Bussemer Et Al

Proceedings of the International Conference
Soil and Desertification Integrated Research for the Sustainable Management of Soils in Drylands
5-6 May 2006, Hamburg, Germany
www.desertnet.de/proceedings/start.htm

1
GYPSUM AND GYPSUM CRUSTS (GYPCRETES) AT THE RIMS OF THE
FAIYUM-DEPRESSION (EGYPT) RESULTS CONCERNING MATTER
AND PALEOCLIMATIC CONDITIONS

BUSSEMER, S.
1)
, RGNER, K.
2)
, MAYER, T.
2)
& J. MICHEL
1)

1) Institute of Geography and Geology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universitt Greifswald, Jahnstr. 16, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
2) Section Geography, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen, Luisenstr. 37, 80333 Mnchen, Germany

Abstract
The enrichment of gypsum forming powder or solid, consolidated gypcretes is related to the
interaction of the following processes: 1) eolian transport, 2) sedimentation at the land surface, 3)
descending percolating water. These processes do not correspond with the environment especially the
climatic conditions of today. During the development of the crusts a more humid climate must have
existed.

Key words: Gypcretes, change of climatic conditions

1 Introduction

1.1 Aim of the study
Gypcretes and petrogypsic horizons (powder gypsum) are characteristic features at the rims of the
Faiyum depression. But petrogypsic horizons and even gypcretes have been studied randomly in Egypt
until now. After an early mention in scientific literature (see Beadnell, 1905; Blanckenhorn, 1921)
there exist only very few studies concerning the formation and/or the distribution of gypcretes. And if
they exist, they have been carried out in the semiarid area of the Mediterranean Egypt (Ali & West
1983). The description of crusts in the recent book of Embabi (2004, cap. 8.2, Surface crusts)
reflects only on calcretes, duricrust, caliche and ferricrete (2004: 339).
The aim of our studies was: 1) Mapping and description of gypcretes und petrogypsic horizons under
geomorphologic and sedimentologic aspects. 2) Analyses of the samples in the laboratory. 3) A
combination of these results allows considering about the development and the environment during the
formation of the crusts. 4) After all, it is possible to reconstruct paleoclimatic conditions and their
changes in a rough outline.

1.2 Location
The area of field studies is situated close to the southern rim of the oasis of Faiyum (see fig. 1) and
approximately 110km southwest of the Pyramids of Gizeh. The TPC-map H-5A (Tactical Pilot Chart,
scale 1:500 000) showed for tens of years a small blue signature in this region, which was named
aqueduct. But the ground check resulted in a dry ditch. The construction of this planned irrigation-
channel started in 1946, but the real work has begun in 2004. The aqueduct has been dry for a period
of nearly 60 years.
In that dry channel we have carried out a major part of our fieldwork, because the deep outcrops
enable to identify the crusts and the solid rock over long distances. Therefore the results presented
below are representative, in no case they mirror singularities.


2
1.3 Climate
From the matter of the crusts (see cap. 3) can be concluded, that their formation must have occurred
under climatic conditions differing significantly from the climate of today. That is the reason for the
presentation of some distinct climatic data (tab. 1).

Figure 1: Location of profiles Kanal 8 and 9

Proile Kanal 8 and 9

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Month/Station Faiyum City Shakshuk Kom Oshim Bani Suef Bahariya Gizeh

January 0,95mm 0,5 1,89mm 0,9mm 0,2mm 4,06mm
February 1,4 1,6 3,08 1,8 1,1 3,21
March 1,3 1,1 2,18 0,7 0,1 2,43
April 0,6 0,8 0,87 0,6 0,4 0,98
May 1,05 0,7 0,17 0,5 0,2 0,48
June 0 0 0 0 0,1 0,01
July 0 0 0 0 0 0
August 0 0 0 0 0 0
September 0 0 0 0 0 0
October 0,75 0,5 0,33 0 0,2 0,26
November 0,7 1,0 2,28 0,2 0,4 2,94
December 4,0 3,0 2,39 2,5 0,9 3,44

Year 10,75mm 9,2mm 13,2mm 8,2mm 3,6mm 18,8mm

Max. rainfall
during 24h: 44mm 16mm 49,3mm 16,6mm 11,6mm 27,4mm

Table 1: Average monthly and annual precipitation in mm in the area of field studies (Faiyum City, Shakshuk,
and Kom Oshim) and in other hyperarid regions of Egypt. The maximum of rainfall during 24h exceeds the
annual average in all cases. Source: Mohamed (2003) based on unpublished data of the Meteorological Survey
of Egypt.

