GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

CHAPTER IV
NON DESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES 4.1 A variety of Non Destructive Testing (NDT) methods have been developed or are under development for investigating and evaluating concrete structures. These methods are aimed at estimation of strength and other properties; monitoring and assessing corrosion; measuring crack size and cover; assessing grout quality; detecting defects and identifying relatively more vulnerable areas in concrete structures. Many of NDT methods used for concrete testing have their origin to the testing of more homogeneous, metallic system. These methods have a sound scientific basis, but heterogeneity of concrete makes interpretation of results somewhat difficult. There could be many parameters such as materials, mix, workmanship and environment, which influence the results of measurements. Moreover, these tests measure some other property of concrete (e.g. hardness) and the results are interpreted to assess a different property of concrete e.g. strength, which is of primary interest. Thus, interpretation of results is very important and difficult job where generalistion is not possible. As such, operators can carry out tests but interpretation of results must be left to experts having experience and knowledge of application of such non-destructive tests. 4.2 Purpose of Non-destructive Tests: The non-destructive evaluation techniques are being increasingly adopted in concrete structures for the following purposes: (i) Estimating the in-situ compressive strength (ii) Estimating the uniformity and homogeneity (iii) Estimating the quality in relation to standard requirement (iv) Identifying areas of lower integrity in comparison to other parts (v) Detection of presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections (vi) Monitoring changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time (vii) Identification of reinforcement profile and measurement of cover, bar diameter, etc. (viii) Condition of prestressing/reinforcement steel with respect to corrosion (ix) Chloride, sulphate, alkali contents or degree of carbonation (x) Measurement of Elastic Modulus (xi) Condition of grouting in prestressing cable ducts From the discussions on various non-destructive test methods given hereunder, it will be apparent that each method have some strengths and some weaknesses. Therefore, the prudent approach would be to use more than one method in combination so that the strength of one compensates the weakness of the other. 4.3 Types of Non Destructive Tests: grouped as under: i) ii) iii) iv) 4.4 According to their use, non-destructive equipment can be

Strength estimation of concrete Corrosion assessment and monitoring Detecting defects in concrete structure Laboratory tests

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS FOR STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF CONCRETE

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

4.4.1 Rebound Hammer Test This method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. Rebound Hammer consists of a spring-controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. When the plunger is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness and, therefore, the rebound is related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound value is read along a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer. Depending upon the impact energy, These are classified in to four types i.e. N, L, M and P. Type N test hammer having an impact energy of 2.2 N-m and is suitable for grades of concrete from M15 to M45. Type P is suitable for grades of concrete below M15. Type L test hammer is suitable for lightweight concrete or small and impact sensitive part of the structure. Type M test hammer is generally recommended for heavy structure and mass concrete. A sketch showing various components of Rebound Hammer is shown in Figure 4.1. For taking a measurement, the hammer should be held at right angles to the surface of the structure. The test can thus be conducted horizontally on vertical surfaces or vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces. If the situation so demands, the hammer can be held at intermediate angles also, but in each case, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete. It is necessary that the test hammer is frequently calibrated and checked against the test anvil to ensure reliable results.

3 1 2

11 10 9 8 7

7. Compressive spring; 8. Locking button; 9. Housing; 10. Hammer mass; 11. Plunger.

FIGURE- 4.1 REBOUND HAMMER

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

The rebound hammer method provides a convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength of concrete by means of establishing a suitable correlation between the rebound index and the strength of concrete. In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases, but it is also influenced by a number of other factors like type of cement and concrete; surface condition and moisture content; age of concrete and extent of carbonation on concrete surface. As such, the estimation of strength of concrete by rebound hammer method can not be considered to be very accurate and the probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure is +25 percent. If the relationship between rebound index and compressive strength can be checked by tests on core samples obtained from the structure or standard specimens made with the same concrete materials and mix proportion, then the accuracy of result and confidence thereon are greatly increased. It can then be used with greater confidence for differentiating between the questionable and acceptable parts of a structure or for relative comparison between two different structures. It may also be noted that rebound indices are indicative of compressive strength of concrete to a limited depth from the surface. If the concrete in a particular member has internal micro-cracking, flaws or heterogeneity across the section, rebound hammer indices will not indicate the same. Various types of Rebound Hammer testing equipment are available in market; such as: (i) (ii) Schmidts Rebound Hammer Smith Rebound Hammer

Digital Rebound Hammers are also available. 4.4.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test This is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any material depends upon the density, modules of elasticity and Poissons ratio. Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity, etc. Pulse Velocity measurements may be used to assess the homogeneity of concrete, presence of cracks, voids etc., quality of concrete relative to standards requirements, quality of one element of concrete relative to another and elastic modules values of concrete. Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements are influenced by surface condition, moisture content, temperature of concrete, path length, shape and size of member and presence of reinforcing bars. The method is complex and requires skill to obtain usable results, which can often provide excellent information regarding condition of concrete. Using the special equipment, ultrasonic pulse is produced by a transducer held in contact with one surface of concrete member under test. After traversing a known path length (L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibration is converted into an electrical signal by the second transducer held in contact with other surface of the

