2010

1 List the point coordinates oI the titanium, barium, and oxygen ions Ior a unit cell oI the perovskite
crystal structure






Solution
In Figure 12.6, the barium ions are situated at all corner positions. The point coordinates Ior these ions are
as Iollows: 000, 100, 110, 010, 001, 101, 111, and 011.
The oxygen ions are located at all Iace-centered positions; thereIore, their coordinates are
1
2

1
2
,
1
2
1
2
1 , 1
1
2
1
2
, 0
1
2
1
2
,
1
2

1
2
,
1
2

1
2

And, Iinally, the titanium ion resides at the center oI the cubic unit cell, with coordinates
1
2
1
2

1
2


2a) drawing










2a brieIly describe a twin and a twin boundary. Also cite the diIIerence between mechanical and annealing twins.
A twin boundary is an interIace such that atoms on one side are located at mirror image positions oI those atoms
situated on the other boundary side. The region on one side oI this boundary is called a twin.
Mechanical twins are produced as a result oI mechanical deIormation and generally occur in BCC and HCP metals.
Annealing twins Iorm during annealing heat treatments, most oIten in FCC metals.

2b) brieIly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as eIIective in interIering with the slip process as are
high-angle grain boundaries


Question 1:
1. For each oI edge, screw and mixed dislocations, cite the relationship between the direction oI the applied shear
stress and the direction oI dislocation line motion.
2. BrieIly explain why some metals (e.g. lead and tin) do not strain harden when deIormed at room temperature.
3. BrieIly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as eIIective in interIering with the slip process as are
high-angle grain boundaries.
4. Can dispersion-strengthened materials be used at high temperature? Explain. Solution
1. Edge dislocation--parallel, screw dislocation--perpendicular, mixed dislocation--neither parallel nor perpendicular
2. Metals such as lead and tin do not strain harden at room temperature because their recrystallization temperatures
lie below room temperature (Table 7.2).
3. Small-angle grain boundaries are not as eIIective in interIering with the slip process as are high-angle grain
boundaries because there is not as much crystallographic misalignment in the grain boundary region Ior small-angle,
and thereIore not as much change in slip direction.
4. Yes. Because the particles used in dispersion strengthening are usually inert so they don`t coarsen upon heating

C) Discuss the Iollowing strengthening techniques in metal and explain how dislocation are involved in each grain
size reduction and solid solution strengthening





Chapter 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
Introduction
The key idea oI the chapter is that plastic deIormation is due to the motion oI a large number oI dislocations. The
motion is called slip. Thus, the strength (resistance to deIormation) can be improved by putting obstacles to slip.
Basic Concepts
Dislocations can be edge dislocations, screw dislocations and exist in combination oI the two (Ch. 4.4). Their
motion (slip) occurs by sequential bond breaking and bond reIorming (Fig. 7.1). The number oI dislocations per unit
volume is the dislocation density, in a plane they are measured per unit area.
Characteristics of Dislocations
There is strain around a dislocation which inIluences how they interact with other dislocations, impurities, etc. There
is compression near the extra plane (higher atomic density) and tension Iollowing the dislocation line (Fig. 7.4)
Dislocations interact among themselves (Fig. 7.5). When they are in the same plane, they repel iI they have the same
sign and annihilate iI they have opposite signs (leaving behind a perIect crystal). In general, when dislocations are
close and their strain Iields add to a larger value, they repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it
takes energy to strain a region oI the material).
The number oI dislocations increases dramatically during plastic deIormation. Dislocations spawn Irom existing
dislocations, and Irom deIects, grain boundaries and surIace irregularities.
$lip $stems
In single crystals there are preIerred planes where dislocations move (slip planes). There they do not move in any
direction, but in preIerred crystallographic directions (slip direction). The set oI slip planes and directions constitute
slip systems.
The slip planes are those oI highest packing density. How do we explain this? Since the distance between atoms is
shorter than the average, the distance perpendicular to the plane has to be longer than average. Being relatively Iar
apart, the atoms can move more easily with respect to the atoms oI the adjacent plane. (We did not discuss direction
and plane nomenclature Ior slip systems.)
BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems, that is more ways Ior dislocation to propagate. Thus, those crystals
are more ductile than HCP crystals (HCP crystals are more brittle).






