Outlaws' Dreams of Power and Position in Shuihu zhuan Author(s): Yenna Wu Reviewed work(s): Source: Chinese Literature: Essays,

Articles, Reviews (CLEAR), Vol. 18 (Dec., 1996), pp. 45-67 Published by: Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/495625 . Accessed: 19/11/2011 14:16
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Outlaws' Dreams of Power and Position in Shuihuzhuan*

YennaWu Riverside Universityof California,
Dreams have long fascinated Chinese writers.' Among non-literary sources, both official and unofficial histories record dreams related to emperors- and empressesto-be as well as men of destiny.2 Dreams involving prediction and spirits are found in Confucian classics and the Zuo zhuant f.3 Early Taoist philosophical texts such as Liezi I] and Zhuangzi f -7- use dream parables to question the conventional distinction l-between the dream and waking experience and to conflate ontology and epistemology.4 Accounts and stories of dreams, though mostly brief, abound in anecdotal writings, classical tales, and encyclopedic compilations from the Six Dynasties through the Ming. Traditionally Chinese writers have categorized dreams on the basis of causes emotions, or memories-to ranging from psychological processes-thoughts, within the body or sensory stimulation from the physiological processes-imbalances environment.5 In addition, many early sources ascribe supernatural causes to certain dreams which serve as the meeting ground between humans and immortals and bring messages from the spirit world.6 Like the Taoist philosophers, Buddhist teachers used dreams to illustrate the ephemerality of the phenomenal world. More importantly, certain Buddhist thinkers believed that dreams might be a means to achieve religious

* I would like to thank the CLEARreviewers for their helpful comments. Thanks are due, too, to Beverly Crockett for providing stylistic advice on the final draft. Most of all, I am grateful to Professor Robert E. Hegel, who patiently read the manuscript in its several versions and made many valuable suggestions. The writing of this paper was partially supported by funding from the University of California, Riverside. 1 For studies that explore dreams and their interpretations in Chinese culture, see Roberto K. Ong, The Interpretationof Dreams in Ancient China (Bochum: Studienverlag Brockmeyer, 1985), and Carolyn T. Brown, ed., Psycho-Sinology:The Universe of Dreams in Chinese Culture (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988). 2 See the discussion of dreams of ancient emperors in Ong, chapter 1. 3 Ong, chapters 1-2. 4 See the discussion of dream and reality in Ong, chapter 5. Lie Zi (fifth century B.C.), reputedly the author of Liezi, might not be a historical person. Zhuangzi is attributed to Zhuang Zi (369?-286? B.C.). Note that neither Liezi nor Zhuangzi can be exclusively ascribed to these historical thinkers; parts of both texts may be hundreds of years later in composition. For the controversy over the date and dubious authorship of Liezi, ~ see the essays in Yang Bojun J I ed., Liezijishi -IJT-j (1979, rpt; Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1991), pp. , Literature(Albany, 287-348, and the discussion in A. C. Graham, Studies in ChinesePhilosophyand Philosophical NY: State University of New York Press, 1990), pp. 216-282. For the question of the composition of Zhuangzi, see Graham, pp. 283-321. 5 See the excellent discussion of traditional Chinese views on dreams in Ong, The Interpretation of Dreams, chapters 3-4; and Lin Shuen-fu's "Chia Pao-yii's First Visit to the Land of Illusion: An Analysis of a Literary Dream in Interdisciplinary Perspective," in CLEAR14 (1992), pp. 80-87. 6 Ong, TheInterpretation Dreams,chapter 2. of

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ChineseLiterature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 18 (1996)

salvation7 and may reveal one's past lives (karma) and possible reincarnations (prophecy).8 i Shuihu zhuan 7J(f? (The Water Margin, early sixteenth century, hereafter a Ming novel which has evolved over time through what is now believed to be Shuihu), collective authorship,9 was influenced by such traditional oneiric theories implicit in the dream accounts from earlier literary and non-literary texts. Apparently aware of the great general interest in dreams, the authors incorporate more than a dozen into the novel.10 Some of these dreams are brief and bring only prophecy, revelation of truth, or divine assistance. But four of the dreams-two by Song Jiang * i who later becomes and one by Emperor Huizong J the rebel leader, one by his sworn brother Li Kui 4ij are polysemous "complex dreams" of greater length." These dreams serve several ~ purposes: They contribute to characterization and allow for psychological interpretation; constitute important structural and thematic links among episodes, providing essential coherence to this seemingly episodic and loosely-organized novel; and supply a peaceful atmosphere and feminine strain, thereby varying the narrative movement. As part of the supernatural framework, they contrast with the mundane major portion of the narrative. These literary dreams add to the overall symbolic and mythical meanings of the novel, while providing clues for re-evaluating such Confucian values as loyalty (zhong J,,), righteousness (yi A), and filial piety (xiao:), showing them sometimes in an ambivalent and even ironic light. Shuihu emerges as the first major Chinese novel that consciously uses extensive dream episodes as a literary and aesthetic device; in this regard it serves as a paradigm i for later literature. It directly influenced the composition of Chen Chen's [W Shuihu houzhuan 7j ?.4f* f (The Water Margin: A Sequel, 1664), a novel utilizing dreams to predict a utopia,12 and indirectly influenced the writing of Xiyou bu ?ff1 4(A Towerof W (The Dream of the Red Chamber,also Myriad Mirrors, 1641) and Honglou meng ,t 4f known as Shitouji ;F _953 , or The Story of the Stone,c. 1760), two novels in which dreams figure prominently.

7 Ibid,pp. 90 and 96. See also Anthony C. Yu, "The Quest of Brother Amor: Buddhist Intimations in The Story of the Stone,"HarvardJournalof Asiatic Studies49.1 (June 1989), p. 83. 8 Lin Shuen-fu, "Chia Pao-yii's First Visit," p. 88. of 9 For a discussion of the novel's authorship and dating see Andrew H. Plaks, TheFour Masterworks the Ming Novel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 280-293, 296-302. 10 See, for example, the discussion of the late Ming interest in dreams in Judith T. Zeitlin, Historianof the Strange:Pu Songling and the ChineseClassicalTale (Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 135-140. 11 Dell R. Hales suggests that simple dreams are only symbolic or communicative and do not form an important element in the narrative structure, and complex dreams are more functional. See his "Dreams and the Daemonic in Traditional Chinese Short Stories," Critical Essays on ChineseLiterature,ed. William H. Nienhauser, Jr. (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1976), pp. 71-87, esp., p. 76. 12 Ellen Widmer discusses set "at a more how, in Shuihu houzhuan,the heroes' utopia-Siam-is dreamlike level of consciousness" through the use of dreams. See Widmer, TheMargins of Utopia:Shui-hu houchuanand the Literature Ming Loyalism(Cambridge: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies, 1987), of p. 167.

WU Outlaws' Dreams The Narrativeand ThematicFunctions SongJiang'sFirstDream

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The Shuihu authors' attention to psychophysiological causes of dreams can be seen in Song Jiang's first dream, which occurs when he is experiencing great fatigue and stress. After joining the outlaws' band in Liangshanbo W LU Song makes a special trip 8, home to fetch his father, but finds soldiers waiting there to arrest him. By chance, he flees to Circular Road Village where, aptly enough, there is only one road that surrounds the whole village. Trapped, he hides inside an ancient temple, crouching under the altar. Twice the soldiers try to look into the cabinet under the altar, but each time they are thwarted by a supernatural force. Fearful of provoking the spirit's anger, they leave the temple and wait at the village entrance. While Song is pondering how to escape, he has this dream: As he was rackinghis brain,he heard steps approachingin the rearportico. Song Jianggroaned. "Whydidn't I leave here earlier?" Two boys, clad in blue, walked directly to the cabinet. "TheGoddess invites the StarLord to speak with her,"they said. Song Jiangdared not utter a word. Again the boys addressedhim. "Come,StarLord. The Goddess invites you." Song Jianghad not the courageto reply. Butthe boys were insistent. "StarLordSong, do not delay. The Goddess is waiting." On hearing female, ratherthan male, voices that sounded like an oriole singing and a swallow warbling, Song Jiangemerged from beneath the altar. At first he saw two girls dressed in blue standingbeside the altar,but was then amazed to realize that they were actuallytwo clay fairies. He again heard a voice from outside: "StarLord Song, the Goddess invites you." He pulled open the curtain and came out. He found two blue-clad girls, their hair piled in spirals on theirheads, bowing respectfullyto him (42.523-524).13 The girls lead him to a magnificent palace where he has an audience with a goddess and receives three Divine Books. At first neither Song Jiang nor the reader is aware that his state of consciousness has been altered. The reader finds no distinct point in the narrative where the dream begins, but experiences the dramatic unfolding of events simultaneously with Song. It is not until the end of this encounter that we are told that "he wakes up and finds it to be a - #, 42.527), an 'Southern Branch' dream" (juelai naishi Nanke yimeng * 7 A -J allusion to the Tang tale "Nanke taishou zhuan" A #J t ~ i ("The Governor of the Southern Branch"), in which a dream is used as an allegory for the transience of earthly successes.14
13 Page references are to Shuihu quanzhuan7Jc 1QA, 3 vols. (1954; rpt. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin chubanshe, 1975). The first number in the parentheses will refer to the chapter, and the second number after the period will identify the page. The translation of this passage, with some modifications, is from Sidney Shapiro, Outlaws of the Marsh, 2 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981), pp. 669-670. It should be noted, however, that Shapiro's translation is based on a 100-chapter version and differs, in a number of chapters, from the 120-chapter version I use here. ' 14 Li Gongzuo in , "Nanke taishou zhuan" , Wang Pijiang Rt g, ed., Tangren T-W,~ xiaoshuo ./.a Heluo tushu chubanshe, 1979), pp. 85-92. See the discussion below and notes 50-51. ,ff/J\a(Taibei:

