expresses that structural variables (cover, height, density) do not necessarily reflect fire hazard but that these variables have to be analyzed together with other parameters like stand history and stand dynamics.
FIRESMART
Figure 6.3-9. Main parameters of crown fire behaviour. a) Flame lengths required to ignite conifer crowns as function of base height and for different foliage moisture content (Alexander, 1988; Van Wagner, 1977) b) Rate of spread required for crown fires to be sustained as function of stand crown bulk density (Alexander,1988; Van Wagner, 1977) c) Crown fire spread rates for different slopes and wind speeds (Rothermel, 1991)
However species composition can influence fire behaviour but possible interactions have to be considered. First, because of different crown bulk density, species exhibiting lower bulk densities are theoretically less susceptible to sustain a crown fire. For instance Graham et al. (1999) recorded in the western US a bulk density two times lower in a mixed stand of grand fir, Douglas-fir and western white pine than in a stand dominated by the ponderosa pine (respectively 0.006 and 0.013 pound per cubic foot). Crown fire would be therefore more difficult to sustain in the mixed stand than in the ponderosa pine stand. However, bulk density is also related to crown transparency i.e. to light transmission. Light transmission in turn is a key factor controlling the growth of the understorey (e.g. Barbier et al., 2008). Therefore, stands composed of species with relatively high crown transparency (like Aleppo pine) or exhibiting opened canopies (clear forests) can harbour abundant vegetation in their understorey increasing thus the risk of ground fire and crown fire. Tree dimensions and bark thickness In general, tree resistance to fire increases with age i.e. with its dimensions. Increasing crown size, stem diameter, total height and height to crown base and bark thickness lead to higher tolerance to fire. The relative importance of these attributes and the age at which they develop is however variable among species and depend of the environmental factors (site and climatic conditions). As shown below, total height and height to the crown base are important parameters in fire behaviour. The probability of crown injury also decreases with increasing plant height and height of the livecrown-base at roughly the two-thirds power of the fireline intensity2 (Dickinson and Johnson, 2001). Stem injury decreases with the square of the bark thickness, which increases with tree diameter (Johnson, 1992). The duration of heating needed to kill the cambium beneath the bark also increases with the square of the bark thickness (Bond and Van Wilgen, 1996). Thick bark (like for Quercus suber in Europe) is considered as a passive defense mechanism in fire-prone environment. For instance, Banj Shafiei et al. (2010) studying the impacts of fire on forests in northern Iran showed that thin barked species such as oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) and coliseum maple (Acer cappadocicum Gled.) have been affected more than those with thick bark, like hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) and chestnut-leaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia C.A. Mey). Thick-barked species show lower maximum cambial temperatures and longer times to reach peak lethal temperatures (Hengst and Dawson, 1994). The temperature that kills the vascular cambium is debated but many estimate that the lethal temperature is reached at temperatures exceeding 60C (see Leone and Lovreglio, 2005). However, it is important to note that the passive defence induced by bark is efficient only in the case of surface fires for the Mediterranean pines as they are almost always killed by crown fires (Leone and Lovreglio, 2005). Stand structure Mature and even-aged stage are usually more resistant than young or multi-layered stands (Agee et al. 2000; Pollet and Omi, 2002; Fernandes and Rigolot, 2007; Gonzlez et al. 2007) and have lower probability of being affected by fire (Gonzlez et al., 2006). Regeneration methods that favour evenaged structures are thus expected to reduce fire susceptibility. However these methods by using intense thinning produce large amounts of slash that increases the fire risk. Additionally the young evenaged stages stands produced are also more susceptible to fire due to low mean height and large development of the ground vegetation (shrub, herb) leading to the accumulation of very flammable surface fuels (Gonzlez and Pukkala, 2007; Moreira et al. 2001; Pollet and Omi, 2002). Structure has a main a factor influencing fire characteristics has to be considered at different scales, not at the sole stand level. The spatial arrangement of the stands at a higher scale can also influence susceptibility to fire. Stands disposed through a spatial gradient of increasing height, created for instance by a particular timing of regeneration cuts, can induce a higher susceptibility to fire severity (Figure 6.3-10a) By contrast, spatial disposition enhancing vertical discontinuities are more adapted to limit fire damages (Figure 6.3-10b). In addition to traditional means (fuelbreaks, fire equipment) the
2
Fire line intensity (kM/m) is the product of fuels heat content (kJ/kg), fuel mass consumed (kg/m2) and rate of spread (m/s). It is proportional to the flame length in a spreading fire and is a useful measure of the potential damage to the above ground structure (Ryan, 2002)
spatial arrangement of the stands can be designed in forest management to limit potential of fire effects.
Wind direction
Figure 6.3-10. Different schematic spatial organisations of stands. a) disposition along an age and dimension gradient favourable to fire spread, b) disposition with vertical discontinuities more susceptible to limit fire propagation
6.3.3.4. The role of thinning in fire behaviour

One of the most common measure to limit fire severity in stands is thinning. Thinning is a silvicultural operation aiming at removing trees in overstocked stands in order to reduce competition and to give more growing space to the remaining trees. Usually practiced for commercial purpose, thinning can be a useful tool to reinforce stand structure, modify stand composition and reduce fire through (Leone and Lovreglio, 2005). Actually, thinning can influence - to a variable degree- main stand parameters linked to fire severity such as mean crown base height, canopy bulk density, canopy continuity and surface fuel loads. The different types of thinning There are different methods of thinning, the most used are the following (Graham et al., 1999)(Figure 6.3-11): Above thinning or crown thinning aims at removing dominant and codominant trees and at releasing the competition on trees belonging to lower diameter classes. This type of thinning, more frequently practiced in North America than in Europe, can be used to favour understorey species and thus can lead to a large modification of stand composition. Although it can provide a valuable income due to the harvest of the biggest trees, its impact can be detrimental on stand fire susceptibility due to decreasing crown base height and diameter. Selection thinning is understood, at least for European forests, as an operation releasing competition in the overstorey by removing a variable proportion of the codominant trees depending of the thinning intensity. Most of the dominant trees are left uncut (except for trees with sanitary problems or with a bad conformation) as well as suppressed trees. Mainly for the same reasons as the previous type of thinning, this treatment is not favourable in reducing fire risks. Below thinning consists in removing all trees belonging to the lowest diameters classes submitted thus to intense or moderate competition. Consequently, suppressed trees are cut and, depending to the intensity, a variable proportion of the codominant trees. Below thinning reduces fire risks in the short term by increasing crown base height and mean tree diameter and suppressing ladder fuels. However the intensity of thinning can greatly modulate susceptibility to fire in the longer term. Actually, below thinning of low intensity affecting just intermediate and suppressed trees, can lead to the continuity of the upper canopy unfavourable to crown fire spread but can also limit the development of the understorey due to lesser light availability. In contrast, below thinning of high intensity, affecting also codominant trees, produces a discontinue crown cover but stimulates regrowth of the understorey.
FIRESMART
Features 1) Above thinning