$lip in $ingle Crstals
A tensile stress s will have components in any plane that is not perpendicular to the stress. These components
are resolved shear stresses. Their magnitude depends on orientation (see Fig. 7.7).
t
#
s cos f cos l
II the shear stress reaches the critical resolved shear stress t
CRSS
, slip (plastic deIormation) can start. The stress
needed is:
s

t
C#$$ /
(cos f cos l)
max

at the angles at which t
CRSS
is a maximum. The minimum stress needed Ior yielding is when f l 45
degrees: s

2t
C#$$
. Thus, dislocations will occur Iirst at slip planes oriented close to this angle with respect to the
applied stress (Figs. 7.8 and 7.9).
!lastic Deformation of !olcrstalline Materials
Slip directions vary Irom crystal to crystal. When plastic deIormation occurs in a grain, it will be constrained by its
neighbors which may be less Iavorably oriented. As a result, polycrystalline metals are stronger than single
crystals (the exception is the perIect single crystal, as in whiskers.)
DeIormation by Twinning
This topic is not included.
0chanisms of Str0ngth0ning in 0tals
eneral principles. Ability to deIorm plastically depends on ability oI dislocations to move. Strengthening consists
in hindering dislocation motion. We discuss the methods oI grain-size reduction, solid-solution alloying and strain
hardening. These are Ior single-phase metals. We discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening
reduces ductility.
$trengthening b Grain $ize #eduction
This is based on the Iact that it is diIIicult Ior a dislocation to pass into another grain, especially iI it is very
misaligned. Atomic disorder at the boundary causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high-angle grain boundaries,
stress at end oI slip plane may trigger new dislocations in adjacent grains. Small angle grain boundaries are not
eIIective in blocking dislocations.
%he finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation motion. rain-size reduction
usually improves toughness as well. Usually, the yield strength varies with grain size d according to:
s

s
0
+ k

/ d
1/2

rain size can be controlled by the rate oI solidiIication and by plastic deIormation.



$olid-$olution $trengthening
Adding another element that goes into interstitial or substitutional positions in a solution increases strength. The
impurity atoms cause lattice strain (Figs. 7.17 and 7.18) which can "anchor" dislocations. This occurs when the
strain caused by the alloying element compensates that oI the dislocation, thus achieving a state oI low potential
energy. It costs strain energy Ior the dislocation to move away Irom this state (which is like a potential well). The
scarcity oI energy at low temperatures is why slip is hindered.Pure metals are almost always soIter than their alloys.
$train Hardening
uctile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures well below the melting
point (cold working) (This is diIIerent Irom hot working is the shaping oI materials at high temperatures where
large deIormation is possible.) Strain hardening (work hardening) is the reason Ior the elastic recovery discussed in
Ch. 6.8.
The reason Ior strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases with plastic deIormation (cold work) due to
multiplication. The average distance between dislocations then decreases and dislocations start blocking the motion
oI each one.
The measure oI strain hardening is the percent cold work (CW), given by the relative reduction oI the original
area,
0
to the Iinal value
d
:
CW 100 (
0
-
d
)/
0

#0cov0ry, r0crystallization and Crain Crowth
Plastic deIormation causes 1) change in grain size, 2) strain hardening, 3) increase in the dislocation density.
Restoration to the state beIore cold-work is done by heating through two processes: recovery and recrystallization.
These may be Iollowed by grain growth.
#ecover
Heating a increased diIIusion a enhanced dislocation motion a relieves internal strain energy and reduces the number
oI dislocation. The electrical and thermal conductivity are restored to the values existing beIore cold working.
#ecrstallization
Strained grains oI cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by more regularly-spaced grains. This occurs
through short-range diIIusion enabled by the high temperature. Since recrystallization occurs by diIIusion, the
important parameters are both temperature and time.The material becomes soIter, weaker, but more ductile (Fig.
7.22).
#ecrstallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete in one hour. It is typically 1/3 to 1/2 oI the
melting temperature. It Ialls as the CW is increased. Below a "critical deIormation", recrystallization does not
occur.
Grain Growth
The growth oI grain size with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It occurs by migration oI atoms
at grain boundaries by diIIusion, thus grain growth is Iaster at higher temperatures. The "driving Iorce" is the
reduction oI energy, which is proportional to the total area. Big grains grow at the expense oI the small ones.
3a) A hypothetical A-B alloy oI composition 55wt B-45 wt A at some temperature is Iound to consist oI mass
Iractions oI 0.5 Ior both u and phases. II the composition oI the phase is 90 wt B-10 wt A. what it the
composition oI u phase?
!has0 1ransformation
9.18) A 30wtSn-70wtPb alloy is heated to a temperature within the ALPHA Liquid two-phase region. II the
mass Iraction oI each phase is 0.5, estimate:
a. The temperature oI the alloy, and
b. The compositions oI the two phases.
9.20) A hypothetical A-B alloy oI composition 55wtB-45wtA at some temperature is Iound to consist oI mass
Iractions oI 0.5 Ior both the ALPHA- and the BETA-phases. II the composition oI the BETA-phase is 90wtB-
10wtA, what is the composition oI the ALPHA-phase?