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ChineseLiterature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 18 (1996)

The "dream" may strike the modem reader as a hallucination, since it is difficult believe that Song Jiang could fall asleep immediately after a frightening experience. to Indeed, the language of this passage leads the reader into the liminal state between dreaming and waking consciousness. The unrealistic transformations of voices and figures-from male to female and from recognizably human to statuary and back again-signal Song's unreliable perceptions. The dream gradually incorporates more and more fantastic elements, builds up suspense for the reader, and highlights the Chinese conception of the state of dreaming as forming a continuum with the state of wakefulness.15 The waking world blends into a dream world; "reality" is left ambiguous. Chinese dream theory presents the notions of xiang V (thoughts) and yin [Mj (contingencies) as causes for dreams.16 Both material and psychological factors obviously influence Song's dream. The sight of the temple and the image serve as external stimuli, and Song's fears and urgent need for rescue as internal stimuli, all of which together give rise to the dream.17 Desperate when chased by the soldiers, Song prays to the spirits for rescue. Then, surprised by the soldiers' repeated failures to peer into the cabinet, he wonders if the spirits are perhaps helping him (42.522). Anxiety over objective difficulties is the backdrop of his dream; reassurance is provided by the goddess's kind treatment. This episode is derived from a laconic reference to the goddess in Xuanhe yishi ~0 (NeglectedEvents of the "'Proclaiming Harmony"Reign Period,13th century?), the earliest extended narrative generally regarded as a source for Shuihu. However, Xuanhe yishi merely mentions Song Jiang's hiding inside the goddess's temple and his discovery of a Divine Writ (tianshu ) bearing thirty-six names with himself as commander.18 ~, The episode occurs during his escape immediately after he murders his concubine Yan '. In Xuanhe yishi there is neither a dream nor any mention of Song's Poxi f encounter with the goddess. By contrast, the episode in Shuihu shows an ingenious amplification of its relatively simple source. The episode occurs after a series of events following the murder: Song Jiang has been rescued from the execution grounds by the Liangshanbo gallants, joined their band, and avenged himself on Huang Wenbing M Z M. The elaboration of this episode also produces a richer significance compared to former portrayals. Instead of a factual-sounding narration of Song's reading of the divine document, readers see the divinity embodied as a goddess, made tangible through the lavish description of sensuous details, who interacts with Song in a dramatic scene. To highlight the goddess's divine power, the authors may have borrowed the account in
15 For the discussion of seeing wakefulness and dreaming as representing two continuous states of the same mind, see Lin Shuen-fu's "Chia Pao-yii's First Visit," pp. 83-84. 16 See Lin Shuen-fu's translation and explanation of these two terms, pp. 88-97. Qian Zhongshu 1 mfrelates Freud's notion of wish-fulfillment to xiang, and sensory stimuli to yin in his Guanzhuibian jg (Beijing:Zhonghua shuju, 1979), vol. 2, p. 488. 17 See the discussion of the somatic sources of dreams in Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans., A. A. Brill (New York: The Modem Library, 1950), pp. 120-121. 18 See Richard G. Irwin's translation from Xuanhe yishi in his The Evolutionof a ChineseNovel: Shuihu-chuan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953), pp. 26-31, esp., pp. 29-30; and the translation in William O. Hennessey, trans., ProclaimingHarmony(Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1981), pp. 55-56.

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(Records of Yijian) of a goddess's magically thwarting soldiers' Yijian zhi ? j sacrilegious intrusion into her temple (42.522-523).19 Moreover, the episode introduces and dramatizes Song's encounter with the goddess as if it were an "imperial dream," thereby elevating Song's rank to that status which approximates an emperor's.20 The dream initiates Song Jiang into the knowledge of his true origin and special destiny, of which he previously had been unaware. The description of Song's emergence from the dark niche symbolically indicates a rebirth and an emergence from the dark womb of ignorance. The text stresses how the two fairies lead (yin q I)him from the cabinet, through the gate, to the palace: step by step (yibubu- they lead the /,/) reluctant Song from the porch to the terrace, and then to the palace hall, while he passively follows (gen FR) them (42.524-525). Images of his entering doors, passing through gates, and crossing thresholds symbolize the crossing of boundaries in his liminal state as well as his entry into new knowledge. Spatial metaphors and metaphors for traversing space are created by such words as "leading" and "following," signaling Song's gradual advancement toward enlightenment. Physical and spatial metaphors parallel Song's mental process. Intellectually, he moves from misapprehension and confusion to enlightenment. Ironically, in response to the girls' addressing him as "Star Lord" (xingzhu 9-:, his original identity), he replies, "You're mistaken. My name is Song Jiang. I'm no 'Star Lord'." (42.524; italics mine). Initially frightened, he is further confounded by the goddess's invitation and friendly behavior. Much to his surprise, she asks him in familiar terms when they first meet, "Have you been doing well since we parted?" (42.525). Awed by the glittering splendor of the palace and the majestic aura of the goddess, he cannot yet comprehend his divine origin and destiny. Only after awakening and verifying that the dream is a divine revelation does he begin to recognize his identity as Star Lord (42.527). This process of self-discovery parallels his discovery of the goddess's identity. Song knows nothing about the temple or the goddess until he wakes up from the dream, goes outside the temple, and reads the inscription "Temple of the Mystic Goddess" (Xuannii zhi miao J0) on its tablet (42.527). Although the chapter title announces that "Song Jiang encountersthe Mystic Goddess of the Ninth Heaven (Jiutian xuanniiAh)Q ;Z_ )," the readers may likewise not know the goddess's identity until then. This dream, written in an "authoritative" style, reveals to the reader Song Jiang's special destiny as decreed by Heaven.21 While imparting a conceptual framework that allows the readers to understand the characters and their actions, it also contains elements that invite the readers to ponder the ambiguity and complexity of
19 Sun Kaidi

N4W points out this source in his Cangzhouhouji .)ll& 1(Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), pp. 23-24. The account in Yijian zhi relates how the Earth Goddess thwarts an intrusion into the inner hall of her temple by the Jurchen commander, the King of Black Wind (HeifengDawang ,AJ 20 Imperial dreams usually involve dreamers and ,zE). heavenly interlocutors of the highest orders. See Rudolf G. Wagner, "Imperial Dreams in China," in Carolyn T. Brown, ed., Psycho-Sinology,p. 11. Michel Strickmann also indicates that in keeping with their exalted status, Taoist emperors encountered supreme figures in their dreams. See his "Dreamwork of Psycho-Sinologists: Doctors, Taoists, Monks," in Carolyn T. Brown, ed., Psycho-Sinology,pp. 25-46. The educated reader of late Ming should know about imperial dreams, which are common in historical and Taoist legends. 21 Robert E. Hegel indicates that one common use of externally imposed dreams in late vernacular fiction is to clarify Heaven's will. See his "Heavens and Hells in Chinese Fictional Dreams," in Carolyn T. Brown, ed., Psycho-Sinology,p. 4.