Removal of the largest trees More frequently used in NorthAmerican forests
Advantages
High income Can favour understorey species (regeneration phase)
Drawbacks
Stand more susceptible to fire risk (decrease of height crown base and mean tree diameter) and other risks (wind throw)
Tree density
2) Selection thinning
Removal of codominant trees and some dominant trees Persistence of the suppressed trees and understorey Moderate income Thinning benefits to some dominant target trees Risk of total fire (crown + surface) is high due to understorey and crown continuity in the upper layer
3) Below thinning of low intensity

All suppressed trees are removed and a part of codominant trees The understorey is removed Crown continuity in the upper layer Global reduction of fire risk (increase of crown base height, mean diameter) Limitation of the understorey regrowth Unmerchantable products Production of large amount of slash and woody debris Crown continuity
4) Below thinning of high intensity

Removal of the understorey and smallest trees Crown discontinuity in the upper layer High reduction of the fire risk after thinning (surface and crown fire) Low income Production of large amount of slash and woody debris Understorey regrowth is stimulated
Diameter classes
Figure 6.3-11. Usual types of thinning in even-aged stands. A theoretical distribution in diameter classes is indicated (white bars) as well as the parts removed by thinning (grey bars). For each type main characteristics possible advantages and drawbacks are indicated
FIRESMART
Practice of thinning In a study comparing the effects of different thinning intensities (control, 32-46% basal area removed, 51-57% basal area removed) on growth and fire risk in Scots pine stands Crecente-Campo et al. (2009) found that thinning results in enhanced growth and decrease of fire crown risk (estimated through canopy bulk density). However thinning had no effect on the crown base height and thus on the flame length to torching. Pollet and Omi (2002) compared burned ponderosa pine stands after fuel treatments (thinning, controlled fire or a combination of both) or absence of treatments. They found that crown fire severity was mitigated in stands that were subjected to the treatments. The treatments have led to stand with a less abundant trees without canopy continuity, trees of greater dimensions with thicker bark more resistant to fire and suppression of fuel ladders. All these conditions benefited to lower potential for crown initiation and propagation and less severe effects. Fire hazard is linked to dynamics of the forest stands that includes different phases: stage initiation, competitive exclusion, maturation and regeneration (e.g. Oliver and Larson, 1996). Closed stands are less susceptible to fire risk than opened stands due to less light availability leading to a weaker development of the understorey although some closed stands can also exhibit a large shrub cover like in the maritime pine forests of Portugal (Godinho-Ferreira et al., 2005) Opened stands are less susceptible to fire than closed stands. Fernandes et al. (2007) in an analysis of fire management of the maritime pine reported experiments in which opened stands tend to experience lower fire severity (due to less crown fire) than closed stands after thinning unless slash fuel remains on the site. Usually these areas also experiment surface fuel treatments (like prescribed burning) and the decrease in the growth volume linked to high intensity thinning (leaving a density of 300-400 stems/ha) can be compensated by a higher value timber, more resistant trees less susceptible to undergo fire crown. Thinning from below, retaining larger dominant and codominant trees and removing smaller individuals and overstorey prove to be an effective measure to reduce fire severity and to increase forest resistance (Agee and Skinner, 2005; Stephens and Moghaddas, 2005; Stephens et al., 2009). This is mainly due because small trees compose the dominant ladder fuels. Conversely thinning from above or overstorey removal decreases fire resistance (Stephens and Moghaddas, 2005). These studies showed that thinning is an important silvicultural tool in creating fire resilient stands but it is not a panacea (Graham et al., 1999; Agee and Skinner, 2005). Both thinning from above or from below will reduce average canopy bulk density (but not necessarily the maximum canopy bulk density) but lead to contrasted response in terms of fire vulnerability. Thinning from above is currently practised in temperate European forests for economical reasons (merchantable products are primarily collected) and silvicultural reasons: species composition can be adjusted and competition reduced in an efficient way. However, it also removes in variable proportion large trees, which are also the less susceptible to fire damage. Tree base height is also not necessarily increased if suppressed trees are not removed and ladder fuels can persist. Lastly, the opening of the upper canopy, although limiting crown fire progression to some extent, usually stimulates the regrowth of the understorey generating an increase of the surface fuel loads. In contrast, thinning from below will increase tree base height, preserve larger trees, remove fuel ladders and, limit the understorey development. These modifications of stand characteristics can reduce the level of fire damages in the stand provided the removed material, including the unmerchantable products, is adequately treated i.e not left on the surface. It must be noted that thinning from below leading to a closed stand does not prevent fire propagation through the canopies.
The balance between advantages and disadvantages in terms of fire risk is therefore complex to establish and calls for progress in modelling and field experiments.
1)
2)
Susceptibility to fire
3)
4)
Figure 6.3-12. Schematic stand structure types and susceptibility to fire risk according to a gradient of management. Each type of structure can be analysed as regards fire behaviour (crown fire, crown surface), fire parameters (propagation, intensity) and fire severity (high, medium or low level of damages)
1) Irregular stand. Stand with trees of various dimensions with a well developed understorey. No management intervention. The high fuel load, the horizontal and vertical fuel continuity are likely to induce an intense crown surface and surface fire and a high level of damage. 2) Intermediate stand. The stand is composed of an overstorey with dominant and suppressed trees. Management operations are limited (occasional thinning). The shrub layer is irregular and more developed in gaps. Like the previous type, fire can occur both at the surface and in the crowns depending of external conditions (e.g. wind speed, temperature, slope) and lead to medium to high damages to the vegetation. 3) Regular mature stand. The stand is composed of a continuous overstorey limiting the understorey development. Silvicultural operations consist of branches pruning and below thinning to the benefit of dominant and codominant trees. Surface fire is of a moderate intensity. Crown fire is possible to canopies continuity but with a lower probability due to vertical discontinuity between the ground vegetation layer and the canopy layer. 4) Open mature stand with understorey suppression. The stand is composed of an opened overstorey (no continuity between canopies) and a suppressed understorey (herbs, small shrubs). The management is intense: heavy below thinning leaving scattered dominant trees, suppression of the
Management intensity
understorey at regular time interval (mechanical chopping or controlled burning), tree pruning. Fire risk is restricted to a creeping ground fire and possible damages are limited.
6.3.3.5. Influence of other fuel reduction treatments in combination with thinning