A short evaluation reveals that precipitation is very low. These very small amounts are confronted
with very high values of transpiration (> 3000mm) and evapotranspiration (> 5000mm). No doubt:
The climate is hyperarid (MAB Technical Notes 7, 1977).
The amounts of maximum rainfall during 24h reveal that the annual mean can be reached during one
single rainfall event. Some of the noticed phenomena (like erosion processes or the moving of soluble
salts over distances of tens of centimetres) can be explained only with the help of these high maximum
rainfall values during 24h.

1.4 Geology
The enriched gypsum could be traced to the following possible source areas:
- the solid rock below or near the crusts (i. e. more or less autochthonous),
- other sources far away from the crusts (i. e. allochthonous).
It is vital to present some outlines of geology to decide, whether the gypsum can be derived from the
solid rock or not. The solid rocks are marine, carbonaceous and from Eocene (and Oligocene) age,
sometimes superposed by Pliocene and often by Quaternary material.
The Eocene limestones of Egypt have been described as Mokattam Formation (lower and upper) by
Zittel (1883) at first. According to new results (Swedan, 1986: 39, see legend of fig. 2) the Mokattam
Formation is (again) subdivided in two members:
- the El Breig member (TemMb = Tertiary, Eocene, middle, Mokattam, Breig) and
- the Ravine member (TemMr).
Both members contain gypsum in very small amounts as small nodules and thin bands or veins. Both
members could be a source area for the gypsum. But generally they consist of limestone with the
typical nummulites.

2 Gypsum and Gypcretes

Gypsum is outcropping in enriched or concentrated manner at or near to the surface of most of the
studied landforms. Except of recent wadi-sediments and of shoreline sediments of the historical Lake
Moeris (mentioned by Herodotus) nearly all of our investigated profiles show gypsum crusts or
gypcretes according to the definition of Watson (1985, 1988, 1989, see cap. 2.1).


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2.1 Gypcretes? Effort of a definition
Gypcretes are rarely studied compared to calcretes. Therefore, a common, obligatory, fixed and
accepted definition is lacking. In some papers scientists follow the definition of Watson, which is
given as a citation. We can accept this definition and use it in its whole content.
Gypsum crusts have been defined as accumulations at or within 10m of the land surface from 0,10m
to 5,0m thick containing more than 15% by weight gypsum and at least 5,0% by weight more
gypsum than the underlying bedrock (Watson, 1989, S. 28). This definition is generally valid, even if
the gypsum does not form a consolidated crust.
Regarding the environment, Watson (1989) states that the development of crusts takes place between
250 and 25mm of annual precipitation. Above the value of 250mm, gypsum will be dissolved; below
25mm only the solution of salts like NaCl (Halite) can evolve.

2.2 Investigations in the laboratory
Laboratory analyses prove the ratios between Calciumcarbonat (CaCO
3
, limestone), Calciumsulphat
(CaSO
4
, gypsum), Quartz (SiO
2
) and salts soluble in water (like NaCl, halite). The carbonat-content
was measured by the SCHEIBLER-method (see Schlichting, Blume & Stahr 1995); gypsum was
detected by means of the sulphur content (CS-analyzer, Fa. Eltra), quartz by RFA (Philips-
Rntgenfluoreszenzspektrometer, PW 2404), the dissolved salts by weight (Reeuwijk, van L.P. (ed.).
(1995).

5


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Figure. 2: Geological map of the Faiyum area. Original map (unpublished): Swedan (1986),
Computer map: V. Falck, Univ. of Munich.