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human life.22 The dream harks back to chapter 1 in which Marshal Hong ~~f inadvertently releases thirty-six Heavenly Spirits and seventy-two Earthly Fiends, all of them star spirits (1.7-9). Hints about the incarnation of the star spirits and their destined assemblage in Liangshanbo are given to the reader in the narrative preceding Song's dream. Interpreting this mysterious revelation by the goddess in the light of all these clues, the attentive reader should fully comprehend Song's eventual role as leader, while Song himself only has partial knowledge. This dream follows the traditional attribution of auspicious dreams to the dreamer's superior moral stature,23and thus indicates Song's superiority. Moreover, the dream exemplifies and presages his passivity and modesty when made a leader. Throughout the dream he is a passive figure: he is led to the palace, made to partake of food and wine with the goddess, and then given the Divine Books. In a somewhat playful manner, the authors thus portray him as a puppet rather than an independent agent. His passivity is augmented by his humility. When received by the goddess, he appears overcome with fright: he prostrates himself, trembles in fear, and dares not lift his head. When the goddess offers him some jujubes, he picks them up with fingertips for fear of appearing rude. By showing his assumption of the yin (feminine) role, the dream is intended to and satirize Song Jiang at the same time. For some critics, this episode only praise undercuts him. The Qing critic Jin Shengtan : who & Q1X(1608-1661), regarded Song as "a fake moralist who was a robber at heart" (jia daoxuezhen qiangdao & g! It M ), in Shuihu as exposing Song's hypocrisy.24 In order to interpreted many episodes underscore Song's cowardice and inadequacy, Jin Shengtan interpolated the word "trembling" (dou .4) several times into this episode.25 Andrew H. Plaks has also contended that the authors deliberately belittle Song Jiang on many occasions.26 Indeed, Song's passivity and excessive fastidiousness in the dream strike some as characteristics that do not distinguish a traditional hero. Twice he is described as trying hard to conduct himself according to etiquette, "fearing that he might behave improperly" (pa shi timian)I' " 19, 42.526). While such concerns may seem petty and unheroic, they also show that he is exceptional-in his sensitivity to the differences in status, in his proper behavior toward the goddess, and in his attempt to exercise selfcontrol-qualities and conduct which few of his comrades can emulate. The dream reveals to us the multifaceted nature of Song's character. Instead of seeing Song merely as having a true versus a false identity, as rebellious or obedient, as aggressively militaristic or passively effeminate, we can see in him the continuing flux of paradoxical qualities just as we see the subtle interchange within the continuum of the
22 See Deborah Porter's comparison of the authoritative style of the novel's prologue with the multidimensional discourse in chapter 1 in her "Setting the Tone: Aesthetic Implications of Linguistic Patterns in the Opening Section of Shui-huchuan,"CLEAR14 (1992), pp. 51-75, esp. p. 74. 23 Ong, The Interpretation Dreams,p. 65. of 24 See Jin Shengtan's comments in Chen et al., comp., Shuihu zhuan huiping ben7J* Xizhong Mi*t, $4 & , 2 vols. (Beijing:Beijing Daxue chubanshe, 1981), vol. 1, pp. 19, 325, 674, for example. The term $fr jia daoxuezhen qiangdaoappears on p. 26. 25 Compare Jin Shengtan's revised text in vol. 2, chap. 41, pp. 775-777, and Shuihu quanzhuan,vol. 2, chap. 42, pp. 521-523. 26 See Plaks, "Shui-hu chuan and the Sixteenth-Century Novel Form: An Interpretive Reappraisal," CLEAR2.1 (1980): 33-38, and FourMasterworks, 328-340. pp.

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dreams and waking reality. We can both identify with him and feel superior to him because the complexity is mimetic. Although as omniscient readers we have access to knowledge which makes us superior to Song, we can also embrace the ambivalences of the character because we see reflected in him both our own weaknesses and strengths. While showing Song Jiang as a law-abiding and virtuous character, the authors (whose emphasize, albeit playfully, that unlike ordinary rebels such as Fang La ? NJg revolt is narrated in chap. 110) who arbitrarily crown themselves, Song is invested with power by a supernatural authority. The dream recalls other episodes in which he is also depicted as obedient and loyal to the emperor. Song's modesty recurs, for example, when he refuses Li Kui's suggestion to make him emperor (chap. 67) and especially when he declines the offer to lead the Liangshanbo gang (chap. 68). In sanctifying Song as the legitimate leader of the rebels, the dream serves to satirize the emperor. Although Song has not received the Mandate of Heaven to become an emperor, he is made an alternative ruler in order to carry out justice for the people--by implication a task that the emperor has failed to accomplish. The emphasis on Song's empowerment through the goddess thus makes the endings in both the 70- and 120-chapter versions ironic.27 This ironic perspective runs throughout the novel with the authors building a thematic paradox, creating dialectical tensions such as that between loyalty and rebellion. The representation of Song Jiang's ambivalent character is reminiscent of the contrasting roles assigned to the outlaw-heroes. The star spirits are characterized as r "loyal and good" at the beginning of the novel (zhongliang ,V , 1.8), but are also called "demons" in the chapter titles and by Marshal Hong and the Taoist priests (yaomoOR and mowang i, . 1.1 and 1.7-9). The dialectical tensions are also constructed in the linear narration. The first parts of the novel portray Song and a number of other heroes as law-abiding citizens who have never thought of becoming rebels or overthrowing the ruler. Even after they have no other alternative but to become outlaws, they still hope to receive amnesty from the imperial court.28 Despite strong opposition from the corrupt ministers, some of these heroes still idealistically believe that they may be able to achieve an alliance with the emperor. But later, many of the outlaws turn from loyalty to rebellion. A crucial turning point both in Song's career and in the narrative occurs in dream in chapter 42. Before this dream, Song was unwilling to join the band; Song's even after being forced to join, he is still unclear about his destiny. The goddess's instruction thus empowers Song and gives him a new focus in life. After the dream, he becomes aware of, and feels confident about, his special mission and his destined role as leader and begins consciously to recruit comrades. From this chapter on, in addition to its occasional mention of the goddess and the Divine Books, the narrative begins

27 In the 120-chapter version, Song Jiang is poisoned after he has led his band to fight for the in suppressing other rebels. In his truncated and revised 70-chapter version, Jin Shengtan ends the emperor novel soon after the 108 heroes have assembled at Liangshanbo by letting Lu Junyi f fK ~, one of the two leaders, have a dream in which Lu and the other 107 heroes are executed. See Shuihu zhuan huiping ben,vol. 2, chap. 70, pp. 1272-1273. See also the discussion of Jin Shengtan's emendation and its irony in Robert E. Hegel, TheNovel in Seventeenth-Century China (New York:Columbia University Press, 1981), pp. 68-84. 28 Yang Zhi, for example, originally wishes to win honors for his family and ancestors (12.138); Wu Song at first hopes to receive imperial amnesty for his crime (32.392); when explaining to Shi Xiu why he joins the band, Dai Zong claims that they will receive imperial amnesty and be given official posts someday (44.559).

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referring to the star spirits more often in explaining the gathering of the heroes.29 Song obviously feels contractually bound by his promise to the goddess, believing that he should try to obtain amnesty and fight for the emperor.30 Although the band becomes powerful enough to take over the state and his comrades repeatedly urge him to do so, he remains steadfast in his loyalty to the imperial court. With the self-contradictory message-that Song Jiang will be a rebel leader who should be loyal to the emperor-the dream anticipates the tragic ending of Song and the outlaws. Both Song's devotion to the emperor and his idealistic belief in sworn brotherhood are gradually undermined. A discordant note is sounded as early as chapter 71 when a number of Song's disaffected brothers challenge his wish to be granted amnesty. Even after the treacherous ministers have deceived the emperor and tried to destroy the band time and again, Song consistently refuses to rebel. Only after he has drunk the wine secretly poisoned by the ministers does Song realize that he has been undeservedly tricked-but then it is too late to rebel (100.1410-1411). His tragic stature results simultaneously from his knowing that the emperor (surrounded by evil ministers) will fail to support his band and from his feeling compelled to remain a loyal subject. By showing the futility of Song's great enterprise of "complete loyalty," the authors question the appropriateness of unwavering fealty to an undeserving ruler. Song Jiang's Second Dream Song Jiang's second dream occurs at the critical juncture when he is in need of guidance because his troops (having received amnesty and now fighting for the emperor) are defeated in the campaign against the Liao 3 Kingdom. In contrast to the first dream, this state is clearly identified by his crossing the boundary between waking and sleeping. Brooding alone in his tent, he finally becomes tired and falls asleep. Suddenly a great wind arises, and he gets up to find a blue-clad girl bowing to him. The girl then leads him to the same palace as before where he is now given a winning military strategy by the goddess (88.1077-1079). There are few surprises for either Song or the readers in this dream. His falling asleep signals its beginning, while the reappearance of the girl reminds the readers of Song's earlier dream. The readers are not told explicitly at this point in the narrative whether or not Song Jiang had, after his defeat, consulted the Divine Books. Hu Wanchuan suggests that the Divine Books play only a minor role in Song's life because the novel's author/compiler(s) simply borrowed mechanically the Xuanhe yishi reference to the goddess.31 Although the mention of the Divine Books suggests a formulaic legend, the authors of Shuihu did weave Song's first dream into the narrative, accounting for the use of the Divine Books and referring to the Goddess on several occasions. For example, we are told that Song has been studying the Divine Books with only his strategist Wu Yong ~ ], as the goddess has bidden him to, and has apparently memorized some of the
29 See, for example,.43.534, 47.603, 52.659, 53.674, 54.677, 58.730, 59.739, 64.801, 65.811, 70.870, 82.1005 and 1007, etc. 30 The goddess tells him, "You should primarily carry out the Way on behalf of Heaven, show loyalty and righteousness as a subject, assist in governing the state, bring peace to people, shun the evil, and return to the good" (42.526). 31 Hu Wanchuan i Ii,"Xuannui,baiyuan, tianshu" ~t 3 ? N , Zhongwaiwenxue , ~, and Lu Decai ia f :, comps., Lun Zhongguogudian xiaoshuode yishu & 12.6, reprinted in Ning Zongyi '*-(Tianjin:Nankai daxue chubanshe, 1984), pp. 21-49, esp., pp. 44-45. P[iLB/Jg ~

