OVERVIEW ON COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Prepared by:
DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Figure 1.1 : (a) Basic block diagram for communication (b) example
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TERMINOLOGY
Transmitter
Signal source Base band converter Modulation and power amplification
Transmission (Electromagn etic Field)

Subsystem synchronization

Receiver
Amplification and demodulation

Base band inverter

Base band processing

Electromagnetic field

Synchronization system

Figure 1.2 : (a) Basic transmitter block diagram (b) basic receiver.
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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Electronic communication : transmission, reception and processing of information between 2 or more locations using electronic circuit. Information : analog or digital signal that had been converted to electromagnetic energy Transmitter : collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits. That convert the original source into a signal that is more suitable for transmission over a given transmission medium Receiver : collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signal from the transmission medium and converts them back to their original form
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Base band converter: to convert the signal source into base band waveform for the carrier signal before transmission. Can be either analog or digital system. Subsystem synchronization: synchronizing connection between the TX and RX for recovery processes transmission medium: provides a means of transporting signal from the TX to the RX
eg : copper wire (signal as electrical current flow), optical fiber cable (signal in e/magnetic light wave), free space (signal in e/magnetic radio wave)

Transmission impairments : any undesired effect on the signals while traveling from the transmitter to the receiver, such as noise, attenuation, interference and other losses caused by the atmosphere or the medium itself. Noise: random, undesired electrical energy that enters the communication system via the communication media (i.e. inserted between TX and RX) and interferes with the transmitted message. Attenuation : drop in signal power due to distance travel by the signal. Interference : noise signal that has the same frequency as the information signal.

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Types of Signals
analog signal : a continuously varying voltage or current e.g. sound, video

Analog Signals Components of Speech

Frequency range (of hearing) 20 Hz-20 kHz Speech 100Hz-7kHz Easily converted into electromagnetic signal for transmission Sound frequencies with varying volume converted into electromagnetic frequencies with varying voltage Limit frequency range for voice channel ~ 300-3400Hz

digital signal : binary pulses or codes

Figure 1.3 : Examples of signals (a) analog (b) digital.

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Digital Signal
From computer terminals etc. Bandwidth depends on data rate

Electromagnetic wave is a signal where its electric and magnetic field change at fixed rate. Frequency range for communication start roughly from 200kHz until few giga Hertz (GHz). Frequency (f)
no. of times a periodic motion occurs in a given period of time Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second Period = time for one repetition (T) T = 1/ f one complete alternation of a waveform

cycle

wavelength ()
= cT

distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during one period f = c c = 3 x 108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)
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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Table 1: Frequency range (a) designation (b) applications

Designation ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Freq. Range (Hz) 30 300 300 3 k 3 k 30 k 30 k 300 k 300 k 3 M 3 M 30 M 30 M 300 M 300 M 3 G 3 G 30 G 30 G 300 G

range (m) 107 106 106 105 105 104 104 103 103 102 102 101 101 100 100 10-1 10-1 10-2 10-2 10-3

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) ac power line distribution (50 and 60 Hz) low freq telemetry signal Voice Frequency (VF) human speech (most intelligent sound) Very Low Frequency (VLF) upper end of human hearing range musical instrument government and military (eg. submarine) Low Frequency (LF) marine and aeronautical navigation as subcarriers Medium Frequency (MF) AM radio broadcasting marine and aeronautical comm application High Frequency (HF) Also known as short wave (SW) 2-way radio communication SW radio broadcast amateur radio and citizen band (CB)
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Very High Frequency (VHF) mobile radio marine and aeronautical communication FM broadcast TV amateur radio Ultra High Frequency (UHF) * freq > 1GHz is known as microwave TV land mobile communication cellular phone military certain radar and navigation system microwave and satellite radio system amateur radio Super High Frequency (SHF) microwave and satellite radio system radar specialized form of 2-way radio
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Extremely High Frequency (EHF) seldom used in radio communication except in very sophisticated, expensive and specialized application satellite communication Radar * freq > 300 GHz are not referred as radio wave Infrared refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat anything that produced heat generate infrared signal eg : light bulb, human body astronomy (to detect stars) electronic photography heat-seeking guidance system (weapon) TV remote control visible light optical communication
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TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
Bandwidth
Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the signal Frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuits operate. Difference between the upper and lower limit frequency, limits of the signal, or equipment operation range

Guided coaxial cable, twisted pair, fiber optic, waveguide Unguided wireless (terrestrial, spacewave, free space, earth wave) Characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal For guided, the medium is more important For unguided, the bandwidth produced by the antenna is more important Key concerns are data rate and distance

Channel bandwidth
Range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information i.e. an audio signal (3kHz) being modulated by a 1000kHz carrier signal using AM modulation
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Characteristics of Guided Media Frequency Range 0 to 3.5 kHz 0 to 1 MHz 0 to 500 MHz 186 to 370 THz Typical Attenuation 0.2 dB/km @ 1 kHz 0.7 dB/km @ 1 kHz 7 dB/km @ 10 MHz 0.2 to 0.5 dB/km Typical Delay 50 s/km 5 s/km 4 s/km 5 s/km Repeater Spacing 2 km 2 km 1 to 9 km 40 km