Generally thinning alone without treating surface fuels can decrease fire severity in treated relative to control (Stephens and Moghaddas, 2005; Cram et al., 2006). However fire severity was shown to be greater in stands that do not treat surface fuels as compared to those that treat surface fuels (Stephens and Moghaddas, 2005; Cram et al., 2006). It is noteworthy than most of the studies have been done in North American forests with different species composition as those found in Europe, different structures (usually older forests with higher mean height and diameter) and different history of management. So the transposition of these results in the context of the European Mediterranean forests has to be considered with care and appeal for experiments to be implemented in these forests (see Fernandes and Rigolot, 2007 for the case of Maritime pine). Additional fuel treatments after thinning consist predominantly in mechanical treatments, prescribed fire or a combination of both. As most of the studies were carried out in the USA, the definition of the mechanical treatment is somewhat different from what is currently done in southern Europe. In fact, mechanical treatment does not consist solely as the treatment of the shrub layer and logging slash on the floor but also include the removal of a part of the trees up to a certain diameter (usually dbh<1520cm). These treatments were proved effective in reducing fire risk. In a replicated multisite experiments in coniferous forests of the western US, Scott et al. (2009) put forward the effectiveness of fuel treatments to reduce fire severity and increase forest resistance. The authors found that mechanical treatments (including a thinning, usually from below) followed by prescribed burning or pile burning were the most effective for reducing crown fire potential and predicted tree mortality due to low surface loads and increased horizontal and vertical discontinuities. In a less extent, fire-only, mechanical-only treatments using whole-tree harvest systems also reduce potential fire severity. Such results are usually put forward in other studies (see Table 6.3-5) as the majority of the studies led to the conclusion that a combined treatment is most effective in fire reduction than a single one. However, when comparing mechanical thinning only versus prescribed fire only, results are more contrasted as some studies showed that the former is more effective than the latter (e;g. Pollet and Omi, 2002) whereas some other studies found the opposite (Stephens and Moghaddas, 2005). It must be emphasized that prescribed burning in the field was applied almost exclusively in northern American studies and rarely in southern Europe (Table 3-13). Though most of the studies carried out over the last years have validated the ecological, economical and technical suitability of prescribed burning, foresters and policy makers in southern Europe are still reticent about it and do not perceive all the management potential of this method (Botelho et al., 1999; Leone and Lovreglio, 2005).
FIRESMART
Table 6.3-5. Comparison of fuel reduction treatments according to different recent studies
Reference Country Forest stands composition Experimental design Thinning features Treatments studied Results of the treatments (fire risk, environment)
Scott et al., 2009
Western US
Mixed conifer (Pinus ponderosa, Douglas fir, white fir)
6 sites 3 to 4 replicates /site
-low + crown thinning (tree>20cm) Various slash treatments
Waldrop et al., 2008
US (W North Carolina, S Ohio)
Mixed: pineoak (P. rigida, P. pungens, Q. prinus, Q. coccinea) Mixed conifer (P. ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Abies grandis)
Two sites 3 blocks with 4 treatments (units 10-26 ha) 12 sites 4 treatments replicated 3 times
Dodson et al., 2008
US (Cascade range, WA State)
Stephens and Moghaddas 2005
US (Sierra Nevada)
Mixed forest (P. lambertiana, P. ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Q. kellogi)
12 units (several ha each 14-29 ha)
Pollet and Omi, 2002
Western US
Pinus 12 sites ponderosa Comparison major species of wildland fire effects in treated/ untreated stands Pinus pinaster 28 years old. Four 25m*25m plots in one site: 1 control + 3 plots treated with fire 2,3 or 13 years ago
Fernandes NE et al., 2004 Portugal
CrecenteCampo et al., 2009
N Spain
Pinus sylvestris (plantation)
One site Nine plots (25m*40m)
-Mechanical treatment reduced active fire crown potential -Mechanical+fire is the most effective treatment -Use of whole tree harvesting is advantageous to minimize fuel activity Thinning -Prescribed Combination of thin + from below, fires (two fires) fire was the most no slash -Thinning effective to reduce treatment +Prescribed fire shrub layer and basal (left on the (two fires) area, to promote oak site) -Control (no regeneration and thinning) increase herb cover. Thinning - prescribed fire Thin + fire increases from below, (one) alone species richness no slash -thin only Thin only has similar treatment -Thin + fire but lesser effect (left on the -control Forb cover increases in site) thin +fire Graminoid cover decreases in thin +fire Decrease of the basal area Crown thin + -control -fire only, thin +fire thin from -thin only results in the lowest below -thin+fire fire behaviour and Mastication of -fire only mortality small trees -control the most (<25cm) left severe fire behaviour on the site and mortality -Thin only was intermediate Not specified Control -reduction of fire Removal of (untreated) severity and fire crown slash -thin only potential in treated -thin+fire stands -fire only -Fire severity more reduced in the thin only than in fire only treatment. Not specified -Control (no - surface fire only in Control 2200 treatment since plots treated 2 or 3 trees/ha 28 years) years ago other plots - Fire on the 3 - surface + episodic 1500-1900 other plots crown fire in plot trees/ha treated 13 years ago -surface+crown fire in the control Fire severity and intensity were reduced by previous fire treatments. - Systematic -control (G = Assesment of fire risk thinning 26.5m2/ha) using growth model (every -heavy thinning -Thinning decreased seventh row) (18.1 m2/ha) canopy bulk density + selective -very heavy (reduction of crown fire thinning thinning (13.2 risk) Slash piled m2/ha) -No effect of thinning and chipped on crown base height along strips
-control -prescribed fire only -mechanical treatment -fire+ mechanical treatment
FIRESMART
6.3.3.6. Conclusions
Reducing fire hazards in millions hectares of forest in southern Europe is a formidable challenge and silvicultural tools like thinning and other treatments can be a valuable help. The impacts of thinning, mechanical treatments and prescribed fire can have some detrimental consequences which have to be evaluated against the absence of management. The absence of management often leads to stand characterised by an opened irregular structure due to both the fluctuating abiotic conditions and the reccurence of anthropogenic disturbances. The accumulation of surface fuel and the abundance of fuel ladders lead to a high susceptibility to fire (i.e a total fire is likely to occur). Management can help to reduce theses fire hazards (see Fig. 40). Low or moderate management efforts can produce stands with continuous closed canopy limiting the understorey regrowth and assuring a vertical discontinuity between the ground vegetation and the canopy layer. More intense management can produce opened stands with a low density of big trees and the removal of all the strata of vegetation below the upper tree layer. In this case, vertical and horizontal fuel discontinuities efficiently limit fire spread but ground vegetation, which growth is stimulated by the high light availability, has to be periodically controlled by either prescribed burning or mechanical treatments. For economical reasons, intense management of stands is only feasible in specific conditions like in front of strategic fuel breaks or urban interfaces. Moreover, the stands are engaged in an ever lasting cycle of fuel treatments and are subtracted to the forest cycle including regeneration, building, maturation and senescent phases. Lastly fuel treatments have also to move beyond the stand scale to operate at the landscape scale. The landscape challenge is to define how much of a landscape needs to be treated, what are the best land-use spatial arrangements and where strategic fuel treatments will be most effective at reducing fire damages.
