TEACHING METHODS

After choosing the subject for this thesis, my first job seemed to be definition of terms. Just what are methods of teaching? Webster gives several definitions of teaching, among them the following: To show; guide; direct; to make to know how; show how; to direct as an instructor; to guide the studies of, or to conduct through a course of studies; to impart the knowledge of. These are definitions of teaching, which we all know and accept. But the definition of methods is a little more difficult. Webster defines method as: An orderly procedure or process; regular way or manner of doing anything. In an educational sense, method is a systematic plan adopted in presenting instructional material; as, the lecture method; a method of teaching. Method is commonly a special or definite system of procedure. The next step was to discover what the conventional methods of teaching are, and how they could be used in teaching The Urantia Book. The outside sources consulted seemed to pile confusion on confusion. Each author had his own interpretation of the word methods. One author recognized just two methods subject teaching, that is, arithmetic, geography, history, as separate subjects (the way most of us studied); and progressive teaching, in which the project holds the important place, and the subjects arithmetic, geography, history, etc. are acquired as a by-product in the working out of the project. Another author listed methods as inductive, deductive, expository, demonstration, etc. Still another author defined methods as tools, techniques, devices used in teaching, such as maps, models, blackboards, and so on. With such a range of meaning, from a general system of procedure down to the concrete tool, such as a globe, I have felt free to make my own interpretation of methods. While my primary interest has been in the actual techniques or tools for putting a point across, I felt that a consideration of the more general aspects of teaching should form the foundation for the discussion of the specialized procedures. The definition, which most nearly fits my purpose here, was found in a book titled Beginning Teaching by Joseph Emory Avent. Method is the procedure by which a goal is reached, a purpose accomplished, or a result achieved. It is how you get the thing doneDevices may be thought of simply as little methods, or as parts of a larger method. A device usually involves the use of concrete materials, or concrete procedures, which may be objects or ideasA device, then, is any little method to which a teacher resorts as a temporary means of more effective focusing of attention of pupils upon the task to be done.

KINDS OF METHOD OF TEACHING The information presented in previous chapters has been largely theoretical, emphasizing concepts and principles pertinent to the learning process, human behavior and effective communication in education and training programs. This knowledge, if properly used, will enable instructors to be more confident, efficient, and successful. The discussion which follows departs from the theoretical with some specific recommendations for the actual conduct of the teaching process. Included are methods and procedures which have been tested and found to be effective. Teaching methods in common use, such as the lecture method, the guided discussion method, and the demonstration-performance method are covered in this chapter. A discussion on

cooperative or group learning also is included since this type of learning may be useful in conjunction with either the lecture or guided discussion methods. A teaching method is seldom used by itself. In a typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses more than one method. For example, a demonstration is usually accompanied by a thorough explanation, which is essentially a lecture. Personal computers are a part of every segment of our society today. Since a number of computer-based pro- grams are currently available from publishers of aviation training materials, a brief description of new technologies and how to use them effectively is provided near the end of the chapter.

Organizing Material
Regardless of the teaching method used, an instructor must properly organize the material. The lessons do not stand alone within a course of training. There must be a plan of action to lead instructors and their students through the course in a logical manner toward the desired goal. Usually the goal for students is a certificate or rating. It could be a private pilot certificate, an instrument rating, or an aviation maintenance technician certificate or rating. In all cases, a systematic plan of action requires the use of an appropriate training syllabus. Generally, the syllabus must contain a description of each lesson, including objectives and completion standards. Refer to Chapter 10, Planning Instructional Activity, for detailed information on requirements for an aviation training syllabus, and the building-block concept for curriculum development. Although some schools and independent instructors may develop their own syllabus, in practice, many instructors use a commercially developed syllabus that already has been selected by a school for use in their aviation training program. Thus, the main concern of the instructor usually is the more manage- able task of organizing a block of training with integrated lesson plans. The traditional way of organizing a lesson plan is-introduction, development, and conclusion.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction sets the stage for everything to come. Efforts in this area pay great dividends in terms of quality of instruction. In brief, the introduction is made up of three elements-attention, motivation, and an overview of what is to be covered.