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

concrete member at the pre-determined place and an electric timing circuit enables the transmit time (T) of the pulse to be measured. The pulse velocity is given by V = L/T in unit km/sec. Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of the material, the maximum energy is propagated at right angles to the face of the transmitting transducer, and best results are therefore obtained when the receiving transducer is placed on the opposite face of the concrete member. This is called Direct Transmission or Cross Probing. In many situations, the two opposite faces of the structural member may not be accessible for measurements. In such cases, the transmitting and receiving transducers are placed on the same face of the concrete member. This is called Surface Transmission. Surface transmission is not so efficient as Direct Transmission, because the signal produced at the receiving transducer has an amplitude of only 2 to 3 % of that produced by Cross Probing, and the test results may vary from 5 to 20% depending upon the quality of concrete under test. In view of inherent variability in the test results, sufficient number of readings are taken by dividing the structural member under test in suitable grid markings of 30x30cm and in some cases even smaller. Each junction point of the grid becomes a point of observation. The guidelines for assessing condition of concrete based on pulse velocity are given below:

S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Pulse Velocity in Km/Sec Above 4.5 3.5 to 4.5 3.0 to 3.5 Below 3.0

Condition of concrete Excellent Good Medium Poor

Since actual values of the pulse velocity obtained depend on a number of parameters, any criterion for assessing the quality of concrete on the basis of pulse velocity as given in the above table can be considered as satisfactory only to a general extent. However, when the comparison is made amongst different parts of the structure, which have been built at the same time with similar materials, construction practices and supervision, the assessment of quality becomes more meaningful and reliable. The assessment of compressive strength of concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity values is not adequate because the statistical confidence of the correlation between the ultrasonic pulse velocity and the compressive strength of the concrete is not very high. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test can also be used for measuring depth of crack. 4.4.3 Windsor Probe Test Windsor Probe Test is based on penetration of hardened concrete. ASTM, C 803-82 has standardized this equipment/test procedure. The underlying principle of this penetration resistance technique is that for standard test conditions, the penetration of probe into the concrete is inversely proportional to the

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

compressive strength of the concrete. In other words, larger the exposed length of the probe, greater the compressive strength of concrete. This equipment consists of a power-activated gun or driver unit, hardened alloy probe, loaded cartridge and a measuring instrument such as depth gauge etc. The probes are 6.35mm in diameter and 79.5mm in length. Larger diameter probes (7.94mm) are also available for testing lightweight concrete. Probe is threaded in to the probe-driving head and fired into the concrete using a template. The driver utilizes a standard power cartridge. The power level can be reduced when testing low strength concrete by locating the probe at a fixed position within the driver barrel. Two types of templates are provided with the equipment e.g. single probe template and a threeprobe triangular template. Exposed length of probe is correlated to the compressive strength of concrete. A typical correlation is shown in Figure 4.2. The Windsor Probe is basically a hardness tester and provides an excellent means of determining the relative strength of concrete in the same structure or relative strengths in different structures. The test is not expected to determine the absolute values of strength of concrete in the structure. The method may be used to assess the uniformity of in-situ concrete, to delineate zones or regions of poor quality or deteriorated concrete in the structure and to indicate changes with time in characteristics of concrete, when forms and shoring may be removed. The precision of Windsor probe measurement has been found to vary with the maximum size of aggregates in concrete. The penetration of the probe in to the concrete is affected by the hardness of the aggregates. Therefore, it is desirable to prepare separate calibration curve for the type of aggregate used in the concrete under investigation. There are requirements of minimum edge distance, probe spacing and member thickness. If the minimum recommended dimensions are not complied with, there can be danger of splitting of members. The penetration technique is considered almost non-destructive as the damage to concrete made by 6 mm probes is only local, which has to be made good. The test has the advantage over rebound hammer test as the measurement is made not on the surface of the concrete but in depth.

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

4.4.4

Combined use of Rebound Hammer and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity In view of the relative limitations of either of the two methods for predicting the strength of concrete, both ultrasonic pules velocity (UPV) and rebound hammer methods are sometimes used in combination to alleviate the errors arising out of influence of materials, mix and environmental parameters on the respective measurements. Relationship between UPV, rebound hammer and compressive strength of concrete are available based on laboratory test specimen. Better accuracy on the estimation of concrete strength is claimed by use of such combined methods. However, this approach also has the limitation that the established correlation are valid only for materials and mix having same proportion as used in the trials. The intrinsic difference between the laboratory test specimen and in-situ concrete (e.g. surface texture, moisture content, presence of reinforcement, etc.) also affect the accuracy of test results. Combination of UPV and rebound hammer methods can be used for the assessment of the quality and likely compressive strength of in-situ concrete. Assessment of likely compressive strength of concrete is made from the rebound indices and this is taken to be indicative of the entire mass only when the overall quality of concrete judged by the UPV is good. When the quality assessed is medium, the estimation of compressive strength by rebound indices is extended to the entire mass only on the basis of other collateral measurements e.g. strength of control cube specimens, cement content of hardened concrete by chemical analysis or concrete core testing. When the quality of concrete is poor, no assessment of the strength of concrete is made from rebound indices.