Characteristics of Wireless Propagation

Signal travels along three routes Ground wave Follows contour of earth Up to 2MHz AM radio

Twisted pair Twisted pairs (multi-pair cables) Coaxial cable Optical fiber

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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
Sky wave 2 MHz < f < 30 MHz Amateur radio, BBC world service, Voice of America Signal refracted from ionosphere layer of upper atmosphere

Signal received may differ from signal transmitted Analog - degradation of signal quality Digital - bit errors Caused by
Attenuation and attenuation distortion Delay distortion Noise

Line of sight Above 30MHz cellular phone

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TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION

Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance Depends on medium Received signal strength: must be enough to be detected must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

Can be classified in three ways

Transmission mode (one-way, two-way) Analog or digital system Baseband or broadband transmission

Delay Distortion
Propagation velocity varies with frequency

Noise
Will be discuss later

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Transmission Mode
One-way (Simplex)
info travels in 1 direction only receive-only, transmit-only eg. Radio and TV broadcasting, telemetry system

Analog Or Digital System

Analog system
energy is transmitted and received in analog form both info and carrier are analog signals

Two-way (duplex) a) half duplex

both direction, but only one way at a time 2-way-alternate, either-way, over-and-out e.g. police radio

Digital system
Digital transmission a true digital system where digital pulses are transferred bet. 2 or more points no analog carrier original source info may be in digital or analog signal if analog signal convert to digital pulses prior to transmission and converted back to analog signal at the RX require a physical medium between TX-RX

b) Full duplex
Both directions at the same time 2-way-simultaneous, both-way e.g. telephone
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Digital radio transmission of digitally modulated analog carriers between 2 or more points modulating signal and demodulated signals are digital pulses the digital pulses could originate from a digital transmission system, from a digital source i.e. computer, or a binary encoded analog signal transmission medium may be physical facility or free space

Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital technology Low cost LSI/VLSI technology Data integrity Longer distances over lower quality lines Capacity utilization High bandwidth links economical High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques Security & Privacy Encryption Integration Can treat analog and digital data similarly
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Baseband Or Broadband Transmission

Baseband transmission
putting the original signal (analog or digital) directly into the medium eg : in many telephone and intercom system, it is the voice itself that is placed on the wires & transmitted

Encoding Techniques
Digital data, digital signal Analog data, digital signal Digital data, analog signal Analog data, analog signal

Broadband transmission
original signal is used to modulate a carrier for transmission over the medium when baseband signal is incompatible with the medium

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

Need to know
Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels

Digital Data, Analog Signal

Public telephone system
300Hz to 3400Hz Use modem (modulator-demodulator)

Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals

Signal to noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth

Example
Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PK)

Example
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI) Bipolar -AMI Pseudoternary Manchester Differential Manchester B8ZS HDB3
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Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitization
Conversion of analog data into digital data Digital data can then be transmitted using digital encoding such as NRZ-L Digital data can then be converted to analog signal Analog to digital conversion done using a codec

Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitizing Analog Data

Example
Pulse code modulation Delta modulation

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Analog Data, Analog Signals

modulate analog signals to the higher frequency Types of analog modulation
Amplitude Frequency Phase

MODULATION
Why?
It is extremely difficult to radiate low frequency signals from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic energy it is possible theoretically but impractical realistically c= f f , antenna length usually 1/2 or 1/4 of for voice signal (300 - 3000 Hz), require very large antenna expensive to construct and consume more pore

Modulation : process of changing one or more properties (amplitude, frequency, phase) of the carrier in proportion with the info signal

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Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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Modulation Techniques
Info signal often occupy the same frequency band, and if signals from 2 or more sources are transmitted at the same time, they would interfere with each other i.e. all commercial FM station broadcast voice and music signals that occupy the AF from 300 Hz - 15 kHz to avoid interference, each station converts its into to a different frequency band more space at higher frequency many channels can be formed to carry many simultaneous communication without interference

let v(t) = Vc sin (2ft + )

general expression for a time varying sine wave of voltage as a high frequency carrier signal

modulating signal analog

modulation performed AM FM PM l l l v(t) = Vc sin (2 . f . t + ) l l l ASK FSK PSK

digital
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QAM
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MULTIPLEXING
Transmission of info from more than one source over the same transmission medium increase the no. of communication channel more info transmitted reduce cost and higher utilization of the transmission line

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Multiple signals share common BW of a single communication channel Useful BW of medium exceeds required bandwidth of channel each signal occupying a separate portion of the BW Each signal modulate a different sub-carrier freq Sub-carriers are linearly mixed to form a composite signal that is usually used to modulate a final carrier for transmission carrier frequencies separated so signals do not overlap (guard bands) Channel allocated even if no data

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FDM System

at the RX, the recovering of the individual signal is done with a DEMUX whose main component is BPF tuned to the individual sub-carrier freq. For analog signal, i.e. radio broadcast

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each channel is assigned a time slot and may transmit for a brief period using the entire BW of the medium Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to be transmitted signal sources takes times to transmit Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed amongst sources for both analog and digital signal