3 Description, analyses and interpretation of the profiles

3.1 Profile Kanal 8
The profile Kanal 8 (Coordinates: 30 46,256E, 29 4,666N) is an exemplary one and therefore it
is presented in detail, as most profiles in the long ditch (aqueduct) nearly show the same proportions
and sequences. From top to bottom (see photo 1):
- Desert pavement (in most cases disturbed by human influence, f. e. digging),
- gypcrete (usually developed as duricrust),
- parts of the solid rock are swimming in gypsum,
- thin bands or veins of gypsum run through the limestone,
- shattered solid rock, perhaps related to the construction of the ditch (no traces resp. very small traces
of gypsum, cracks and fissures without gypsum),
- solid rock (no traces resp. very small traces of gypsum).
These details are given in photo 1 and tab. 2.

Figure 3: Profile Kanal 8
Desert pavement

Gypcrete (8-1, 8-2, 8-3)

Solid rock swimming in Gypsum (8-4)

Veins of Gypsum penetrate
the solid rock (8-5)

Solid rock, shattered (8-6)

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Depth: Description and number of samples

Surface: Desert pavement, mostly disturbed during construction by human activity; consisting of
resistant particles like flint, petrified wood or quartz, no sample
0-20cm: Gypcrete/duricrust, yellowish, with notable content of sand, finest particles of limestone,
vesicular structure, middle hardness, sample 8-1
20-60cm: Gypcrete/duricrust, whitish, sometimes with dark patina (desert varnish?), small particles of
limestone (< 2cm), very hard. Sample 8-2: 20-40cm, sample 8-3: 40-60cm
60-120cm: Gypsum with swimming particles (< 10cm) of limestone, gypsum very dense, whitish to
yellowish, no crystals of gypsum, hard, sample 8-4
120-145cm: Limestone with small veins (1mm-2cm) of gypsum crystals, very hard, sample 8-5
145-335cm: Shattered limestone (upper part) and very hard limestone (lower part) both without any traces
of gypsum, sample 8-6.

Table 2: Description of profile Kanal 8

Sample Quartz Limestone Gypsum Salts
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Kanal 8-1 19,2 1,3 78,9 0,6
Kanal 8-2 8,0 3,2 80,2 8,6
Kanal 8-3 4,9 20,2 69,7 5,1
Kanal 8-4 4,6 37,2 57,8 0,0
Kanal 8-5 2,5 34,5 62,3 0,7
Kanal 8-6 0,4 98,9 0,1 0,6

Table 3: Results of geochemical analyses, profile Kanal 8

The laboratory analyses confirm the results of the field studies in an extraordinary manner. The
uppermost part of the gypcrete (sample Kanal 8-1) with a quartz content of appr. 20% can be separated
clearly from the underlying massive gypcrete (samples 8-2 and 8-3) with lower quartz contents.
Unequivocal is the division between solid outcropping limestone with very small amounts of gypsum
(sample 8-6) and superposed horizons, which are highly influenced by gypsum. The very small
amount of gypsum in the solid limestone (0,1% in 8-6) does not allow relating the enrichment of
gypsum to ascent waters with dissolved gypsum and the precipitation of gypsum at or near the surface.
This interpretation is supported by the fact that in the shattered limestone (below 145cm depth) no
gypsum can be found in fissures or cracks. There is also no possibility to derive the quartz and the
gypsum (in horizons 8-1, 8-2 and 8-3) from the solid limestone (see tab. 3).
The dissolved salts are enriched especially in a depth of 20-60cm (samples 8-2 and 8-3), which could
be caused by the infiltration of extraordinary rainfall amounts during 24h (see tab. 1) to a depth, where
water evaporates and the salts were precipitated. Clear indicators for descending water are the
described gypsum horizons (samples 8-1, 8-2 and 8-3), as well as the fact that gypsum penetrates into
the solid rock (sample 8-4). As a result of the strong penetration of gypsum into the solid rock, the
limestone particles seem to swim. The same information (of descending water with dissolved material)
is given by the small bands of gypsum crystals (sample 8-5). These veins of gypsum crystals run
through the solid limestone (sample 8-5), but their volume is small compared to the volume of the
limestone.
This evaluation of the laboratory analyses (descending water with dissolved gypsum) is supported by
other field results (area of Gebel Naalun), where bands of gypsum crystals penetrate the solid
limestone as well as the superposed gypcretes.