4.4.5

Pull-out Test

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

This test measures the force required to pull out the inserts in the form of specially shaped steel rod or disc whose enlarged end has been embedded in concrete (Figure 4.3). The force is measured with the help of a dynamometer. Because of the shape of the steel rod, a cone of concrete is pulled out in the

operation. The pull out strength is calculated as the ratio of the pullout force to the idealized area of the frustum of the cone. Pullout strength is proportional to compressive strength of concrete. The pullout strength is of the same order of magnitude as the direct shear strength of concrete, and is 10 to 30% of the compressive strength. The pull out test is covered in ASTM C 900. The pull out tests fall into two basic categories; those which involves an insert which is cast along with concrete i.e. the test is preplanned for new structures and secondly those in which insert is fixed by undercutting and subsequent expanding procedure in the hardened concrete and is useful for existing structures and surveys of matured concrete. These methods are generally known as Cast-in method and drilled hole method respectively. There are various variants in cast-in methods like Lok test as well as in drilled hole method like CAPO. In the CAPO (cut and pull out) test method, an expanding ring is fixed into an under reamed groove, producing a similar pull out device to that used for Lok test. The pull out test is reported to be independent of water/cement ratio, curing, cements type and aggregate properties (up to 38 maximum size of aggregate) and therefore strength estimation is found to be more dependable than for other non destructive methods. The test is considered superior to the rebound hammer and to the the penetration resistance test, because larger volume and a greater depth of concrete are involved in the test. 4.4.6 The disadvantage of the pull out test is that a small damage to the concrete is required to be repaired. Break-off Test The break-off test is a variant of the pull out test, in which the flexural strength of concrete is determined in a plane parallel to and at a certain distance from the concrete surface. For this purpose, tubular disposable forms are inserted in the fresh concrete. At the time of testing, the forms are removed and concrete core is broken off at the bottom by applying a force to the top and at right angles to the axis of the core. Correlation between break-off strength and standard cube strength is available to find out the compressive strength of concrete.

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As per recent approach, break-off test can be conducted in hardened concrete also. Instead of inserting the tubular disposable forms, the cores are left unbroken at the bottom and the remaining test is carried out in the same way as described above or the cores are subjected to direct tension test. Similar to pull out test, the disadvantage of the break-off test is that a small damage to the concrete is required to be repaired. 4.4.7 Pull-off Test The pull-off test is meant for measuring the tensile strength of in-situ concrete. It is equally useful for measuring the adhesive strength of all kinds of applied coatings (mortars and plastic coating, flexible and thermo-plastic coating, paint finishes, etc.). The pull-off test method can be used to check the bond strength of repairs and renovation works on concrete surfaces. The test method is covered by BS-1881 Part 207. Pull-off tester is microprocessor based, portable hand operated and mechanical unit. It is available from 5KN to 100KN tensile force capacities. The instrument mechanism makes it possible to preselect the rate of loading and the actual tensile force being applied is displaced on LCD monitor. The memory allows transferring of the recorded data to PC. This test involves gluing a 50-mm diameter metal disk to the concrete surface, under test, using an epoxy adhesive. If the state of concrete beyond cove is to be assessed or the concrete surface is damp and carbonation and skin defects are present, partial coring of concrete up to the appropriate depth around the disc is needed. A pulling force on the steel disk through a bolt screwed axially to it is applied and the disk together with a layer of concrete is jacked off. The tensile strength is calculated by dividing the pulloff force by the area of the disk. In a valid test, failure takes place in the concrete. Particular care is needed to ensure proper bonding between the metal disk and concrete, especially when the surface is damp. The tensile strength obtained can be co-related with the compressive strength using calibration charts made appropriate to concrete. The relationship between pull-off strength and compressive strength is affected by age of concrete, aggregate type and size, curing conditions, etc. Pulloff test is reported to be slightly more reliable than Windsor Probe test. The test can be performed with or without a partial core. The partial core is useful when the concrete has an outer hard shell, e.g., as a result of carbonation. The partial core technique can also be used to assess the bond strength of overlay and repair materials to the base concrete. 4.4.8 Bond Test The bond testing equipment measures in place bonding or direct tensile strength between two layers e.g. a repair overlay and the parent concrete material or adhesion of shotcrete and membrane. The test