TDM System

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TDM of Analog and Digital Sources

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Similar of FDM coupling light at 2 or more discrete wavelengths, into and out of an optical fiber Multiple beams of light at different frequency Each colour of light () carries separate data channel unlike FDM (same time, same transmission path), different travels at different speed and did not take the same path, but enter the fiber at the same time and same transmission medium
each arrives at the RX at a slightly different time

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WDM System

Gain
Ratio output to the input Output has greater amplitude than the input
output Vout = input Vin

Laser optic source

AV =
1 2
Fiber cable
To laser optical detector

1 2

1, 2 .. n
n n

Amplifier Gain

Most amplifiers are power amplifier, the same procedure can be used to calculate power gain, Ap. Ap = Pout/Pin

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Example 1.1 What is the gain of an amplifier that produces an output of 750 mV for 30 V input?

Example 1.2 The power output of an amplifier is 6 W. The power gain is 80. What is the input power?

V Av = out Vin 750m 30 = 25k =

Dept. Of Communication Engineering, Faculty Of Electrical And Electronics, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Ap = 80 =

pout pin 6 pin

pin = 0.075w
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Example 1.3 Three cascade amplifier have power gains of 5,2, and 17. The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power?
40mw 5 2 7

OR

AT = A1 A2 A3 = 5 2 17 = 170

Pout = Pin Ap Pout = 40m 5 Pout = 0.2w

Pout = Pin Ap Pout = 0.2 2 Pout = 0.4w

Pout = Pin Ap Pout = 0.4 17 Pout = 6.8w

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Pout = AT Pin Pout = 170 40m Pout = 6.8w

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Attenuation
Refers to loss introduced by a circuit Output is less than input
Attenuatio n A =

For cascade circuit, total attenuation is AT=A1 x A2 x A3 .. Voltage divider network may introduce attenuation

Vout Vin

Total attenuation in cascaded network

Attenuation can be offset by introducing gain

Voltage divider introduces attenuation

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Gain offsets the attenuation

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Example 1.4 A voltage divider shown in Figure 1 has values of R1 = 10k and R2 = 47k. 1. What is the attenuation? 2. What amplifier gain would you need to offset the loss for an overall gain of 1?
Total gain is the product of the individual stage gains and attenuation

a)

A= A=

R2 R1 + R2

b)

AT = A Av 1 = 0.825 Av Av = 1.213

47 k 10k + 47 k A = 0.825
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DECIBEL
Example 1.5 An amplifier has gain of 45,000, which is too much for the amplification. With an input voltage of 20 V, what attenuation factor is needed to keep the output voltage from exceeding 100mV?. Let A1= amplifier gain = 45,000; A2 = attenuation factor; AT = total gain.
20w 45000 ? 100mV

Gain and attenuation often expressed in decibels, rather than ratio value (decimal) Decibel unit of measurement originally created as a way of expressing the hearing response of human ear to various sound levels. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. Using decibel, total gain or attenuation can be calculated by simply adding the gains and the attenuation expressed in decibel.

AT = AT =

Pout Pin

For voltage dB = 20 log

100m 20 AT = 5000

AT = A1 A2 5000 = 45000 A2 A2 = 0.11

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Vout Vin I out I in Pout Pin

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For current dB = 20 log For power dB =10 log

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Beside performing ratio operation, decibel is also used to expressed power in communication. A notation is added after the dB simbol
dBW, dBm, dB etc.

Example 1.6 A microphone has output value of 50dBm, calculate the actual output power?

for power dB = 10 log Pout for power dBm = 10 log So, Pout 1m P 50dBm = 10 log out 1m Pout = 100 w dBm = 10 log Pout 1m

For dBm, reference level 1mW A larger unit, dBW has reference value of 1W. dBm and dBW are decibel units used for expressing power in communication.

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Bit Error Rate

Another significant measure of system performance in term of noise is bit error rate (BER) Specify the number of bits that are corrupted or destroy as data are transmitted from TX to the RX BER of 10-6 indicate that 1 bit out of 1 million bits is corrupted in the transmission Several factor contribute to BER is Bandwidth Transmission speed Transmission medium Environment Transmission distance Transmitter and receiver performance
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Channel Capacity
If SNR for a digital system is large enough, it is possible to overcome any extraneous effect of noise entirely, but not true in practice. Mathematical guidelines have been established to determine the maximum theoretical data transfer rate over a channel based on the channels bandwidth and SNR channel capacity One of the fundamental law used is Shannons law, which allows us to compute channel capacity in bps C = BW log2(1 + (S/N)) bps where BW = bandwidth S/N = signal-to-noise ratio C = channel capacity

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Example 1.7 The standard 3002 voice grade lines have nominal SNR of 25 dB and a bandwidth ranging from 300Hz to 3400Hz. Compute the channel capacity using the above equation.

C = BW log 2 ( 1 + (S/N)) bps C = 3100 log 2 ( 1 + 316.23 ) C = 3100 log 2 ( 317.23 ) C = 3100 log10 317.23 log10 2
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C = 25.76kbps
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