Mj-

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Books' instructions. When fighting the Zhu j family, Song suddenly remembers a line from the Books and realizes that he has made a strategic mistake (47.603). By locating a & evil wind and fire strategy in the Books and using it, he overcomes Gao Lian's (52.659). During the battle against Fang La, Song chants a secret formula he has learned from the Divine Books to dispel the wind and darkness conjured up by an enemy (117.1370).32 Of course, the formulas in the Divine Books are not infallible, nor is Song the most intelligent general to utilize them. Song's second dream is one of the occasions on which he wins the battle because of the help from some supernatural force, rather than from the Divine Books. Indeed, Song's initial defeat in fighting the Liao army is one of the authors' devices in creating a need for the goddess's reappearance and for another turning point. Structurally, thematically, and aesthetically, the second dream provides cohesion within the text. Like many other analogous episodes in Shuihu,33it repeats with variations the structure, the motifs, and even the diction of the first dream. This dream occurs when Song Jiang is again trapped and worried. Once more Song is invited to meet with the goddess, given secret instructions, and "pushed" back into waking reality by a fairy. In language similar to that of the first dream, the authors describe how Song notices luxuriant growth and many things made of gold and jade in the divine precincts. The quiet and peaceful atmosphere of the dream offers Song a temporary escape and provides the reader with a relief from the previous scenes of fighting and bloodshed. Even though the battle is fought in cold winter, in the dream it is spring time. This clearly indicates that the dream-locus is the celestial paradise of eternal spring-in contrast to the human world which is subject to incessant change. Despite the similarity in events and setting, Song's moods and reactions in the second dream differ markedly from those during his previous visit. He is still modest, but no longer puzzled, hesitant, or frightened. Upon recognizing the girl-messenger, he leaves promptly and is eager to see the goddess. Because he is focusing on his task, he does not pause to question anything or even to notice much of the scenery (thus there is no interior monologue and less elaborate scenic description). The goddess now seems more familiar and less formal. Without offering him wine or refreshments, she comes straight to the point and asks how his troops are doing in battle-a rhetorical question designed to give Song the chance to report his previous accomplishments in following her instructions and to explain his present predicament. While the questions and answers constitute part of the ritual still remaining in this dream, Song's perception of, and his relationship to, the goddess have changed. Song has become wiser and more experienced, and the goddess is no longer an inaccessible and mysterious stranger. While in the first dream the goddess establishes a contractual relationship with Song Jiang and gives him the Divine Books, in the second dream she confirms the
32 Other examples: When seeing the words on the banner announcing Marshal Su's k~itfarrival, recalls the goddess's forecast of his meeting with "Su," which betokens good luck (yu Su chongchongxi Song j , 59.739); and when having difficulty taking over the Northern Capital, Song sits in his tent, reading M ~V the Divine Books by candlelight (64.801). 33 For instance, the tiger-killing scenes by Wu Song and Li Kui are analogous and yet opposite in many regards. See Patrick Hanan, "The Composition of the P'ing Yao Chuan," HarvardJournalof the Asiatic Studies 31 (1971): 215-216; and Samuel Hung-Nin Cheung's discussion of the recurrence of analogous episodes in his "Structural Cyclicity in Shuihu Zhuan:From Self to Sworn Brotherhood," CHINOPERLPapers 15 (1990): 1-15.

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relationship and directly transmits a secret strategy to him. She praises Song for being loyal and righteous during the intervening years. Song, for his part, reassures her that he has never revealed their secrets to others. Since Song proves himself trustworthy in not violating the contractual relationship, the goddess teaches him a Taoist stratagem for breaking the Liao encirclement (88.1078-79). By repeating and varying the elements from the first dream, the second dream reinforces the portrayal of Song as a prudent, reliable hero, worthy to receive divine assistance. Loyalty conjoined with righteousness serves as an important theme unifying the novel. Announced as early as chapter 1 in which the star spirits are described as loyal and good, the theme recurs in the goddess's words in both of Song's dreams (42.526 and 88.1078) and in Song's renaming the outlaws' meeting place "Loyalty and Righteousness Hall" (Zhongyi tang , 71.877). This theme is aptly associated with the image of the ,,-A stone tablet and the power of the divine: in chapter 1, the undecipherable inscription of the tablet (revealing the heroes' origin) found inside the Demon-Suppressing Hall (1.8); in chapter 71, two phrases-"Carry out the Way on behalf of Heaven" (titian xingdaoV " XCT M) and "Loyalty and righteousness both complete" (zhongyi shuangquan ,r, on the stone tablet which falls from Heaven in response to the sacrifice ?)-inscribed and prayer of the 108 Liangshanbo heroes (71.874). The phrases and images form a leitmotif linking different passages together. Song's second dream reinforces the concept of circularity and foreshadows his ultimate death. At the end of both dreams the goddess urges him to return quickly and not to linger. While the word "return" (hui NJI, 42.526; huan , 88.1079) means in the context that Song should go back to his comrades or troops, symbolically it immediate also reminds the reader of Song's eventual return to the immortal realm. In both dreams the goddess mentions that gods and mortals are different (42.526; 88.1079), but in the second dream she says, "We will never meet again" (congciyongbie? Ilt' fIJ),before repeating the phrase from the first dream, "later we will meet again in the celestial palace." Thus the second dream hints at future developments-Song will not see the goddess again in living dreams, but will see her after death when he will become a star spirit again. The suggestion of Song Jiang's death shows his enterprise in an ironic light: Because he chooses to serve the emperor loyally, he will be unjustly killed. Also ironic are such contrasting ideals as engagement and withdrawal present in both of Song's dreams, which highlight the ambivalences within Confucianism itself. The Confucian ideal of engagement and government service is paradoxically opposite to eremitism, another Confucian ideal which overlaps with the Taoist emphasis on detachment. Because of his obsession with Confucian ideals of service and honor, Song misses the goddess's true meaning of "return"and fails to construe correctly her ambivalent advice on withdrawal. Having understood and followed the goddess's instructions in his own fashion, Song has no inkling of how his life will end. However, while he comes out of his first dream more engaged and dedicated, he is more enlightened by his second dream. The effect of the second dream is that he becomes anxious to find out about his future. He even visits an eminent monk on sacred Mount Wutai IL and inquires about it, though obtaining from the monk only an incomprehensible conundrum-like verse (90.1091-1093). After he has suppressed Fang La's revolt and accomplished his mission, rather than withdraw from the political arena and seek a secluded place to live out his

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life, he chooses to take up an official post, thereby exposing himself to the vicious attacks of jealous ministers. The conflict between engagement and withdrawal becomes the focus of many also has an episodes after Song Jiang's second dream. Song's comrade Yan Qing rr Guan Zhong conversation with his hermit friend Guan Zhong J enlightening refuses Yan Qing's offer to take him to the capital to find a position;P,,. instead, he urges when reaching the pinnacle Yan Qing to start thinking about "withdrawal" (tuibu3 ) of his career (90.1096). The Taoist idea of going into retirement in order to survive and lead a better life, a theme that runs as an undercurrent, surfaces again near the end of the novel when the conflict between engagement and withdrawal becomes more intense. to join their fight against asks the fisherman Fei Bao For example, when Li Jun -4 *W, him a position, Fei says that what he seeks is a life of freedom, not Fang La, promising rank (113.1320). Later Li Jun decides to leave the band and go into retirement with Fei ends to withdraw (114.1325). Enlightened by an old monk, even Lu Zhishen % kRi after he has captured Fang La and achieved merit. Song at first urges Lu Zhishen to become an official and to bring honor to his parents, and then, when informed of Lu's determination to retreat to a quiet place, urges him instead to become an abbot of a big monastery (the head of a bureaucracy). But Lu Zhishen chooses to become a wandering monk instead (119.1392). Failing to persuade his master Lu Junyi fk - to join him in seclusion, Yan Qing eventually leaves the band alone (119.1396-1397). The split between those who choose engagement and those who espouse retirement eventually causes the band to break up. The treatments of the eremitic and the engage outlooks on life cast doubt on the Confucian ideals endorsed by Song Jiang and Lu Junyi, the leaders of the band. Although they think that by choosing the path of service to their country they will win success and glory, they die ignominiously. Naively desiring to serve the country and distinguish themselves, and erroneously believing themselves to be safe from political harm, Song and Lu end up being poisoned by the wicked ministers. By contrast, their sworn brothers who have withdrawn in time are able to live out the rest of their lives in peace. Song's Confucian ideal of filial piety through obtaining high rank and bringing honor to one's parents is also cast in an ironic light: While the Taoist hermit Guan Zhong is able to keep his mother constant company and give her a quiet and peaceful life (90.1096), Song returns home with high rank only to find his father already dead (119.1403). Song Jiang's Confucian ideal of brotherhood is problematized by the outcome of the story-those bond brothers who follow his example in taking up official posts also die unnatural deaths. The authors parody the heroes' uneasy position in society after being enlisted as government troops by showing how, despite honorable wishes to serve their country, these heroes remain marginal figures. They have difficulty being accepted by the officials in court, who either despise them for their criminal backgrounds and are suspicious of their motives, or feel jealous of their receiving amnesty and positions. After the heroes have vowed to serve the emperor as government troops, they become enemies to other groups of rebels. When fighting the rebel Fang La on behalf of the government, these heroes are mocked by one of Fang La's generals for having surrendered to an immoral, fatuous ruler (wudao hunjun 8) instead of / , their own independent kingdom (112.1306). In the end, these heroes are establishing
-

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Literature: Reviews (1996) Chinese 18 Articles, Essays,

presented as occupying a liminal state and doubly marginalized: they are neither fully accepted as part of the legitimate society, nor are they bona fide bandits; they fail to receive from the court due reward for their merit and become alienated from the other rebels as well.