6.3.3.7. References
Alexander ME (1988) Help with making crown fire assessments. In: Fischer WC, Arno SF comps. Protecting people and homes from wildfire in the interior West: Proceedings of the symposium and workshop, 1987 Oct 6-8, Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-251. Ogden UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 147-156. Agee JK, Bahro B, Finney MA, Omi PN, Sapsis DB, Skinner CN, van Wagtendonk JW, Weatherspoon CP (2000) The use of shaded fuel-breaks in landscape fire management. Forest Ecology and Management 127: 55-66 Agee JK, Skinner CN (2005) Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management, 2111: 83-96 Banj Shafiei A, Akbarinia M, Jalali G, Hosseini M (2010) Forest fire effects in beech dominated mountain forest of Iran. Forest Ecology and Management 259: 2191-2196. Barbier S, Gosselin F, Balandier P (2008) Influence of tree species on understory vegetation diversity and mechanisms involved - A critical review for temperate and boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 254: 1-15. Bergeron Y, Gauthier S, Flannigan M, Kafka V (2004) Fire regimes at the transition between mixedwood and coniferous boreal fores in north-western Quebec. Ecology 85, 1916-1932 Bond WJ, Van Wilgen BW (1996) Fire and plants. Chapman&Hall, London, 263p. Bothelo H, Fernandes P, Rigolot E, Vega JA, Rego F, Molina D, Prodon R, Leone V, Gouma V, Guarnieri F, Bingelli F (1999). Fire Torch: towards improved prescribed burning knowledge and use in Europe. Proceedings, the DELFI International symposium- Forest Fires: Needs & Innovations, 18th to the 19th of November 1999, Athens, Greece: 137-141. Crecente-Campo F, Pommerening A, Rodrguez-Soalleiro R (2009) Impacts of thinning on structure, growth and risk of crown fire in a Pinus sylvestris L. plantation in northern Spain. Forest Ecology and Management 257: 1945-1954. Cruz MG (1999) Modeling the initiation and spread of crown fires. MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, p 162. Cumming SG (2001) Forest type and wildfire in the Alberta boreal mixed wood: what do fires burn ? Ecological Applications 11:97-110.
Dickinson MB, Johnson EA (2001) Fire effects on trees; In: Johnson EA, Miyanishi K (eds). Forest fires: behaviour and ecological effects. Academic Press, San Francisco, CA pp 477-525. Dimitrakopoulos AP, Mitsopoulos ID, Raptis DI (2007). Nomographs for predicting crown fire initiation in Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) forests. European Journal of Forest Research 126: 555-561. Fernandes PM (2009) Combining forest structure and fuel modelling to classify fire hazard in Portugal. Annals of Forest Science 66: 415 Fernandes PM, Rigolot (2007) The fire ecology and management of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) Forest Ecology and Management 241: 1-13. Finney (1999) Mechanistic modelling of landscape fire patterns. In: Maladenoff DJ, Baker WL (eds). Spatial modelling of forest landscape change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK pp 186209. Finney M (2001) Design of regular landscape fuel treatment patterns for modifying fire growth and behaviour. Forest Science 47: 219-228. Godinho-Ferreira P, Azevedo A, Rego F (2005) Carta da tipologia florestal de Portugal continental. Silva Lusitana 13: 1-34. Gonzlez JR, Pukkala T (2007) Characterization of wildfire events in Catalonia (north-east Spain) European Journal of Forest Research 126: 421-429. Gonzlez JR, Trasobares A, Palah M, Pukkala T (2007) Predicting tree survival in burned forests in Catalonia (North-East Spain) for strategic planning. Annals of Forest Science 64: 733-742. Graetz DH, Sessions J, Garman SL (2007). Using stand-level optimization to reduce crown fire hazard. Landscape and Urban Planning 80: 312-319. Graham RT, Harvey AE, Jain TB, Jonalea RT (1999) The effects of thinning and similar stand treatments on fire behaviour in Western Forests. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report, PNW-GTR-463, 28p. Hengst G, Dawson JO (1994) Bark properties and fire resistance of selected tree species from the central hardwood region of North America. Canadian Journal of Forest Reseach 24:688-696. Hirsch KG, Podur JJ, Janser RF, McAlpine RS, Martell DL (2004) Productivity of initial-attack fire crews: results of an expert-judgement elicitation study. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 705-715. Johnson EA (1992) Fire and vegetation dynamics: studies from the North American boreal forest. Cambridge Univeristy Press, New Yok, 129p. Leone V, Lovreglio R (2005) Pre and post-fire treatments in Aleppo pine stands: prevention sylviculture and restoration. II international conference on prevention strategies of fires in southern Europe, Barcelona, May 9-12 Moreira F, Rego FC, Ferreira PG (2001) Temporal (1958-1995) pattern of change in a cultural landscape of north-western Portugal: implications for fire occurrence. Landscape ecology 16: 557-567. Mouillot F, Ratte JP, Joffre R, Moreno JM, Rambal S (2003) Some determinants of the spatio-temporal fire cycle in a Mediterranean landscape (Corsica , France). Landscape ecology 18: 665-674. Oliver CD, Larson BC (1996) Forest stand dynamics. J Wiley and Sons, NY, USA Oliveras I, Gracia M, Mor G, Retana J (2009) Factors influencing the pattern of fire severities in a large wildfire under extreme meteorological conditions in the Mediterranean basin. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18: 755-764 Pyne SJ, Andrews PL, Laven RD (1996). Introduction to Wildland Fire. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, USA. Pollet J, Omi PN (2002) Effect of thinning and prescribed burning on crown fire severity in ponderosa pine forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 11: 1-10. Rothermel RC (1991). Predicting the behaviour and size of crown fires in the northern Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-RP-438. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT, 46p. Ryan KC (2002) Dynamic interactions between forest structure and fire behaviour in boreal ecosystems. Silva Fennica 36(1): 13-39 Scott JH, Reinhardt ED (2001) Assessing crown fire potential by linking models of surface and crown fire behaviour. USDA Forest Service, Reseach Paper, 59 p. Scott LS, Moghaddas JJ, Edminster C, Fielder CE, Haase S, Harrington M, Keeley JE, Knapp EE, McIver JD, Metlen K, Skinner CN, Youngblood A (2009) Fire treatment effects on vegetation structure, fuels, and potential fire severity in western U.S. forests. Ecological Applications 19: 305-320.
Silva JS; Moreira F; Vaz P, Catry F, Godinho-Ferreira (2009). Assessing the relative fire proneness of different forest types in Portugal. Plant Biosystems, 143: 597-608 Stephens SL, Moghaddas JJ (2005) Experimental fuel treatment impacts on forest structure, potential fire behaviour, and predicted tree mortality in amixed-conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management 215: 21-36. Turner MG, RommeWH (1994) Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape Ecology 9: 59-77. Van Wagner CE (1977). Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Can J For Res 7: 23-34. Van Wagner CE (1993). Prediction of crown fire behaviour in two stands of Jack pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 23: 442-449. Viedma O., Angeler DG, Moreno J (2009) Landscape structural features control fire size in a Mediterranean forested area of central Spain. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18: 575-583.
6.3.4. FUEL BREAKS