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location is so selected with the help of a metal detector that reinforcement disturbance, if any, is controlled and minimised during cutting operation. The test consists of drilling a 100 mm nominal diameter core through the overlay into the parent concrete material. The drilled core is left without breaking. The top surface of the core is cleaned and dried and a cylindrical steel disc 85mm in diameter is fastened to it with epoxy resin and adhesive. After hardening of the epoxy, the counter pressure ring with an inside diameter of 105mm is placed concentric with the core on the overlay surface and connected to the pull bolts with countering plate and coupling. Load is applied by turning the instrument handle to a required pull force up to failure of the core in tension. Here also the disadvantage is that a small damage to the concrete is required to be repaired. 4.4.9 Core Drilling Method Core drilling method is the most direct way of measuring the actual strength of concrete in the structure. It mostly involves proper selection of location and number of samples to be obtained. Core should be taken so as to avoid the reinforcement. If avoidance of secondary reinforcement or surface reinforcement is inescapable, strength of Core can be taken as 10% less than measured strength. Cylindrical specimen of 100mm or 150mm diameter are common; other sizes may also be permitted but the least lateral dimension should not be less than 3 times the maximum size of the aggregates used. The core specimen to be tested should preferably have height of specimen as twice the diameter. If there are difficulties of obtaining samples of such size, the length to diameter ratio is permitted to be lower, but in no case lower than 0.95. The samples are to be stored in water for two days prior to testing and are to be tested in moist condition. The ends of specimens are trimmed and flatten and capped with molten sulphur or high alumina cement or some other permissible capping material to obtain a true flat surface. The specimen is then tested in compression. Although drilling of cores and compressive strength test are quite simple (and are covered in IS:1199 and IS:516), but the procedures and influencing factors are to be carefully understood as they affect the measured value and therefore the assessment of the quality of in-place concrete. The provision of IS 456: 2000 vide clause 17.4.3 in this regard is given below: Concrete in the member represented by a core test shall be considered acceptable if the average equivalent cube strength of the cores is equal to at least 85% of the cube strength of the grade of concrete specified for the corresponding age and no individual core has a strength less than 75 percent. 4.4.10 Maturity Method ASTM C 1074 has adopted a standard practice on the use of the maturity method to estimate concrete strength. The maturity method is also used in ASTM C 918 for estimating later-age potential cylinder strength based on measured early-age strength. Compressive strength of well cured concrete increases with time. But this increase is dependent on the temperature of curing also. The combined influence of time and temperature is considered as the maturity. It is thus defined as the integral of time multiplied by temperature with a datum temperature of 100C, since below this temperature cement in concrete ceases to hydrate. The maturity of in-place can be monitored by thermocouples or by instruments called maturity meters. The strength of in-place concrete is then estimated using the established correlation graph between maturity and compressive strength of concrete. The advantage of maturity concept is that by prior placing of maturity meters in the formwork at the time of construction, the strength of early age concrete can be monitored and accordingly formwork can be removed confidently. 4.5 CORROSION ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING TECHNIQUES

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

These techniques are broadly classified into two groups according to principle of mechanism. (i) Electrochemical Technique Open circuit potential measurements Surface potential measurements Polarisation resistance technique Impedence

(ii)

Electrical Technique Resistivity of concrete Electrical resistance probe

4.5.1

Half-cell Potential Measurement The most important of the electrochemical techniques that can be adopted for site use is open circuit potential measuring technique. Based on this principle, ASTM C 876 prescribes a Half Cell Potential Method for detection of reinforcement corrosion. The equipment consists of a half-cell, voltmeter and electrical lead wires. Normally copper copper sulphate half cell is used but other half-cells like silver silver nitrate can also be used. The method detects the likelihood of corrosion of steel but cannot indicate the rate of corrosion. The potential readings obtained can be interpreted as per Table 4.1. Now-a-days sophisticated commercial equipment such as Potential Wheel, Path Finder or Bloodhound are available for which higher speed and accuracy is claimed. In Half-cell Potential Test, electrical connection to reinforcing bar is necessary to obtain potential measurements. Normally with connection at one place, sufficient number of readings can be obtained. Sometimes, it may not be possible to give connection to reinforcement. In such cases, the other method known as surface potential measuring technique may be suitable. This method uses two reference electrodes and no electrical connection to reinforcement is necessary. A potential difference of 30 mV indicates that steel remains in passive condition and if it is more than 100 mV, it indicates active corrosion conditions. Phases of corrosion activity Initial phase Corrosion activity not taking place Transient phase Corrosion activity uncertain Final phase Corrosion occurring positively As measured by Copper Half-cell Silver Half-cell < -200 mV < -500 mV -200 mV to -350 mV > -350 mV -500 mV to -700 mV > -700 mV

Table 4.1 Phases of reinforcement corrosion by Half-cell potential measurement This method is applicable to concrete members regardless of their size or the depth of concrete cover over the reinforcing steel and may be used at any time during the life of a member.