Li Kui'sDream
Many critics have noted both the strong affinity and the contrasts between Song Jiang and Li Kui,34a point that some of the dreams in the novel underscore. Both of these protagonists receive supernatural guidance during trips prompted by filial devotion: the Mystic Goddess (xuannii3 , literally, "darklady") offers advice to Song in a dream on his way to fetch his father; as a playful contrast, a white rabbit guides Li Kui on his way to fetch his mother (43.535). And like Song, Li Kui also has an extended dream in which a divine figure (but of a lower rank than that of the Mystic Goddess) passes him secret instructions. The differences and affinities between Song and Li are emphasized by contrastive elements presented within parallel structures. Jin Shengtan regards these two episodes as marking a diametrical difference between Song and Li: Song's encounter shows him as "an arch-opportunist playing a trick," while Li's signals "pure filial devotion moving heaven."35 However, rather than seeing them as representing a moral dichotomy, we can view them both as full characters sharing some positive qualities. The complementary relationship between Song Jiang and Li Kui is highlighted the presence of the supernatural in their dreams and by their failure to grasp the by notion of return implied in the dreams. However, while Song's dreams consist of divine visions and serious messages, Li's dream in chapter 93 also contains more earthy elements. Song's dreams are preceded by uncanny occurrences such as sudden strong gusts of wind, and the settings are exotic, but Li's dream occurs naturally, in a more realistic setting. One evening in the garden when Song and his comrades are feasting, celebrating the spring, Song is brought to tears reminiscing about his past, while Li Kui falls asleep and enters the realm of dream: At this time, Li Kui had a bit too much wine and became drunk. While chatting with others, his eyes gradually closed. Putting his head on his arms, he dozed off. Suddenly he thought, "Thesnow outside has not stopped yet." While thinking,he felt as if he had gone out of the garden house, though he did not move at all. When he was outside, he looked around and wondered, "Why, there's no snow! What's the point of sitting inside all this time? Let me take a walk out there." He left the Yichun garden and in no time was outside the city. All of a sudden he recalled something. "Ah-yah! I forgot to bring my broadaxeswith me!" Yet when he groped for them, he found them hanging by his sides. (93.1121) As he continues dreaming, Li Kui leaves the garden and has one adventure after another.

34 See C. T. Hsia, The Classic ChineseNovel (1968; rpt. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), pp. 107-112. Andrew H. Plaks analyzes the relationship of mutual implication between Song and Li in his Four Masterworks,pp. 337-339. 35 See Jin Shengtan's comments on chap. 42 in Shuihuzhuan huiping ben,vol. 2, p. 790.

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In contrast to the fixed locus of Song Jiang's dreams, Li Kui's dream adventures occur in a variety of loci. Li first encounters a scholar in Taoist garb coming out of a mountain recess who informs him that the mountain, named Mt. Tianchi Q Ad ("Heavenly Pool"), is where he will return after further adventures. Li then kills some scoundrels who try to seize the daughter of an old couple, but flies into a rage when the grateful couple offer their daughter to him. Passing through a forest, he sees many palaces and suddenly recalls that these are where he and Song Jiang had an audience with the emperor. He again sees the emperor, who pardons him and even appoints him to be general-in-attendance. Enraged by the sight of the emperor's four evil ministers, he kills them. Li again comes across the scholar, who asks him to transmit to Song a riddle containing names of those who will help subdue the rebel Tian Hu E~A. Then Li finds his mother whom he thought had been killed by a tiger. He is about to carry her back to the city when a tiger pounces upon him. He trips and falls while lunging at the tiger with his broadaxes. At this moment he wakes up and finds that he has bumped into a table. In their dreams, Song Jiang and Li Kui go through a transitory period between waking and dreaming, and the dreamers have double perspectives in that they are alternately caught up in the dreams and self-consciously aware that they are dreaming. The dreams of Song and Li differ in their circumstances, shaping the reader's attitude toward, and interpretation of, their different characters. Through their questioning, Li shows himself as naive and fearless, while Song reveals himself as confused and worried. Caused by excitement, Li Kui's dream falls into the category of "happy dreams."36 Unlike Song's dreams which take place when he is anxious, Li's dream takes place when he is relaxed and drinking with his comrades after a successful military campaign. Song's self-control and prudence in his dreams contrast with Li's uninhibited behavior in his. In reading Song's dreams, the reader participates in Song's anxiety, but feels distant enough from Li to experience his dream as comic relief. Comedy is found, for example, in Li's monologue after he has prostrated himself to the emperor three times: "Ah-yah! I should have prostrated myself one more time."(93.1123). But Li is not just a comic character. His dream also underscores his abhorrence of injustice, his fidelity to Song Jiang, his instinctive love for his mother, and his childlike naivet6. Li Kui's dream contributes to the novel's structural unity by directly or indirectly mirroring previous episodes while it displays the ambivalences of the character. Li's heroic rescue of the girl echoes a similar episode in chapter 73 (73.900906). Li's recognition of the palaces harks back to chapter 82 when Song Jiang and his outlaw band receive an audience at court. The following two trial episodes surprise the reader with their comic inversion: in the dream the emperor rewards Li despite his numerous killings, while in chapter 74 Li, in a camrnivalesque role reversal overturning the hierarchy, dons the magistrate's outfit to conduct a mock trial, pronouncing the plaintiff to be guilty and the one who did the beating to be a "good fellow" (haohan

4-

36 One of the six kinds of dreams in Zhou Li )F;. See the translation in Richard B. Mather, trans. A New Account of Talesof the World(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976), p. 98; and Lin Shuen-fu's "Chia Pao-yi's First Visit," p. 86.

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ChineseLiterature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 18 (1996)

Some of Li Kui's past and recent memories are disguised and incorporated into his dream. Primarily a compensatory dream, it inverts a number of facts from his waking state: that he has no chance to approach the corrupt ministers, much less kill them; that the emperor is not only misled by the ministers but is far from intelligent and sagacious; and that Li Kui's mother has in fact been killed and eaten by a tiger. The representation of the emperor as a wise and benevolent father figure and the resurrected body of his mother compensate for absent authority and maternal figures. He gains the powers to redress wrongs and win honor, powers he often lacks in waking reality. In their dreams, Li Kui and Song Jiang regress to infantile states. Ostensibly invincible heroes, they can only achieve their goals through fantasy. The reader is therefore able to derive a sense of the complexity of their characters by contrasting their waking and dreaming states. The reader sees them as truly helpless and impotent, without adult autonomy, because they must be empowered in dreams by either the goddess or the emperor. Such analysis thus enables us to see further how, in addition to linking the various parts of the narrative together, their dreams serve to undercut both as heroic types. The prophecies conveyed by supernatural beings in both Song Jiang's and Li Kui's dreams remain opaque to the dreamers and to the reader. The cryptic message given by the mysterious scholar to Li Kui contains clues for future development which baffle Song Jiang and Wu Yong, but not Zhang Qing N M-, the general skilled in stone3 1? (93.1125). This situation creates throwing, and the physician An Daoquan for the reader who, not knowing why these two have privileged suspense understanding, anxiously awaits the solution to the enigma. The Emperor'sDream Unlike the prophetic dreams experienced by Song Jiang and Li Kui, the emperor's dream in the last chapter is both revelatory and compensatory by nature. Seen from a psychological perspective, the emperor's dream shows his mind "reverting to an unfinished train of thought" and working out an unsolved problem.37 The dream occurs during one of his visits to the courtesan Li Shishi $ ~i ~i, his mistress. He has been troubled by the thoughts of Song Jiang since sending him the wine, but cannot obtain the truth from his ministers (120.1414);subconsciously he must have associated Li Shishi's place with the discovery of truth because it was formerly at her place that he first learned how his ministers abused his amnesties for the outlaws (81.994-995). The emperor's constant thoughts of Song (of whose death he has been unaware) thus trigger a dream which enlightens him about his ministers' treachery. In the dream the emperor is transported to Liangshanbo, where Song and the other heroes inform him of their unshaken loyalty despite their wrongful deaths. This dream compensates for the emperor's uneasiness and sense of guilt, as well as his desire for the outlaws' loyalty. The dream is also compensatory for the outcast heroes in the sense of bringing them a semblance of justice. Since it offers the most direct (if not the only possible) way for the often-deceived emperor to be informed of the heroes' wrongful deaths, it is a narrative necessity. In actuality, the treacherous ministers are not condemned to death

37 See the discussion of dreams as a form of "perseveration" and "ideation" in J. A. Hadfield, Dreamsand Nightmares(1954; rpt. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967), pp. 67-72.