6.3.4.1. Role of fuel breaks
Fuel breaks are designed to (i) efficiently break up the continuity of hazardous fuels across a landscape, aiming at decreasing the occurrence of large wildfires; (ii) decreasing the intensity of wildfires, (iii) providing broad zones where firefighters can conduct suppression operations more safely and efficiently.; (iv) providing strips to facilitate subsequent area-wide fuel treatments; and (v) providing various non-fire-related benefits (e.g. habitat diversity, landscape scenery) (Weatherspoon and Skinner, 1996; Agee et al., 2000; Cumming, 2001; Rigolot, 2002; CNR, 2005). Fuel breaks are of questionable value in preventing the spread of fire under severe fire weather conditions (Omi, 1977; Dunn and Piirto, 1987). However, these zones of reduced fuels provide safe access to fires ignited under more moderate weather conditions (Anonymous, 1962; Davis, 1965; Salazar and Gonzalez-Cabn, 1987) and may contribute to reducing the size of fires ignited under such conditions, as inferred by Moritz (1997). The concept of "buffer zones" (Safriel, 1997) or "fuel breaks" (Green et al., 1978; Etienne, 1989; Perevolotskey et al., 1995) was developed in order to decrease the risk of fire expansion from specific high risk places like roadsides and picnic areas, and in order to protect core areas from fire. Networks of fuel breaks are created inside forests to divide large areas where fire hazard is high into smaller compartments. Usually, a fuel break is not expected to stop the fire itself, but firefighters are expected to fight the fire on it under acceptable safety conditions (Van Wagner, 1977; Scott and Reinhardt, 2001; Stocks et al., 2004). According to Guyot (1990), a fuel break is a wide strip (from tenth to hundredth metres wide) that is supposed to stop the fire spread due to surface fire but also the fire spread due to spotting.
6.3.4.2. Positioning
A fuel break is a strategically located, pre-constructed control line where vegetation is managed in order to produce a permanent strip of low volume fuel (Clar, 1959). Associating fuel breaks with roadways would minimize the total landscape impact since roads share many of the same negative landscape features with fuel breaks (Magill, 1992), yet provide the benefits of fuel discontinuity.
6.3.4.3. Composition and nature