9.18) The overall composition oI the alloy is shown as the BLUE line to the right; 30wtSn-70wtPb. We look Ior
a region in the two-phase ALPHA Liquid region Ior which the solidus and liquidus lines are equidistant Irom the
blue line. This is where the lever rule will give us the same mass Iraction oI each phase. This happens Ior a
temperature close to the isotherm shown in RED.
ANSWER a) T about 225 |C|.
The intersection oI the isotherm with the solidus and liquidus lines gives
the compositions oI the two phases in equilibrium at this temperature:
ANSWER b) ALPHA-phase composition about 16wtSn-84wtPb,
and Liquid composition about 42wtSn-58wtPb.






9.20) hypothetical alloy of composition
From the lever rule, we can write out the equation Ior the mass Iraction oI one oI the phases. I'll use the ALPHA-
phase. The lever rule says

Draw the lead tin phase diagram. The micro structure oI a lead-tin alloy at 180C(355F) consisting primary [ and
eutectic structure. II the mass Iunctions oI these two micro constituents are 0.57 and 0.43 respectively, determine the
composition oI the alloy.

Since there is a primary micro constituents present, then we know that the alloy composition,
o
is between 61.9
and 97.5 Iurthermore this Iigure indicates that
[
97.5wt Sn and
cutcctc
61.9wt Sn
Applying lever rule expression Ior
[i


[
|
=
C
0
-C
cutcctic
C

-C
cutcctic

C
0
-61.9
97.5-61.9
0.57
And solving Ior
0
yields
0
= 8.%n





4) A) Explain brieIly why the tendency oI a polymer to crystallize decreases with increasing molecular weight.
Solution The tendency oI a polymer to crystallize decreases with increasing molecular weight because as the chains
become longer it is more diIIicult Ior all regions along adjacent chains to align so as to produce the ordered atomic
array

B) With the aid oI suitable sketch explain the diIIerence between cis and Trans structures Ior isoprene, a monomer
Ior polyisoprene, a type oI natural rubber

C) On the basis oI mechanical characteristics upon heating and molecular structure compare the thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymer and also give examples oI each

Make comparisons oI thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers (a) on the basis oI mechanical Characteristics upon
heating, and (b) according to possible molecular structures.
Solution
(a) Thermoplastic polymers soIten when heated and harden when cooled, whereas thermosetting polymers harden
upon heating, while Iurther heating will not lead to soItening.
(b) Thermoplastic polymers have linear and branched structures, while Ior thermosetting polymers, the structures
will normally be network or cross linked







For thermoplastic polymers, cite Iive Iactors that Iavor brittle Iracture.
Solution
For thermoplastic polymers, Iive Iactors that Iavor brittle Iracture are as Iollows: (1) a reduction in temperature, (2)
an increase in strain rate, (3) the presence oI a sharp notch, (4) increased specimen thickness, and (5) modiIications
oI the polymer structure
BrieIly explain how each oI the Iollowing inIluences the tensile modulus oI a semicrystalline polymer and why:
(a) Molecular weight(b) Degree oI crystallinity(c) DeIormation by drawing(d) Annealing oI an undeIormed
material(I) Annealing oI a drawn material
Solution
(a) The tensile modulus is not directly inIluenced by a polymer's molecular weight.
(b) Tensile modulus increases with increasing degree oI crystallinity Ior semicrystalline polymers. This is due to
enhanced secondary interchain bonding which results Irom adjacent aligned chain segments as percent crystallinity
increases. This enhanced interchain bonding inhibits relative interchain motion.
(c) DeIormation by drawing also increases the tensile modulus. The reason Ior this is that drawing produces a
highly oriented molecular structure, and a relatively high degree oI interchain secondary bonding.
(d) When an undeIormed semicrystalline polymer is annealed below its melting temperature, the tensile modulus
increases.
(e) A drawn semicrystalline polymer that is annealed experiences a decrease in tensile modulus as a result oI a
reduction in chain-induced crystallinity, and a reduction in interchain bonding Iorces.