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despite their wicked conduct; the dream is the only instrument the dead heroes have to reveal the truth to the emperor, thus vindicating themselves passively. The emperor's dream repeats with variation certain aspects of Song Jiang's first dream. The motif of the emperor's passing through the tunnel to meet Li Shishi, which resembles Song's coming out of the cabinet, is symbolic of his enlightenment. Just as the goddess enlightens Song, Li Shishi also empowers the emperor, enabling him to see the truth. Li Shishi has been acting as an intermediary between the emperor and Song Jiang and his band. It is at her place that Song Jiang almost obtains a chance to request amnesty from the emperor (chap. 72). And it is through her introduction that Yan Qing, one of Song's comrades, has the chance to inform the emperor of Song's virtue and the wicked ministers' treachery (chap. 81). However, she is portrayed ambivalently because the authors have also described her as fickle and lascivious (shuixingde7ji,I J) when attempting to seduce Yan Qing (81.991). Presenting both the courtesan and the goddess (in Song's dreams) as transmitters of truth, the authors problematize the reader's judgment of women's roles, transcending the simplistic dichotomy of the virgin/mother and the whore, again inverting the usual moral hierarchies. Also carnivalesquely inverted is the power hierarchy in the emperor's becoming enlightened only through visiting a courtesan, testifying to his incompetence as a ruler and the heretical nature of Song Jiang's loyalty. The authors use symbolic parallels and contrasts in the various dream-loci to unify the novel. Liangshanbo, the setting of the emperor's dream and the outlaws' former stronghold, functions as the ambivalent "Other" for the imperial palace. It is an alternative and a threat to the state. It is not fortuitous that in his dream the emperor is struck by the sight of Liangshanbo's magnificent fortified gates and all the 108 armed heroes (120.1414-15). Liangshanbo parallels and rivals the imperial palace in its political significance. Built as an epitome of the state, Liangshanbo has its own bureaucracy, its own assignment of positions and duties, and its own rules (chap. 71). From the perspectives of the court and most citizens, Liangshanbo presents a challenge to the order and the authority of the legitimate state. Despite associating it with violence and depicting it as the center of the sometimes marauding band of outlaws, the authors describe Liangshanbo as primarily a "pure" place, where justice is meted out, preferable to the corrupt court which is demeaned through the ministers' abuse of power. From the perspective of the outlaws, it is a place of order they created from the chaos of the wilderness. In contrast to the corrupt royal court which Lu Zhishen once compared to a cassock dyed black (71.884), Liangshanbo is referred to by the outlaw Dai Zong S ,j who serves as the emperor's guide, as "a wonderful place, ~ , 120.1414). As an utopia of wealth, pure and beautiful" (qingxiu hao quchu A0f 1 prosperity, peace, and fair play, it is an earthly version of the celestial paradise which Song Jiang visits in his dreams. Through the setting of the emperor's dream, the authors try to connect the beginning and the end of the novel by conflating both Liangshanbo and Liaoerwa ?. In earlier chapters Liaoerwa (Smartweed Flats) is referred to as a part ,of Liangshanbo in Shandong (1.9; 44.555). Although the place visited by the emperor in his dream is Liangshanbo, the authors insert such words as "smartweed" (liaohua S E) when describing the landscape (120.1414), thereby suggesting its association with Liaoerwa.

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In order to bring further compensation to the fallen heroes, in the last chapter the authors deliberately separates Liaoerwa from Liangshanbo into an independent locus with a landscape resembling that of Liangshanbo (120.1410) and situated outside the south gate of Chuzhou V Ji' Jiangsu) where Song Jiang served as the governor (in and was beloved by the people.38 Liaoerwa is an adjunct to, and extension of, Liangshanbo. Primarily the place where the heroes gather and distinguish themselves, Liangshanbo evolves into Liaoerwa, which puns on liao f' ("to finish") and implies a place where the heroes' story comes to an end. Song and three others have been buried in Liaoerwa, as the dream reveals to the emperor (120.1415). The sense of compensation and poetic justice is intensified because in both Liangshanbo and Liaoerwa temples are built to worship Song and the other heroes, who have been made deities by the Jade Emperor. Powerful and efficacious, the canonized heroes bring their worshippers peace and security (120.1417-18).

Religious and MythopoeticalDimensions

Insofar as a goddess appears to give Song Jiang special powers and information, Song's first dream resembles an "archetypal-spiritual dream" which involves visitations by gods and which sometimes occurs before assuming new roles and identities.39 As such, this episode is written like a myth in both content and style:40 It asserts ritual, culture, and imperial grandeur. The authors use traditional regal symbols to describe the scene. The big road like a "turtle's" back, the blue stone bridge with "vermillion" balustrade, the great "vermillion star-gate," the palace glistening with "gold and jade," the great hall brightly lit with "dragon" lanterns and "phoenix" candles, the "pearl" curtains, and the gorgeously arrayed goddess seated on the "jewel-decorated" couchall these are systematically and artistically arranged and bespeak a richness of imperial magnitude. Song's audience with the goddess is conducted in a most ceremonious manner: his arrival is announced by the goddess's maids; he makes obeisance; the goddess speaks her commands from behind the imperial curtain; when she appears, she is attended by fairy maidens holding jade tablets; the goddess's speech is elegant and refined. Stylistically we find not only elevated diction but also ritualistic patterns. The authors also used words, images, and number symbolism to further suggest the ambience of an immortal realm and the importance of the encounter. The number three, which is the number of Heaven and multiplies up to the number nine associated
38 In Yuan dramas, Liaoerwa refers to the same place as Liangshanbo, and is used as a term indicating where bandits gather. Tang Xianzu also uses Liaoerwa to refer to bandits. See Tang Xianzu *~~ f, ~, Mudan ting t? #-f~, Xu Shuofang # tiJ j and Yang Xiaomei 0 XR annot. (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1978), pp. 217, 222. Richard G. Irwin mentions the confusion of the location of Liaoerwa in his The Evolutionof a ChineseNovel, p. 32. 39 See Roy D'Andrade's anthropological finding on archetypal-spiritual dreams (also called "cultural pattern dreams"), cited in Harry T. Hunt, The Multiplicity of Dreams: Memory, Imagination, and Consciousness(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 153. 40 Sa Mengwu 1 & &interpreted this dream as a political myth: the myth of the Goddess and the Divine Books may have started because the Chinese people were in distress and wished for the coming of a Messiah to deliver them from their suffering. See Sa Mengwu, Shuihuzhuan yu Zhongguoshehui pW *7Jf-fl *? *(Nanjing: Zhengzhong shuju, 1934), p. 101.

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with the goddess, is repeated several times:41Song does not emerge from beneath the altar until he hears the invitation the third time; and in the presence of the goddess, Song drinks three cups of divine wine (xianjiu fi), eats three divine jujubes (xianzao 3), f? (f and receives three Divine Books in a packet five inches long, three inches wide, and three inches thick (42.526-527).42 The descriptions reinforce the supernatural aspect of the gift and the recognition that Song is about to receive. The number symbolism is important in relation to the notion of circularity and perfection; Song will see the goddess the third time only when his spirit returns to the immortal realm. In addition to mimetic portrayal, the authors use literary allusions to adumbrate the ambivalence of Song's character and roles. Song's first dream is influenced by the "Dream of the Divine Woman" tradition in the ChuciV of Chu) and early prose It also has multiple intertextual references to the.(Songs poems.43 legendary encounter between :E , the Mother Queen of the West, Emperor Wu of the Han and Xi Wang Mu Nj ; recorded in "Han Wudi gushi" -iA R- * ("Tales of Emperor Wu of the Han"): On the seventh day of the seventh month when the clepsydra strikes the seventh note at night, the Mother Queen descends from heaven to pay Emperor Wu a visit. She refuses the emperor's request for the elixir of immortality, saying he is "too full of worldly desire" (yuxin N 4>)to obtain it, but takes out seven peaches to share with him. The emperor hides the peach pits, which he intends to plant afterwards. To his dismay, he is told that the divine peach bears fruit only once in three thousand years and cannot grow on earth.44 We find some similar structural devices and images between the legend and Song Jiang's dream encounter. The pattern of a goddess meeting with, instructing, and then leaving the hero is repeated. Both the Mother Queen and the Mystic Goddess are anthropomorphized, described as beautiful and magnificent, in golden silks and tiaras, surrounded by splendid, jeweled objects and charming maids.45 The repetition of numbers serves as unifying structural devices: the number "seven" is restated in Emperor Wu's legend, while the number "three" is repeated in Song's dream.