Fuel breaks consist of areas where the structure of the natural vegetation has been modified, especially where the amount of shrubs has been reduced. In the French Mediterranean region, these managed areas are important component of the policy of forest fire prevention (Rigolot and Costa, 2000). Forest managers often maintain trees on fuel breaks. The amount of surface and ladder fuels removed can vary widely with the reduction of the overstorey cover ranging from complete to <40% (Agee et
al., 2000). According to Finney (2001) or to Agee and Skinner (2005), fuel breaks would be created by thinning from below to remove small trees that create fire ladders and by removing enough of the taller trees to decrease canopy cover to less than 35% to reduce the potential for crown fire. Shan et al. (2008) introduced factor analysis to evaluate the flammability of 55 foliages species that may be used in China for construction of the fuel break network with lower flammability. In China, fuel breaks are a network of forest strips consisting of tree species with lower flammability. The flammability of foliages species was related to many physical, chemical and biological pyric properties such as the moisture content, ignition point, ash content, caloric value and extractive content. According to the correlations between these different parameters, 10 tree species were definitely recommended for this use: Larix sp., Fraxinus mandshurica, Juglans mandshurica, Prunus padus, Salix sp, Phellodendron amurense, Tilia amurensis, Ulmus macrocarpa, Aspen sp., Aceraceae.
6.3.4.4. Wind velocity and direction fluctuations on a fuel-break