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4.5.2 Magnetic Method for Cover Measurement Magnetic methods may be used to determine the location and cover to reinforcement embedded in concrete. Some of the models commercially available in market are Micro-cover meter, Pachometer, Profometer, FeDepth meter, etc. These equipment are based on the principle that the presence Micro-Cover Meter of steel affects the field of an electromagnet. Most cover meters consist of a unit containing the power source, amplifier and meter and a separate search unit (probe) containing the electromagnet which is coupled to the main unit by a cable. Profometer is a portable, battery operated equipment used for measuring the depth of cover concrete, location and size of the steel reinforcement embedded in concrete. The equipment is useful for investigating the structures where drawings are not available. The equipment consists of data logger, diameter probe and depth probe and calibration block. Profometer The equipment has sufficient memory to store the scanned data. The meter needle is zeroed and the probe moved over the concrete surface, the probe is moved and rotated to obtain a maximum reading and this position correspond to the location of reinforcement bar (minimum cover). It is used for (a) measuring concrete cover (b) detecting reinforcing bar (c) determining bar size and direction. In heavily reinforced section, however, the effect of secondary reinforcement cannot be eliminated completely. Nevertheless, the these equipment give fair idea about the average thickness of cover with maximum variation of +5mm. 4.5.3 Resistivity Test The corrosion of steel in concrete is an electro-chemical process, which generates a flow of current and can dissolve metals. The lower the electrical resistance, the more readily the corrosion current flows through the concrete and the greater is the probability of corrosion. The limits of possible corrosion are related with resistivity as under: With 12 kcm corrosion is improbable

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With = 8 to 12 kcm corrosion is possible With 8 kcm corrosion is fairly certain where, (rho) = resistivity Resistivity Meter is used to measure the electrical resistance of the cover concrete. With the graphical display of the major values, it is possible to determine the spots in the concrete structure where corrosion may occur. The combination of resistance measurement by Resistivity Meter and potential measurement by Resistivity Meter Corrosion Analysing Instrument (described below) furthermore improves the information about the corrosion condition of the rebar. 4.5.4 Corrosion Analysing Instrument The method is based on half-cell potential measurement. By measuring the corrosion potential of rebars using corrosion analysing instrument, it is possible to differentiate between corroding and passive areas of the concrete structures. Corrosion analysing instrument is used to measure corrosion potential of the embedded reinforcement on the surface of the concrete. 4.5.5 Test for Carbonation, Chloride Content of concrete pH and

Carbonation of concrete in cover results in loss of protection to the steel against corrosion. The depth of carbonation can be measured by spraying the freshly fractured concrete surface with a 0.2% solution of phenolphthalein in ethanol. Since phenolphthalein is a pH indicator, the magneta (pink colour) areas represent uncarbonated concrete and the remaining (colourless) portion, the carbonated area. The change in colour occurs at around pH 10 of concrete. The test must be applied only to freshly exposed surfaces, because reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide starts immediately. Also it should be ensured that the carbonated surface is not contaminated with dust from uncarbonated concrete. pH indicators are also now commercially available for determining the pH of concrete in different ranges. Relating carbonation depth to concrete cover is one of the main indicators of corrosion. The presence of chloride in concrete may be contributory factor towards corrosion of reinforcement. Portable equipment have become available for rapid on-site measurement of chloride content of concrete.

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Similar equipment are available for rapid determination of sulphates and alkali in concrete. A rotary percussion drill is used to collect a pulverised sample of concrete and the chlorides are extracted by a special acid. The amount of acid soluble chloride is determined directly by a chloride sensitive electrode connected to a electrometer. If different samples are obtained from different concrete depths, it can be established whether the chloride contamination was there in the original concrete or the same has come from the environment. The chloride content of concrete can also be determined by chemical analysis of concrete in the laboratory. 4.6 TESTS FOR DETECTING DEFECTS IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES Apart from the above popular non-destructive tests, there are also many NDT tests, which are either under developmental stages or are being used in other countries for detecting defects in concrete structures. Some of these described below: 4.6.1 Gamma Radiography Concrete will absorb X-rays or gamma rays, which pass through it and the degree of absorption depends on the density of the concrete. When a ray passes through concrete, it is partly absorbed and partly scattered. The measuring device should be shielded from the scattered radiation. The density of the concrete is determined by the degree of absorption of the rays in traversing a direct path of known depth. The technique involves transmission of wave energy detected by a photographic emulsion or a radiation detector. The equipment basically consists of a radioactive source, a detector and a remote command module. The equipment is portable and easy to use and exposure time is very small. One such equipment BETATRON has been developed by CECRI, Karaikudi. However, care has to be taken and proper precautionary measures are to be followed, as such radiation is a health hazard. It is used for: 4.6.2 Defining cracks Determining the quality of concrete e.g. its homogeneity or the presence of crack Checking the location and condition of reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons e.g. for error in positioning, abnormal deformation, steel failures and fractures, corrosion or lack of bond Checking the quality of grouting Determining the approximate density of concrete.