3.2 Location Kanal 9
The profile Kanal 9 offers the same horizons as Kanal 8, but in addition it gives answer to
questions concerning the recent solution and precipitation processes.

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The gypcrete is forming a horizon with a thickness of 120cm (see tab. 4, sample 9-1). In a depth of
120 to 240cm, veins of gypsum penetrate the solid limestone (sample 9-2) and between 240 and
390cm the solid rock is exposed containing only 0,5 % of gypsum and 1,8 % of salts.
At some specific parts of the ditch wall the solid rock (below 240cm depth) is covered by a curtain of
material which consists to a high amount of salts (sample 9-4).

Figure 4: Profile Kanal 9

Sample Quartz Limestone Gypsum Salts
(%) (%) (%) (%)

Kanal 9-1 13,6 3,2 74,3 9,0
Kanal 9-2 5,5 34,1 56,0 4,5
Kanal 9-3 1,4 96,2 0,5 1,8
Kanal 9-4 8,6 60,8 2,3 28,3

Table 4: Results of geochemical analyses, profile Kanal 9

The development of this curtain could have started after 1946 (= beginning of the digging of the ditch)
and is related to the before mentioned extraordinary rainfall during 24h. This type of rainfall is able to
infiltrate, to descend into the gypcretes and into the limestone. But the water is only able to solve salts
Gypcrete (9-1)

Solid rock, shattered (9-3)

Curtain of soluble salts (9-4)

9
and not gypsum or carbonates. The deep infiltration at this location is supported by fissures and
cracks.
By means of the salt curtain the recent processes of solution and precipitation can be limited to the
solution of salts like NaCl (Halite), the solution of Gypsum needs higher amounts of rainfall. Result:
The formation of the gypcretes at the southern rim of the Faiyum depression took place under a more
humid environment.

3.3 Other locations
Other profiles expose again and again the same sequence of gypsic horizons (mostly formed as
duricrust) at the top and solid rocks at the bottom (usually with a very small content of Gypsum).

4 Discussion of the results Consideration concerning the formation of gypcretes

1. Gypsum is outcropping in enriched or concentrated form at or near to the surface of most of the
studied landforms. Usually the gypsum is hardened as a duricrust, forming consolidated horizons,
which hinder cultivation and land use. Except of recent wadi sediments and shoreline sediments of the
historical Lake Moeris (2500a B.P.), all studied profiles expose formations of gypcretes according to
the definition given by Watson (1985, 1989). Even in the subrecent wadi sediments the beginning of
an enrichment of gypsum can be traced macroscopically and by analyses.
2. The solid rock influences only the lower parts of the crusts. In a lot of cases the crusts are
superposed to the solid rock like a curtain.
3. The top of the profile consists of a desert pavement; therefore it is truncated by processes of
deflation. The thickness of the recent profile is reduced compared to that of the times of formation.
The fact that the desert pavement consists of very hard and very resistant components like flint,
petrified wood or quartz, allows thinking of intense processes of weathering, but this can not be
proved by field or laboratory data.
4. It is impossible, that ascending and evaporating groundwater is responsible for the enrichment of
gypsum at or near the surface, because in most cases the underlying rock is nearly free of gypsum.
This is proven by means of the described sequences, analyses and the conclusions.
It is true that gypsum, in some special situations, occurs as veins in the solid limestone, but the volume
of these veins is very low, compared to the mighty crusts. But it is also true, that veins of gypsum
penetrate solid limestone as well as the superposed gypcretes. Desiccation cracks, filled with gypsum
(and other material), indicate, that ascending groundwater was not responsible for the enrichment of
gypsum.
5. Therefore it is quite likely, that the development of the gypcretes had been caused by infiltrating and
descending rainwater. The gypsum is of allochthonous, atmospherically origin, it was washed out or
accumulated in a dry environment as dust or it is the product of chemical reactions. A descending
water system led to the enrichment of the gypsum at or near the surface. Until now, it is impossible to
define the source areas, unfortunately!
6. The age of the crust formation is young, this fact is proven by the existence of gypcretes at all land
surfaces besides the recent wadi sediments and the shoreline sediments of the historical Lake Moeris.
The development of the crusts calls for a definitely moist climate compared with the hyperarid climate
of today. According to the statement of Watson (1985, 1989) the annual rainfall must have been in the
order of 250mm as maximum and at least 50mm in the minimum. The last threshold is derived from
the interpretation of location Kanal 9, because there was no mobilisation of gypsum during rainfall
events with an appr. 50mm in 24h.
During the time of the enrichment of gypsum and the building up of the crusts, the rainfall must have
exceeded the values of today with a factor of 5 to 25. But the climate stayed arid; otherwise the crusts
would have been destroyed by solution.
There has been no exact age dating of the crusts so far, but the time of formation could be assumed
with young Pleistocene to Holocene. That is a contradiction to the papers, which have delt with
gypcretes in the Faiyum area: A Pliocene age for crust formation proposed by Beadnell (1905) is too
old, a recent age proposed by Blanckenhorn (1921) is too young!