Pimont et al. (2009) showed that the intensity of temporal fluctuations of wind speed and direction differs within the canopy and in the fuel-break. The magnitudes of the mean and fluctuating parts of the wind speed are significantly higher within the break than within the canopy owing respectively to extraction by trees of momentum from the flow through drag forces and to the presence of small wake eddies that accentuate turbulence dissipation. Maximum stream wise wind speeds can be seven times higher within the vegetation break than within the canopy. However, fluctuations of the wind directions are much higher within the canopy, with variations of almost 180 in less than 2 min. This large variability of the wind direction within the canopy is explained not only by the low wind speed, but also by the passage of large coherent eddy structures generated by the canopy and scaling with h, which induces local recirculation close to the ground.
6.3.4.5. Fuel impact on fire propagation

The design of fuel-breaks raises a paradox: on the one hand, they reduce the biomass available, thereby reducing the fire intensity; but on the other hand, they increase the rate of spread owing to the wind velocity increase in the breaks (Rigolot and Costa, 2000). Pimont et al. (2006) studied the effects of fuel-break cover fraction and heterogeneity size. They showed that reducing cover fraction at stand level could limit crowning activities, but their simulations were performed without precomputation of wind flows. The modifications of the wind-flow velocity and turbulence induced by the presence of a break can be very well described by the physically based model FIRETEC. Pimont et al. (2009) showed that fuel-break design is not straightforward because even though vegetation treatments might reduce the amount of fuel for a fire to burn, they can also simultaneously result in an increase in the mean wind velocity and gust intensity. According to Dupuy and Morvan (2005), by reducing the biomass t the ground level in a fuel break, the intensity of the simulated surface fire was reduced and crowning did not continue. They also found that it might be better to maintain the tree density, but reduce the shrub layer drastically, than to clear the stand and to maintain a significant amount of shrubs.
6.3.4.6. Slope effects on fire behaviour

According to Dupuy and Morvan (2005), the slope can dramatically increase the fire danger and could reduce the efficiency of fuel break. They observed that the slope changed the fire behaviour in such a way that the jumps of a crown fire could reach several tens of metres. They showed from simulations of up-slope fires (15 - 30 angle) how the fire danger could be increased when a strong wind was combined with terrain slope due to local ignitions of tree crows far ahead of the main fire front.
6.3.4.7. Dimensions
Fuel breaks typically provide a 30 to 200 m (sometimes 400 m) wide break in dense fuels (Omi, 1979). They range in size and shape from small linear features to large polygons spanning thousands of hectares (Merriam et al., 2006).
According to Guyot (1990), a fuel break has to have a width equal to at least seven times the tree height (on flat ground). Indeed, the uprising air by the edge of the other side of the break has to be taken into account. When the ground is not flat, corrections must be done according to the slope and to the wind direction. When the wind is directed facing the highest slope axis and for slopes less than 10-15%, the fuel break width has to be equal, at least, to six times the tree height. When the wind is directed in the descent and for a slope of 10%, the fuel break width has to be equal to ten times the tree height. If possible, the fuel breaks have to be perpendicular to the dominant wind direction with a width equal to the necessary maximum width.
6.3.4.8. Management
Best options for landscape management to reduce wildfire hazard Moreira et al. (2009) provided valuable information for the design of fuel breaks at the landscape scale. Their study showed that annual crops (including pastures), permanent crops and agro-forestry systems, particularly if they are irrigated, are the most effective for reducing fire hazard. Thus, whenever possible, existing areas with this cover type should be included in the fuel break delimitation, or, if needed, promoted in specific locations. In terms of forest management, native deciduous broadleaf species seem to be preferable to other tree species. The fire hazard in conifers and eucalypts is higher, and for these, the application of correct silvicultural practices is probably more important that the selection of the species. In the French Mediterranean region, forest managers consider that the safety requirements are fulfilled when the space volume occupied by the surface fuel is below 1000 m 3/ha (empirical criteria). In contrast, when the surfaces fuel volume reaches a value above 2500 m 3/ha, they consider that the probability of observing a transition of the fire from the surface fuel to the tree crowns increases significantly and hence the safety requirements are no longer fulfilled (Rigolot, 2002; Duereau, 2003). According to Gutman (1990) and Perevolotsky et al. (1995, 1996), mechanical treatment were a very costly option and the chemical alternative was not accepted by current sustainable environmental policies. The most feasible management option to suppress vegetative regrowth in Mediterranean woodland was its exposure to heavy grazing. Goats were considered efficient browsers that eat much of the woody species, but cattle might also help to control the resprouting vegetation. Perevolotsky et al. (1995, 1996) estimated that with no grazing, the vegetation will gain its original size within 6 years, and with grazing it will take 7 years. According to Neeman et al. (1997), during the first 4 years after fire, no management should be performed, only monitoring of natural development. Thinning and drastic pruning of resprouting woody species can be considered after 4-5 years. If thinning and pruning is carried out, it is obligatory to apply heavy grazing pressure in the next year. In pine forests such treatments are recommended only after pine trees have reached about 3 m height (after 10-15 years), because severe damage to the young pines is expected by goats or cattle at earlier stages of vegetation development. According to Guyot (1990), the best method to reduce the maintenance costs of the fuel breaks consists in its cultivation. In the Landes forest, southwestern France, the ground is flat and there is a possibility of irrigating and the fuel breaks can be cultivated with corn. Mediterranean forests are located on hilly or mountainous areas. The only crops that can be cultivated on these poor rocky soils is the vine, but the profitability of this crop will not be assured in all the conditions
6.3.4.9. Impact of fuel breaks on non-native species abundance