Attention
The purpose of the attention element is to focus each student's attention on the lesson. The instructor may begin by telling a story, making an unexpected or surprising statement, asking a question, or telling a joke. Any of these may be appropriate at one time or another. Regardless of which is used, it should relate to the subject and establish a background for developing the learning outcomes. Telling a story or a joke that is not related in some way to the subject can only distract from the lesson. The main concern is to gain the attention of everyone and concentrate on the subject.

Motivation
The purpose of the motivation element is to offer the students specific reasons why the lesson content is important to know, understand, apply, or perform. For example, the instructor may talk about an occurrence where the knowledge in the lesson was applied. Or the instructor may remind the students of an upcoming test on the material. This motivation should appeal to each student personally and engender a desire to learn the material.

Overview
Every lesson introduction should contain an overview that tells the group what is to be covered during the period. A clear, concise presentation of the objective and the key ideas gives the students a road map of the route to be followed. A good visual aid can help the instructor show the students the path that they are to travel. The introduction should be free of stories, jokes, or incidents that do not help the students focus their attention on the lesson objective. Also, the instructor should avoid a long apologetic introduction, because it only serves to dampen the students' interest in the lesson.

Development
Development is the main part of the lesson. Here, the instructor develops the subject matter in a manner that helps the students achieve the desired learning outcomes. The instructor must logically organize the material to show the relationships of the main points. The instructor usually shows these primary relation- ships by developing the main points in one of the following ways: from past to present, simple to complex, known to unknown, and most frequently used to least frequently used.

Past to Present
In this pattern of development, the subject matter is arranged chronologically, from the present to the past or from the past to the present. Time relationships are most suitable when history is an important consideration, as in tracing the development of radio navigation systems.

Simple to Complex
The simple-to-complex pattern helps the instructor lead the student from simple facts or ideas to an under- standing of involved phenomena or concepts. In studying jet propulsion, for example, the student might begin by considering the action involved in releasing air from a toy balloon and finish by taking part in a discussion of a complex gas turbine engine.

Known to Unknown
By using something the student already knows as the point of departure, the instructor cttn lead into new ideas and concepts. For example, in developing a lesson on heading indicators, the instructor could begin with a discussion of the vacuum-driven heading indicator before proceeding to a description of the radio magnetic indicator (RMI).

Most Frequently Used to Least Frequently Used

In some subjects, certain information or concepts are common to all who use the material. This fourth organizational pattern starts with common usage before progressing to the rarer ones. When learning navigation, students should study frequently used pilotage, dead reckoning, and basic VOR/NDB radio navigation procedures before going on to area navigation procedures such as global positioning system (GPS) or inertial navigation system (INS). Under each main point in a lesson, the subordinate points should lead naturally from one to the other. With this arrangement, each point leads logically into, and serves as a reminder of, the next. Meaningful transitions from one main point to another keep the students oriented, aware of where they have been, and where they are going. This permits effective sorting or categorizing chunks of information in the working of short-term memory. Organizing a lesson so the students will grasp the logical relationships of ideas is not an easy task, but it is necessary if the students are to learn and remember what they have learned. Poorly organized information is of little or no value to the student because it cannot be readily understood or remembered.

Conclusion
An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review and wrap-up of ideas reinforces student learning and improves the retention of what has been learned. New ideas should not be introduced in the conclusion because at this point they are likely to confuse the students. By organizing the lesson material into a logical format, the instructor has maximized the opportunity for students to retain the desired information. However, each teaching situation is unique. The setting and purpose of the lesson will determine which teaching method-lecture, guided discussion, demonstration- performance, cooperative or group learning, computerbased training, or a combination-will be used.

Teaching styles and approaches

Experienced teachers plan a variety of teaching approaches to take account of the different ways in which children learn. For example:

children with learning difficulties or those on the autistic spectrum might need tasks that are relatively closed that is, where the task is structured for them and they do not have to invent their own ways of going about it more-able children might need tasks that are more open-ended or extended in time English as an additional language (EAL) learners may benefit from visual approaches.

Your teaching approaches

Some general questions for teachers to ask themselves about their use of different teaching approaches might be as follows.

Do I plan for and use:

multi-sensory teaching approaches (visual, verbal, kinaesthetic) interactive strategies, e.g. pupils having cards to hold up, or their own whiteboards, or coming to the front to take a role visual and tangible aids, e.g. story sacks, real objects, signs or symbols, photographs, pegs on a coat hanger, a variety of number lines, counting sticks, computer animations ways of making abstract concepts concrete, e.g. word problems in mathematics turned into pictures or acted out or modelled with resources tasks that are simplified or extended, e.g. short, concrete text used by one group and long, abstract text by another, numbers to 100 by one group or to 20 by another tasks made more open or more closed according to children's needs a variety of pupil groupings so that children are able to draw on each other's strengths and skills?