Nuclear Methods Neutron Moisture Gauges These are used to measure moisture content in concrete. They are based on the principle that hydrogen containing materials (water) act as excellent moderators for fast neutrons, i.e. such materials produce a rapid decrease in neutron energy, depending on amount of hydrogen. Thus, counting of the slowed down neutrons gives a measure of the hydrogen content of the concrete. Isotopic neutron sources (such as radium with beryllium) are generally used in moisture gauges.

4.6.3

Thermography Infrared thermography is based on the principle that a surface emits electromagnetic radiation with an intensity that depends on its temperature. The presence of defects (having different thermal conductivity than the surrounding surface) affects the heat flow into or out of an object. As a result, the surface temperature will not be uniform. Thus, by measuring the surface temperature, the presence of the defect can be inferred. In practice, the surface temperature is measured with an infrared scanner which work in a manner similar to video camera. Infrared thermography is used for detecting area of voids, scaling and

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delamination in concrete bridge decks. This method is quite useful in assessment of deck slab covered by wearing coat. In-situ Permeability Test Because of the increasing instances of corrosion in reinforced/prestressed concrete structures, attention has been drawn on the significance of permeability in addition to compression strength in assessing quality of concrete. The procedure consists of drilling a small hole in concrete, sealing it with a rubber stopper and then evacuating the air from the hole with a vacuuming pump connected to a manometer. Rate at which the manometer recovers is a measure of permeability of concrete. This method can be used to assess the resistance of concrete to carbonation, penetration of aggressive ions and quality of grout in post-tensioned ducts. 4.6.5 Magnetic Field Disturbance Test This can be used for detecting flaws in the steel embedded in concrete. The test is based on applying a steady magnetic field near a member and scanning the surface of member to detect disturbance in the magnetic field caused by the presence of flaws in reinforcing or prestressing steel. 4.6.6 Acoustic Emission Method It provides a means of monitoring the initiation of cracking under increasing load. It can be possible to monitor large structural member for locating the origin of cracking and zones of maximum deterioration. Acoustic emissions are irreversible i.e. emissions are not generated in a material unless it is stressed beyond prior stress level. As a material is loaded, localised points may be strained beyond their elastic limit, and crushing or micro cracking may occur. The kinetic energy released will propagate small amplitude elastic stress waves. These waves known as acoustic emissions are generally not in the audible range and may be detected as small displacements of transducers positioned on the surface of the material Acoustic emission method is still under development. However, in future it may be a useful method in conjunction with in situ load testing as a mean of monitoring cracking origin, its development and to provide a warning to impending failure.

4.6.4

4.6.7

Microwave Absorption Technique The electromagnetic microwaves of a wavelength of about 1 mm, frequency range 109 Hz can be reflected, diffracted and absorbed. The property of absorption of these waves by water at a rate higher than that of concrete has led to the development of a method of determining the moisture content of concrete. Accordingly, greater the moisture content, higher the degree of attenuation. The equipment consists of a portable transmitter and a crystal detector. During testing, these are placed on opposite faces of the concrete member at fixed distances from it. The heterogeneous nature of concrete causes internal scattering and diffraction of waves and as a result the accuracy may be as low as 30%.

4.6.8

Vibration Signature Technique It is a dynamic testing method in which vibration pattern in bridge super structure is monitored during and after application of dynamic loads. The results can be compared with those taken in past to assess the soundness of the bridge.

4.6.9

Pulse Echo Technique

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

This method has been recently developed and successful application has already been made for pile testing. With the help of impact by a hammer or by use of electromechanical transducer, an acoustic pulse is sent in the structure. The analysis of the reflected waves depicts the voids and internal discontinuities and other problems arising out of insufficient compaction, if any, in the structure. The method is useful for testing concrete members which provide only one surface for testing. In spite of its ample potential in evaluating in-place concrete, the method suffers from varying interpretations by different operators and is dependent upon skill of the operator. 4.6.10 Ground Penetrating Radar Radar is analogous to pulse-echo technique, except that pulses of electro-magnetic waves (short radio waves) are used instead stress waves. An antenna emits a short duration pulse of electromagnetic waves. The pulse travels through the underlying material, and when the pulse encounters an interface between dissimilar materials, some of the energy is reflected back towards the antenna. The antenna receives the reflected portion of the pulse and generates an output signal. By measuring the time from the start of the pulse until the reception of the echo, the depth of the interface can be determined if the propagation speed through the material is known. Various elements of Radar System is shown in figure 4.6. 4.6.11 Endoscopy technique Endoscopy consists of inserting a rigid or flexible viewing tube into holes drilled into concrete bridge components or cable ducts and view them with light provided by optical glass fibres from an external source. This is a most useful method for inspecting or detecting voids in the grout and corrosion in steel in the cable ducts. It is also useful for detail examination of other part of the bridge structure, which could not otherwise be assessed. Endoscopes are available as attachments for a camera or a TV monitor. It, however, needs an experienced engineer to make assessment of most likely locations of voids in the grout and probable points of entry of chlorides into the ducts. 4.7 LABORATORY TESTS The following are some of the main tests which can be conducted in laboratory on representative core samples of concrete and steel to supplement the results of visual observations and other field tests. 4.8 LOAD TEST Compressive strength of concrete Cement content in concrete by chemical analysis of the crushed concrete Static and dynamic modulus of elasticity Splitting tensile strength Petrography examination of aggregate to check for alkali-silica reaction Chloride content of concrete Sulphate content pH value of concrete Permeability testing Water-cement ratio by measuring combined water present as cement hydrates and the capillary water Moisture content in concrete at the level of reinforcement.