Fuel break construction and maintenance methods have changed over time and differ according to terrain, vegetation type, and implementing agency (Omi, 1979). For example, fuel break maintenance by aerial application of herbicides and seeding with non-native grasses was common until the 1970s (Bentley, 1967; Clark, 1973). More recent fuel break construction and maintenance measures include selective thinning, on-site mastication of fuels, and increased use of prescribed burning (Farsworth and Summerfelt, 2002). Non-native plant invasion is one of the most important issues facing land managers today because non-native plants can permanently alter ecosystem structure and function (Vitousek, 1990). Fuel breaks have the potential to promote the establishment and spread of nonnative plants. We found that environmental variables significantly associated with these species presence and abundance, including overstorey canopy, litter cover, and duff depth, were significantly lower on fuel breaks than in adjacent wildlands. Removal of canopy cover may benefit non-native plants by reducing competition with natives and changing light, nutrient, and water levels (McKenzie
et al., 2000; Parendes and Jones, 2000). Removing litter and duff and disturbing soils on fuel breaks can provide sites for non-native plant establishment, stimulate non-native seed germination, and change temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability in ways that benefit these plants (Hobbs and Atkins, 1988; Reynolds et al., 2001). Fuel break construction method was very strongly associated with relative non-native abundance. Fuel breaks constructed by mechanical thinning had significantly lower non-native cover than those constructed by bulldozers in all vegetation types. Mechanical thinning retains overstorey canopy, which was associated with a decrease in non-native abundance. Conversely, even in vegetation types with relatively low non-native cover, such as coniferous forests, the use of bulldozers significantly increased the abundance of these plants. Bulldozers have large blades specifically designed to remove surface soil layers, and may be more likely to introduce nonnative seeds into fuel breaks by disrupting soil seed banks and transporting seeds between sites. Fuel breaks built by hand crews had significantly higher cover of non-natives than fuel breaks constructed by mechanical thinning (Merriam et al., 2006). Fuel breaks in chaparral and coastal scrub vegetation types were more likely to contain non-native species. This pattern may be explained by a number of factors, including land use history, topographic and environ-mental factors, and differences in the life history characteristics of the dominant species in these vegetation types (Keeley, 2001). According to Merriam et al. (2006), fuel breaks were associated with increased non-native abundance in all vegetation types. This suggests that fuel treatments in California are likely to promote nonnative plant species across a wide range of vegetation types and with varying land uses. These species can displace native species on fuel breaks, and they become increasingly dominant over time. Non-natives may thrive on fuel breaks because they can more easily tolerate frequent disturbances caused by fuel break maintenance. Non-native species also may reduce native species abundance by altering ecosystem processes. Most of the non-natives are annuals, and annual species are generally well adapted to colonize disturbed sites because of their short life cycles (Barbour and Billings, 2000). A general pattern of declining non-native abundance with increasing distance from the fuel break was found by Merriam et al. (2006). Fuel breaks may act as points of introduction for non-natives because they receive external inputs of non-native seeds through vehicles, equipment, or humans travelling on them (Schmidt, 1989; Lonsdale and Lane, 1994). Merriam et al. (2006) found that older fuel breaks had much higher non-native abundance both on the fuel break and at distances of up to 20 m from the fuel break. Grazed sites also had more abundant non-natives than ungrazed sites. Grazing has been found to increase the abundance of non-natives, particularly where native plant communities did not evolve with intensive grazing (e.g., Heady et al., 1992; Mack and D'Antonio, 1998). However, the decline in non-native abundance with distance from the fuel break was similar in both grazed and ungrazed sites, suggesting that dispersal of non-natives from fuel breaks was equally likely in grazed and ungrazed sites.
6.3.4.10. References
Agee JK, Bahrob B, Finney MA, Omid PN, Sapsise DB, Skinnerf CN, Wagtendonkg J, Weatherspoon P. 2000. The use of shaded fuelbreaks in landscape fire management. Forest Ecology and Management 127, 5566. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(99)00116-4. Agee, J. K., and C. N. Skinner. 2005. Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 211:8396. Anonymous. 1962. A fuel-break has been tested. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fuel-Break Report No. 8 Barbour, M. G., and W. D. Billings. 2000. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge University Press, Cam-bridge, UK. Bentley, J. 1967. Conversion of chaparral areas to grassland: techniques used in California. Agricultural Handbook Number 328, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Berkeley, California, USA. Clar, C. R. 1959. California government and forestry from Spanish days until the creation of the Department of Natural Resources in 1927. State of California, Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry, Sacramento, CA Clark, K. P. 1973. Fuelbreaks, fire and brushlands. Environ-mental Southwest 1:1-2. CNR (Conselho Nacional de Reflorestao). 2005. Orientaes Estratgicas para a Recuperao das reas Ardidas em 2003 e 2004. (Ministrio da Agricultura, Desenvolvimento Rural e Pescas: Lisbon, Portugal)
Cumming SG. 2001. Forest type and wildfire in the Alberta boreal mixedwood: what do fires burn? Ecological Applications 11, 97110. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[0097:FTAWIT]2.0.CO;2 Davis, L. S. 1965. The economics of wildfire protection with emphasis on fuel break systems. State of California, Resources Agency, Division of Forestry, Sacramento, CA Dunn, A. T., and D. Piirto. 1987. The Wheeler Fire in retrospect: factors affecting fire spread and perimeter formation. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Riverside, CA, Unpublished report. Dupuy JL, Morvan D, 2005. Numerical study of a crown fire spreading toward a fuel breack using a multiphase physical model. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14, 141 151. Dureau R. 2003. Gestion des garrigues chne kerms sur coupures de combustible. Rseau Coupures de Combustible RCC n8 (Editions de la Cardre : Molires, France). Etienne, M. 1989. Protection of Mediterranean forests against fire: An ecological approach for redevelopment. A paper submitted at the 5th Meeting of the European Ecological Sciety, Siena, Italy, pages 151-156. Farsworth, A., and P. Summerfelt. 2002. Flagstaff interface treatment prescription: results in the wildland-urban inter-face. Fire Management Today 62:13-18. Finney, M. A. 2001. Design of regular landscape fuel treatment patterns for modifying fire growth and behavior. Forest Science 47:219228. Green, L.R., Hughes, C.L. and Graves, W.L. 1978. Goat control of brush regrowth on southern California fuel breaks. Proceedings of the 1st International Rangeland Congress, August 1978, Denver, Colorado, pages 83-89. Gutman, M. 1990. Plant and animal responses to beef cattle grazing in a Mediterranean scrub forest in Israel. The Prodeedings of the 6th meeting of the FA0 European Subnetwork on Mediterranean Pastures and Fodder Crops, October 1990. Bari, Italy, pages 191-196. Guyot G. 1990. Brise-vent, pare-feu et sylviculture. Revus Forestire Franaise XLII, numro spcial. Heady, H. F., J. W. Bartolome, M. D. Pitt, G. D. Savelle, and M. C. Stroud. 1992. California prairies. Pages 313-335 in R. T. Coupland, editor. Natural grasslands: introduction and Western Hemisphere. Elsevier, New York, New York, USA. Hobbs, R. J., and L. Atkins. 1988. Effect of disturbance and nutrient addition on native and introduced annuals in plant communities in the western Australian wheatbelt. Australian Journal of Ecology 13:171-180. Keeley, J. E. 2001. Fire and invasive species in Mediterranean-climate ecosystems of California. Pages 81-94 in K. Galley and T. Wilson, editors. Fire conference 2000: the first national congress on fire ecology, prevention, and management. Tall Timbers Research Station, San Diego, California, USA. Lonsdale, W. M., and A. M. Lane. 1994. Tourist vehicles as vectors of weed seeds in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia. Biological Conservation 69:277-283. Mack, M., and C. M. D'Antonio. 1998. Impacts of biological invasions on disturbance regimes. TREE 13:195-198. Magill, A. W. 1992. Managed and natural landscapes: what do people like? USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Research Paper, PSW-RP-213. McKenzie, D., C. B. Halpern, and C. R. Nelson. 2000. Overstory influences on herb and shrub communities in mature forests of western Washington, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30:1655-1666. Merriam K. E., Keeley J. E., Beyers J. J. 2006. Fuel breaks affect nonnative species abundance in Californian plant communities. Ecological Applications 515527. Moreira F, Vaz P, Catry F, Silva JS. 2009. Regional variations in wildfire susceptibility of land-cover types in Portugal : implications for landscape management to minimize fire hazard. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 563-574. Moritz, M. A. 1997. Analyzing extreme disturbance events: fire in the Los Padres National Forest. Ecological Applications 7:12521262. Neeman G, Perevolotsky A, Schiller G. 1997. The management implications of the Mont Carmel Reasearch Project. International Journal of Wildland Fire 7(4), 343 350. Omi, P. N. 1977. A case study of fuel management performances, Angeles National Forest, 1960 1975. Pages 404411 in H. A. Mooney and C. E. Conrad (eds.) Proceedings of the symposium on environmental consequences of fire and fuel management in Mediterranean ecosystems. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-3.
Omi, P. 1979. Planning future fuelbreak strategies using mathematical modeling techniques. Environmental Management 3:73-80. Parendes, L. A., and J. A. Jones. 2000. Role of light availability and dispersal in exotic plant invasion along roads and streams in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon. Conservation Biology 14:64-75.4 Perevolotsky, A., Ettinger, E., Yonatan,R., Gutman, M. and Schwartz, R. 1995. The management of fire breaks in Mediterranean ecosystem. The proceedings of the V International Rangeland Congress. Salt Lake City July 1995,438-439. Perevolotsky, A.,Ettinger,E., Schwartz,R., Yonatan,R. Gutman, M. and Altshuler, Y. 1996. Fuel breaks for fire prevention: A practical evaluation of a management model. Ecology and Environment 3:103112 (in Hebrew with English abstract). Pimont F, Linn RR, Dupuy JL, Morvan D. 2006. Effects of vegetation description parameters on forest fire behavior with FIRETEC. Forest Ecology and Management 234(Suppl. 1), S120. doi:10.1016/ J.FORECO.2006.08.161 Pimont F, Dupuy JL, Linn RR, Dupont S. 2009. Validation of FIRETEC wind-flows over canopy. International Journal of Wildland Fire 18, 775 790. Reynolds, S. A., J. D. Corbin, and C. M. D'Antonio. 2001. The effects of litter and temperature on the germination of native and exotic grasses in a coastal California grassland. Madrono 48:230-235. Rigolot E, Costa M. 2000. Conception des Coupures de Combustible. Combustible RCC no. 4. (Editions de la Cardre: Morires, France) Rseau Coupures de
Rigolot E. 2002. Du plan dpartemental la coupure de combustible. Guide mthodologique et pratique. In Rseau Coupures de Combustible n. 6. (ditions de la Crdre: Morires, France). Rigolot E. 2002. Fuel-break assessment with an expert appraisement approach. In Proceedings of the fouth international conference on forest fire research. (Ed. DX Viegas). (Millpress: Rotterdam). Safriel, U.N. 1997 The Carmel fire and its conservation repercussions. International Journal of Wildland Fire 7(4):277-284. Salazar, L. A., and A. Gonzalez-Caban. 1987. Spatial relationship of a wildfire, fuel breaks, and recently burned areas. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 2:5558. Schmidt, W. 1989. Plant dispersal by motor cars. Vegetatio 80: 147-152. Scott JH, Reinhardt ED. 2001. Assessing crown fire potential by linking models of surface and crown fire behaviour. USDA-Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Research Paper RMSRS-RP-29. (Fort Collins, CO). Stocks BJ, Alexander ME, Lanoville RA. 2004. Overview of the international crown fire modelling experiment (ICFME). Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, 1543 1547. doi: 10.1139/X04-905. Van Wagner CE. 1977. Conditions for the start and spread of crown fire. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 7, 23 24. Vitousek, P. 1990. Biological invasions and ecosystem pro-cesses: towards an integration of population biology and ecosystem studies. Oikos 57:7-13. Weatherspoon CP, Skinner CN. 1996. Landscape-level strategies for forest fuel management. In Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, II: Assessments, scientific basis for management options. University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources, Water Resources Center Report No. 37, pp. 14711492. (Davis, CA).
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FOREST AND LAND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS TO PREVENT UNWANTED FOREST FIRES

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Deliverable reference number Date of deliverable Issue. Revision Abstract

INIA GMV, CEMAGREF, AI, CEPF, EIMFOR, FORESTIS, JRC

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6.3. A REVIEW OF THE SCIENTIFIC WORKS FOUND IN LITERATURE (CEMAGREF)............................. 79

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

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1.2. FIRESMART CONCEPT

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AI CEMAGREF CEPF DB DOW EIMFOR EUFIRELAB

EUROFIRE FIRE PARADOX

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2. OBJECTIVES, TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WORK

2.2. TASKS AND DISTRIBUTION OF WP1

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2.2.2. WP1 MULTISCALE AND MULTI-PERSPECTIVE APPROACH

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Figure 2-2. Cagliari Province, Italy

Figure 2-3. Bouches-du-Rhne, France

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Figure 2-4. Valencia Autonomous Region

Figure 2-5. Pinhal Interior Norte, Portugal

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Table 2-2. Fire prevention-related topics considered in FIRESMART

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3. METHODS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK PERFORMED

3.1.1. FIRESMART DATABASE ESTRUCTURE

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