41 According to Xu Shen's in Congshujicheng chubiang g & jiezi f-?~1Shuowen -a C.., (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1935-1939), vol. 1076, juan 1, p. 5, the number three represents the Tao of heaven, earth, and man. For the assignment of the number three to Heaven [tian], see Zheng Xuan IC3, annot., Zhou Yi Zhengzhu f~ ~ANit, in Congshujicheng chubian,vol. 384, juan 7, pp. 90, 92, and juan 10, p. 115; and Cary F. Baynes, trans., from Richard Wilhelm's German version, TheI Ching or Bookof Changes(Princeton: Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series XIX, 1978), p. 263. 42 The number five is also significant because of the Five Phases Tf-j. 43 See, for example, the discussion of the Divine Woman in Edward H. Schafer, The Divine Woman: Dragon Ladiesand Rain Maidens (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1980), pp. 65-70, 94; and Wai-yee Li, "Dream Visions of Transcendence in Chinese Literature and Painting," Asian Art 3.4 (Fall 1990), pp. 63-69. quoted in Lu Xun 44 See the story "Han Wudi gushi" Zhongguoxiaoshuoshiliie 4 IE,, /!$, I (Hong Kong: Xinyi chubanshe, 1981), pp. 39-40, and "Han Wudi neizhuan" 1 AR J iV ("The $ $_ -i l]iJ Private Life of Emperor Wu of the Han"), pp. 40-42. For the English translation, see Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys , Yang, trans., A Brief History of ChineseFiction (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1976), pp. 32-33, 34-35. See also "Han Wudi neizhuan" in Wu Zengqi R -9 A, comp., Jiu xiaoshuo (1914; rpt. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1957), vol. 1, pp. 1-10, especially pp. 2-3. Both "Han WudiBIgushi" and "Han Wudi neizhuan" are attributed to the Han writer Ban Gu ~{If (32-92). 45 For a detailed description of the Mother Queen's physical beauty and grace, see especially the story "Han Wudi neizhuan" in Lu Xun, Zhongguoxiaoshuoshiliie, p. 41 and in Wu Zengqi, comp., Jiu xiaoshuo, p. 2.

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ChineseLiterature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 18 (1996)

Song Jiang's hiding the three jujube pits in his hand parodies Emperor Wu's action, though both the characters' motivations and the authors' narrative purposes differ. In the earlier legend, Emperor Wu hides the pits of the divine peaches because of his desire for immortality (so that he can grow them later for future consumption and become an immortal); by contrast, the modest Song, disbelieving his divine origin, only hides the pits because of his awe of the goddess and his fear of impropriety if he puts them down. While the authors of both accounts use the act of hiding pits to depict their characters, the authors of the novel use the pits as an important piece of evidence for Song's receipt of divine gifts-he wakes up to find the pits in his sleeves, thereby realizing that he actually has had a supernatural encounter (42.527). By the same token, the reader has to accept the dream encounter as equally valid with the rest of the narrative, rather than imagined fantasy. Thus from its intertextual references, the dream sanctifies Song Jiang and justifies his future actions by associating him with one of the martial emperors of the past. However, by juxtaposing a rebel with an emperor, the authors implicitly problematize Song's image as a "loyal" subject. Moreover, the association might be intended to be playful, since Emperor Wu has appeared in literature as a somewhat ridiculous aficionado of the Taoist pursuit for longevity. We find an even more preposterous association of Song with Emperor Wu's court jester Dongfang Shuo * R in the legend. Noting that Dongfang Shuo is peeping at her, the Mother Queen tells the emperor that Dongfang Shuo was banished from heaven for being mischievous but will eventually return there.46 In Song's dream, the goddess tells him that he is an immortal banished to earth who will soon return to Heaven after he has redeemed himself by accomplishing his mission. The goddess's mention of Song's "demonic nature" (moxin echoes the "worldly desire" of Emperor Wu; both are qualities that ,g,4>) deserve chastisement through demotion to the mortal world. By associating Song with Emperor Wu and Dongfang Shuo, the authors alert the reader to Song's imperfection as well as to his fate. Song Jiang's dreams also share similarities with myths about the Mystic Goddess, who is an important figure in the Taoist pantheon. According to ancient legends, the Mystic Goddess gave the Yellow Emperor 9; instructions on military tactics and helped him defeat the rebel leader Chiyou # t: The Yellow Emperorfought with Chiyou nine times and lost nine times. He returnedto Mount Tai ; for three days and threenights. In the foggy darkness,there appeared a woman with a human head and a bird's body. The Yellow Emperor kowtowed and bowed again, prostratinghimself and not daring to rise. The woman said, "I am the Mystic Goddess (Xuannii). What do you wish to ask?" The Yellow Emperorreplied, "Iwould like to win in myriad battles." Thereuponhe obtained the art of war.47

46 See "Han Wudi gushi," in Lu Xun, Zhongguoxiaoshuoshiliie, p. 40. 47 See the account in Taipingyulan ;k-]Zfn_, 4 vols. (Beijing:Zhonghua shuju, 1960), vol. 1, juan 15, p. 78. See another account in juan 79, p. 368. See also the discussion in Hu Wanchuan, "Xuannii, baiyuan, tianshu," pp. 34-37. The intertextuality between this story and Song Jiang's first dream has been discussed earlier by William H. Nienhauser, Jr. in his "Zhongguo xiaoshuo de qiyuan" rp /JM 0, L M in Gudian wenxue o4 Z~~ (August 1985), pp. 929-932, and "The Origins of Chinese Fiction," in MonumentaSerica38 ~, (1988-89), pp. 208-215. I am grateful to Professor Nienhauser for bringing these essays to my attention.

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The narrative of the legend has a dreamlike quality in its foggy and nebulous atmosphere. Song Jiang's second dream, which describes him asking for strategies and obtaining them, bears some resemblance to this part of the legend. However, just like his association with the legend of Emperor Wu, Song Jiang's association with this legend is ambiguous in that Song's encounter with the Mystic Goddess both parallels and parodies the source. As the recipient of the goddess's help, Song is analogous to the Yellow Emperor, the conqueror of rebels; after being enlisted by the court and acting on behalf of the state, Song indeed leads his band to suppress several revolts. And yet Song also resembles the rebel leader Chiyou. Chiyou has eighty-one brother-comrades, while Song has one hundred and seven. Chiyou and the rebels make weapons, kill ruthlessly, and obtain great power. After Chiyou's death, the Yellow Emperor supposedly gains power over the people by terrorizing them with Chiyou's picture. As a result, all the people regard Chiyou as still alive.48 While Song vows to carry out the Way for Heaven, his band frequently engages in brutal killing and becomes extremely powerful. After Song's death, he is apotheosized and worshipped by common people (120.1413). Song's association with the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou thus helps to underscore his ambivalent role in the novel. In addition to legends and myths, the authors incorporate popular religious elements into the dreams which significantly affect the philosophical tone of the novel. The Taoist significance of Song Jiang's first dream can be found, for example, in the name of the village where Song hides himself. The "Circular Road Village," which literally means "Return-to-Tao Village" - iM 1%, suggests the concept of return articulated in Taoist teachings, but Song fails to grasp its significance. Nevertheless, it is in the village temple that Song recovers his original self and realizes his proper place in the Order (Tao) of the times. In his first encounter with the goddess, Song undergoes an enlightenment described in Buddhist metaphors: his drinking the divine wine is as "the finest cream being poured on his head" (tihu guanding if t ]), which is a Buddhist h J symbol meaning "to impart wisdom to one's mind"; and as "sweet dews being which associates the Mystic Goddess sprinkled on his heart" (ganlu saxin -H I 4,L), with the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy (Guanyin E s) imparting compassion to him. Song is not only enlightened about his origins, but he also receives religious instructions that teach him metaphorically to curb his desires. However, these images are used ironically. Song wakes up from his dream without being totally enlightened and actually becomes more ambitious. In all four dreams, the religious aspects form a supernatural framework that allows for a celestial and detached view of human activities. The dreams stress the difference between the mortal and immortal worlds, contrasting the transience of human life with the immutability of the divine. They reveal the role of the divine in influencing and controlling human fate. These dreams are related to the theme of life-is-a-dream (renshengrumengA 4 F) recurrent in Chinese literature.49 The authors play on this concept by making Li and Song re-live their life experiences: Li Kui begins to repeat and revise his life in a
Taipingyulan, vol. 1, juan 79, p. 368. 49 See the discussion in Wang I-chin, "Life-Is-A-Dream Theme: Pillow/Dream in Chinese and Japanese Drama," TamkangReview 18.1-4 (Summer 1988), pp. 277-286; and Andrew H. Plaks, "... But A Dream," Asian Art 3.4 (Fall 1990), pp. 2-9. 48 See the account in