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING The majority of the techniques, or little methods, of teaching, which will be discussed in the remainder of this paper, can be used either in individual teaching or in class teaching. Although devised primarily for class work, some of them have already been successfully used in private tutoring. Others are only in the future, but I am sure they will all be used sometime, and there are undoubtedly many that I have not thought of. Some of these methods are used in the schools, which we will pass through on our assent through the universes, but the papers mention others, which are far beyond our present concepts. We are familiar with laboratories, and we now there are laboratories for scientists on Jerusem. Adam and Eve studied in the division of experimental energy as applied to living forms. They were expert anatomists before they came to Urantia. We also know there are planetary life-planning laboratories on the Life Carrier worlds of Salvington. Universe physicists and electrochemists serve there as technical assistants to the Life Carriers. And we are told that the star students on Uversa work with the aid of a multitude of mechanical instruments and physical appliances,so it is safe to assume that there are laboratories on Uversa also. We can understand laboratories. Although Paradise and Havona methods are out of our reach, there are specific techniques, which can be used here and now, and among them are the following: 1. Learn by Doing One of the most important techniques of teaching is to let the pupil learn by doing. This method is being stressed in modern education for it has been discovered that this is one of the best ways for the student to make the information really his own. Several small colleges are operating on the basis of part study, part work, so that their students may apply practically, the theories, which they acquire in class. Boys are not only told how to run a farm or a business. They actually operate the farm or the business. Girls are required to run a home on a fixed budget, to care for children while theyre studying childcare, and so on. This method is not only one of the best in our present Urantia teaching. According to the papers, it is also used extensively in other, better schools than we have on Urantia today. In

the schools, which were established, when the Planetary Prince first arrived on Urantia, the plan of teaching was carried out by establishing industrial schools in which the pupils learned by doing, and through which they worked their way by the daily performances of useful tasks On the universe headquarters itself are numerous Melchizedek schools, the colleges of the Universe Sons, the seraphic universities, and the schools of the Teacher Sons and the Union of Days. Every possible provision is made to qualify the various personalities of the universe for advancing service and improving function. The entire universe is one vast school. The methods employed in many of the higher schools are beyond the human concept of the art of teaching truth, but this is the keynote of the whole educational system: Character acquired by enlightened experience. The teachers provide the enlightenment; the universe stations and the ascenders status afford the opportunity for experience; the wise utilization of these two augments character. Learning by doing leads directly into the project method of teaching, which is emphasized so strongly in progressive schools. Projects promote the integration of learning. Subject matter is learned more thoroughly and in greater amounts. A project is an activity that involves planning and construction, the search for materials, and the evaluation of proposed solutions. The rest of the techniques listed are those, which can be used by any of us little methods which can be used in individual teaching or class teaching. Most of them have already been used in our present classes and have been proved practical and very helpful. 1. The Parallel Technique I took the name for this method from one, which is used on the mansion worlds in teaching mota. The lower planes of morontia mota join directly with the higher levels of human philosophy. On the first mansion world it is the practice to teach the less advanced students by the parallel technique; that is, in one column are presented the more simple concepts of mota meanings, and in the opposite column citation is made of analogous statements of mortal philosophy. This method of placing the new teaching alongside the old in order to compare and get the full meaning of the new can be applied to several situations in The Urantia Book. For example, it will be helpful in learning to geological evolution of the planet to place the dates and ages of the periods beside the dates and ages, which our own scientists have postulated and thus be able to correlate the new teaching with the old. This method should also be used in studying the present day religions in relation to the new, so that the points of agreement and disagreement can be easily seen. It will also be of help in studying the evolution of man and comparing the Urantia story with the theories and facts, which our anthropologists have deduced.

NAMA NPM CLASS

: FAJAR FAIZAN : 200812500687 :6E

ASSIGNMENT : THE DEFINITION OF METHOD,KINDS OF METHOD, TEHNIQUES OF TEACHING, APPROACHES OF TEACHING, AND REFFERENCES.