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

As a result of special inspection, if condition of any structural member requires evaluation of structure, then load test may be carried out in accordance with clause 10.5 of IRS Concrete Bridge Code, 1997. This method may also be used for checking the suitability of any structural member for higher standard of loading or suitability of the member for certain degree of calculated overstress. The detailed scheme for load test viz. test load, testing procedure, instrumentation for measurement of required parameters, criteria for evaluation, safety precautions, repairs, if any, to be carried out before the load test etc. must be finalised with due care.

4.9

SUMMARY OF TESTS A general summary of NDT tests is given in Table 4.1. Facilities for a number of tests are still not available in India, but have been mentioned, as they might become available later. The engineering judgement for adoption of a particular test or combination of tests could help in taking effective and faster decisions. The rating and capability of different test methods is given in Table 4.2. The Classification of technique for examining corrosion of the reinforcement/prestressing steel, potentially the most dangerous problems in concrete, is compiled in Table 4.3.

Technique Cracking Visual Hardness Sonic Ultrasonic Magnetic Electrical Chemical Nuclear Thermography Radar Radiography Air permeability G N F G N N N N N N F N Scaling G N N N N N N N Gb Gb N N

Capability of defect detection Corrosion Wear & Chemical Abrasion Attack P G F P N P G N N F N P F N N G N N G N N F N N G N N G N N F N N F N N

Voids in Grout N N N N N N N N N N F F

G=Good; F=Fair; P=Poor; N=Not suitable; bBeneath bituminous surfacings. Table 4.2 Capability of investigating techniques for detecting defects in concrete structures and field use Technique Direct Indirect NonSemi- DestruCorrosion Remarks Destructive Destru- ctive Rate Defect Causes ctive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Visual Inspection X X X Essential Weight Loss X X X Limited use Pit Depth X X X Limited use Half-Cell Potential X X X Useful Carbonation X X X Essential Covermeter X X X Essential

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

Chloride Analysis Resistivity Moisture Content Water Absorption Concrete Strength Permeability Delamination Ultrasonic Methods Hardness Methods Radiography Windsor Probe Coring X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Essential Useful Limited use Limited use Useful Useful Useful Limited use Useful For PSC only Limited use Limited use

X Yes, Blank - No Table 4.3 Classification of Techniques for examining reinforced Concrete Structures for Corrosion 4.10 REFERENCE OF RELEVANT STANDARDS FOR VARIOUS TESTS Table 4.4 gives a list of relevant standards for various tests. 4.11 LIST OF NDT EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE IN RDSO Table 4.5 gives a list of various NDT equipment available in RDSO.

TABLE 4.4

LIST OF STANDARDS FOR VARIOUS NON-DESTRUCTIVE METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

S. No. 1. 2. 3.

Tests Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Rebound Hammer Windsor Probe IS 13311 (Pt. 1) 13311 (Pt. 2) -

Standards BS 1881 (Pt. 203) 1881 (Pt. 202) -

ASTM C597 C805 C803/C803

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

M 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 11. 12. 13. Half-cell Potential Pull-out test Pull-off test Break-off test Maturity Method Core drilling Method Nuclear Method Infrared Thermography Electro-magnetic Covermeter Radiography 1199 & 516 1881 (Pt. 207) 1881 (Pt. 207) 1881 (Pt. 207) BS EN 12504 1881 (Pt. 204) 1881 (Pt. 205) C876 C900 C1150 C1074 C1040 D4788 -

TABLE 4.5

LIST OF IMPORTANT NDT EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE IN RDSO

S. No. 1. 2.

Name of Equipment Rebound Hammer Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Meter

Make Proceq, Switzerland Proceq, Switzerland

Important usage for assessing properties of concrete

Compressive strength Uniformity of concrete Cavities, cracks and defects

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

Corebrand, UK Proceq, Switzerland Compressive strength Modulus of Elasticity Compressive strength Bond strength of overlay and repair materials to the base concrete Tensile and compressive strength Quality of cover concrete Identifying areas where risk of corrosion activities is expected. Corrosion potential of embedded reinforcement To differentiate between corroding and passive areas of concrete structure. Depth of concrete cover. Depth of concrete cover Location and size reinforcement embedded concrete Width of crack Origin of cracking Zones of maximum deterioration of in

3. 4.