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7. The current results und interpretations reveal that the studies concerning the formation and the age
of gypsum crusts are at their beginning.

5 References

Ali, Y.A. & West, I. (1983): Relationships of modern gypsum nodules in Sabkhas of loess to compositions of
brines and sediments in northern Egypt. In: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 53:1151-1168.
Ball, J. (1939): Contributions to the Geography of Egypt. Survey of Egypt, (reprinted 1952).
Beadnell, H.J. (1905): The topography and geology of the Fayoum Province of Egypt. Survey Department,
Cairo, Egypt.
Blanckenhorn, M. (1921): gypten. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie, Band, vol. VII, H. 23, Heidelberg.
Embabi, N.S. (2004): The geomorphology of Egypt. Volume I The Nile valley and the Western Desert.
MAB Technical Notes 7, 1977.
Pfannenstiel, M. (1953): Das Quartr der Levante. Teil II: Die Entstehung der gyptischen Oasendepressionen.
In: Abhandlungen der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Jahr 1953, No.7, Wiesbaden.
Reeuwijk, Van L.P. (ed.). (1995): Procedures for Soil Analysis. Fifth edition. ISRIC Technical Paper 9.
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Sandford, K.S. & W.J. Arkell (1929): The Origin of the Fayoum Depression. In: Geogr. Journal, vol. 24: 578-
584.
Schlichting, E., Blume, HP, & K. Stahr (1995):Bodenkundliches Praktikum. Berlin/Wien.
Watson, A. (1979): Gypsum crusts in deserts. In: Journal of arid Environments, vol. 2: 3-20.
Watson, A. (1983): Gypsum crusts. In: Goudie, A. S. &. Pye, K. (Hrsg.): Chemical sediments and
Geomorphology: pp.133-161, Academic Press.
Watson, A. (1985): Structure, chemistry and origin of gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia and the central Namibia
Desert. In: Sedimentology, vol. 32: 855-875.
Watson, A. (1988): Desert gypsum crusts as palaeoenvironmental indicators, a micropetrographic study of crusts
from southern Tunisia and the central Namib Desert. In: Journal of arid Environments, vol. 15: 19-42.
Watson, A. (1989): Desert crusts and rock varnish. In: Arid Zone Geomorphology (ed. by D. S. G. THOMAS),
pp. 25-55, Belhaven Press, London.
Zittel, K.A. (1883): Beitrge zur Geologie und Palontologie der Libyschen Wste, Palontographica, vol. XXX
Kassel.
Unpublished material:
Mohamed, Ashraf Yassin Abdel Hafiz (2003): Die Krusten der Rnder der Fayoum Depression
Geomorphologische Untersuchungen. Ph.D. Thesis Faculty of Geosciences. LMU Mnchen.
Swedan, A.H. (1986): Contributions to the Geology of Fayoum area. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Sciences, Cairo
Univ., Egypt.

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