Windsor Probe * James Instrument Inc., USA Pull-off Tester Proceq, Switzerland

5.

Resistivity Meter Corrosion Analysing Instrument

Proceq, Switzerland Proceq, Switzerland

6.

7. 8.

Microcovermeter Profometer

9. 10.

11.

Crack Detection Microscope Acoustic emission equipment Data Acquisition System with Dasy Lab System

Ele International, UK Physical Acoustic Ltd., UK Compaq

Acquisition and analysis of stress strain and vibration data

* Procurement of the equipment is under process.

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

Table 4.1

Summary of principal test methods

Principal application 2 Quality Control (in-situ-strength) In situ-strength measurement In situmeasurement In situmeasurement Comparative Surveys Principal properties assessed 3 Strength related Strength related Surface damage Type of Equipment 5 Mechanical Mechanical Remarks

Method

1 Pull out test (cast-insert) Pull out test (drilled hole) Break off test

4 Moderate /minor Moderate /minor

Flexural tensile Strength Strength related

Substantial /moderate Moderate /minor

Mechanical

Penetration resistance Surfacehardness

Mechanical

Surface hardness

Very minor

Mechanical

Initial surface absorption

Surface permeability assessment Surface permeability assessment Durability survey

Surface absorption

Minor

Hydraulic

Surface permeability Resistively measurements

Surface permeability Resistivity

Minor

Hydraulic

6 Preplanned usage, surface zone test Drilling difficulties on vertical surfaces or soffits. Surface zone test High test variability, surface zone test, very good to check repair bond. Specific calibrations reqd., limits on minimum member size, surface zone test. Greatly affected by surface texture and moisture, surface test, unpresntative on concrete more than 3 months old, strength calibration affected by mix properties Difficult to standardize in situ moisture conditions and to obtain watertight seal to surface, comparative test. Surface zone test, water or gas

Minor

Electrical

Surface zone test, related to moisture content, indicate potential of reinforce-ment corrosion in zones of high risk.

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

Half cell potential measurements Survey of reinforcement corrosion risk Electrode potential of reinforcement Very minor Electro-chemical Indicates only the probability of corrosion, Quality of results depends on moisture content. Placement of half cell has to be done carefully Increasing load required, not fully developed for site use. Not very reliable Cannot yield bearing capacity

Acoustic emission Dynamic response techniques

Monitoring testing Pile integrity

Internal crack development Dynamic response

None

Electronic

None

Mechanical/ Electronic

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

(Contd.) 1 Electromagnet ic measurement Radar 2 Location and depth of reinforcement Location of voids or reinforcement 3 Presence of embedded steel Relative density 4 None 5 6 Electromagneti Affected by magnetic-aggregates c and unreliable for congested steel. Radio active source or Radiations generator Radioactive source or generator Radio active source or generator Nuclear Some safety precautions limit on member thickness.

None

Radiography

Location of voids or reinforcement Quality control

Relative density

None

Radiometry

Density

None

Neutron moisture measurement Depth of carbonation Resonant frequency Strain measurements Movement measurements at joints Crack movement demec gauges Spall survey

Comparative moisture content Durability survey Quality control Monitoring movements in structures Monitoring movements Monitoring crack widths Corrosion risk

Moisture content

None

Extensive safety precautions, limit on member thickness. Essential for prestressed ducts Safety precautions and limit on member thickness for direct method and back scatter method, surface zone test Surface zone test, calibration difficult. Not of much use so far Good indications of extent of carbonation if area is well sampled Specially cast specimen required. Not very useful Attachment and reading requires skill, can only indicate changes in strain Requires skill to read

Concrete Alkalinity Dynamic elastic modulus Changes in strain

Moderate/Minor None Minor

Chemical Electronic Optical, Mechanical, Electronic Mechanical

Changes in strain

None

Changes in strain

None

Mechanical

Requires skill to read

Indicate extent of corrosion damage

None

Physical recording of all spalls, depth of rebar, thickness of corrosion and spalled concrete for chlorides and carbonation

GUIDELINES FOR INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

ANNEXURE - A (SHEET 2) REPORT OF DETAILED INSPECTION CONDITION OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF THE BRIDGE Bridge No. Span No. Bed blocks Bearings Camber Girders/ Slabs/ Parapet/ Trolley Ballast Drainage Date of SubAny Initial of Inspectio structur Beams Decks Railins refuge/ and Arrange- other inspectio n e Footpath Track ments compone n official nt such with as designati diaphrag on m approach slab, jacking brackets, etc. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13