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ChineseLiterature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 18 (1996)

dream while Song Jiang is reminiscing about his past which seems, in his words, "like a dream" (93.1121). To reinforce the teaching on illusion, the authors repeatedly use "a "Southern Branch' dream" (42.527, 120.1416), alluding to the Tang didactic allegory of enlightenment, "The Governor of the Southern Branch."s50 In addition to their philosophical significance, the dreams' mythopoetic relevance affects the atmosphere of the novel. Unlike other episodes that glorify the masculine aspects of Song Jiang's milieu, Song's first dream, with its strong religious connotations, celebrates the feminine. Song dares not come out of hiding until he hears a female voice. While male voices frighten him, female voices reassure him. The gender change (albeit through Song's drowsy perception) of the two boys into two girls who come to summon him indicates a shift of emphasis from the masculine to the feminine. Combining the best aspects of both the masculine and the feminine, the goddess of war does not appear as a terrifying figure; rather, she is Song's benefactor, a good mother figure who comes to Song's rescue and offers him shelter and nourishment. We find in Song Jiang's dream a deliberate feminization of the scene that evokes a Taoist yearning to follow nature and to attain serenity, a yearning that runs through the novel like an undercurrent. Structurally, the dream introduces a tranquil moment, a sharp contrast to the scenes of active flight and fighting which come before and afterwards. It ushers in an unusual note of peace and harmony through a synthesis of the senses-sound, sight, smell, and taste. The voice Song hears is as pleasant as "an oriole singing and a swallow warbling" (yingshengyanyu % M j gR , 42.524). The scene is described as a pastoral paradise with a gurgling stream, lush peach trees, strange flowers and exotic herbs, fragrant breezes, and nectar-like wine. The reference to the stream and peach trees echoes the paradisiacal Peach Blossom Spring Vt ?M, described t@ the fourth-century poet Tao Qian W F (365-427). Intratextually and intertextually, by the location of the dream evokes a fantastic realm of peace and tranquility. While resembling the celestial paradise in Song Jiang's dream, Liangshanbo as the locus of the emperor's dream has a somewhat different symbolic significance. Strategically important because of its impregnability, Liangshanbo may also symbolize a womb that protects and nourishes the heroes. The numerous water-courses it provide good fishing grounds and function symbolically as blood vessels. surrounding The heroes are secure and protected in Liangshanbo, but when they leave it, they cut the umbilical cord and are doomed to fall into disunity and disarray. Receiving amnesty and glory from the court-a paternal figure-turns out to be the beginning of the heroes' downfall. These dreams subvert the misogynistic tendencies in the narrative not only through their symbolic feminine aspects but also through positive feminine figures. Despite the parodic nature of the comparison between the goddess and Li Shishi, both of them receive favorable portrayals as protectors. Li Kui's instinctive love for his mother as reflected in his dream also shows an attachment to this model of the feminine. The heroes in Shuihu are perhaps not really the single-minded misogynists of C. T. Hsia's
50 See Robert E. Hegel's discussion of this tale in his "Heavens and Hells in Chinese Fictional in Carolyn T. Brown, ed., Psycho-Sinology, 2. In conveying a conventional religious message about Dreams," p. the emptiness of worldly glory, the novel also recalls the Tang tale "Zhenzhong ji" ;t4 P ("The World Inside a Pillow"). See Shen Jiji?t ft! , "Zhenzhong ji" in Wang Pijiang, ed., Tangrenxiaoshuo,pp. 37-42, and David Knechtges' discussion of this tale in his "Dream Adventure Stories in Europe and T'ang China," Tamkang review4:2 (October 1973), 111-112.

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characterization.51 What they hate or fear in women-or rather, what the reader is cautioned against-are the potentially destructive aspects of the feminine. The episodes portraying women as dangerously lascivious and neither loyal nor trustworthy reveal the outlaws' sense of insecurity.52 While abhorring the terrible and treacherous females that threaten to deprive them of their masculinity and military preparedness, the heroes embrace maternal figures who feed and protect them. Thus, if we look at displaced femininity and positive feminine figures in the four dreams, we can complicate the received view that the novel reflects a totally misogynistic outlook.

Minor Dreams and TheirFunctions

In contrast to major dreams which create complexities through ironic undercutting of the heroic ideals, minor dreams perform primarily narrative and structural functions, providing the dreamers with information. Most of the lesser dreams in Shuihu contain prophecies that are later fulfilled. Chao Gai LM, the leader who precedes Song Jiang, dreams of the seven stars of the Northern Dipper falling on his roof. Taken as an auspicious sign, the prophecy conveyed in the dream is later fulfilled (chap. 14). Chao Gai's spirit visits Song Jiang in a dream, telling him to give up the siege of Damingfu k t Fand warning him against a hundred days of calamity. Song indeed } takes to his bed with a strange disease soon afterwards (chap. 65). In addition to prophecies, some of the lesser dreams provide convenient avenues for divine aid and even match-making. The most interesting among these is the "telepathic dream" shared by the orphan girl Qiongying IN X in Tian Hu's army and Zhang Qing in Song Jiang's band.53 After Qiongying has found out that her parents actually died at the hands of Tian Hu's followers and has resolved to avenge them, she is visited every night by a male deity who teaches her martial arts. One night in a dream, a scholar introduces her to "her destined husband," a young general who teaches her the art of stone-throwing; from then on she becomes an invincible stone-thrower (98.1162). Zhang Qing similarly dreams of this scholar who asks him to teach a girl how to throw stones; when he wakes up, he becomes sick with longing and is cured only after the physician An Daoquan finds out about his dream (98.1169). Later, when meeting Zhang Qing on the battlefield, Qiongying recognizes him and eventually marries him. Thanks to her defection, Song's band finally overcomes Tian Hu's army. Insofar as these shared dreams are triggered by desire and lead to marriage, they belong to the Buddhist type of

51 Hsia, ClassicChinese Novel, pp. 105-106. 52 See the discussion of the insecure outlaws' fear of women in Sun "Shuihu zhuan Shuyu z-, beihou de wangminghan" 7* ?#P#9f t lpN &6 in Zhongguogudian xiaoshuoyanjiu zhuanji 4p tAJ/i]~ f R 4 V, vol. 1 (Taibei: Lianjing chubanshe, 1979), p. 56; and the discussion of women's sexual power in Irene Eber, "Weakness and Power: Women in the WaterMargin," in Anna Gerstlacher, R. Keen, et al., eds., Womenand Literature China (Bochum: Studienverlag Brockmeyer, 1985), pp. 3-28. in 53 The third dream recorded in the Tang writer Bai Xingjian's ?j "Sanmeng ji" 3E ("Three Dreams"), in which two persons have the same dream before they meet and identify each other as the one who appears in their dream, is an earlier example of shared, telepathic dreams (liangxiang tongmeng~fjiq~&#). See the tale in Wang Pijiang, ed., Tangrenxiaoshuo,pp. 108-109; and the discussion of telepathic dreams in C. G. Jung, Dreams,pp. 47-48.

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18 Reviews (1996) Chinese Literature: Articles, Essays,

"prophetic dreams" caused by "the accumulated merit or demerit in one's past life,"54 and reflect the influence of the motif of "lovers meet in their dream" found in Indian folklore-a motif used most extensively by the Ming dramatist Tang Xianzu j?Jfi (ThePeony Pavilion,1598).55 (1550-1616) in his famous Mudan ting fJ-- As a group, the match-making dreams share the same plot structure but offer us different points of view. Intratextually, the male deity's teaching the art of war to a maiden parallels the activity but inverts the gender roles in the goddess's teaching Song and the courtesan's teaching the emperor. The mysterious scholar, who makes matches through the dreams, also appears in Li Kui's dream narrated several chapters earlier. The prophecy suggested by the riddle given to Li comes true because Qiongying marries Zhang Qing and her defection brings victory to Song's band. The same scholar also rescues Song Jiang through a "dream" while Song is in danger during his campaign against the rebel leader Fang La (117.1366-1367), in a manner similar to the Mystic Goddess's assisting Song. Later, in an experience that resembles his first dream, Song comes across a temple named "The Temple of the Black Dragon God" (Wulongshen and finds the image inside to resemble perfectly the mysterious scholar. miao Ak *j) After he has made offerings to the god, the god visits him that night through a dream to express gratitude and informs him of Fang La's eventual defeat (117.1369). By providing divine aid either directly or indirectly, these dreams move the narrative forward. Dreams are sometimes the locus where ghostly beings can visit the living in order to reveal truth and obtain some form of justice. The ghost of a person who has been unjustly killed often appears to his friends or relatives in a dream. Wu Da's SA to his wrongful spirit emerges from beneath the altar to alert his brother Wu Song A ,A Shun ,nli, one of Song Jiang's comrades, visits Song death (26.321). The ghost of Zhang in his sleep to bid him farewell, and thus Song becomes aware that Zhang has already been killed (chap. 114). After Song Jiang and Li Kui are poisoned, they report their own deaths to two of their comrades, Wu Yong and Hua Rong ~t , through dreams (chap. 120). These minor revenge dreams reaffirm, instead of undercutting, the values of justice, friendship, and brotherhood so much lauded in the novel.

Conclusions
As a structural device, dreams serve a cohesive function. The major dreams, in particular, are organically interwoven with the narrative. They link the various parts of the narrative together, e.g., the introductory release of demons, the Liangshanbo adventures, battles with other rebels, and the theme of loyalty and righteousness. Song Jiang's two dreams not only provide him with divine messages and aid, but also inform the reader of his unique status as Star Lord and his preordained fate. These dreams tie in with other mythical events which constitute the circular superstructure, in particular
54 One of the types of dreams found in the Samantapasadika Shanjianlii If~S 4in Chinese, cited in or Lin Shuen-fu, "Chia Pao-yii's First Visit," p. 88. 55 See Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty's discussion of this motif in her Dreams,Illusion,and OtherRealities (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 62; and the description of Liu Mengmei's and Du Liniang's dreams in Tang Xianzu, Mudan ting, scene 2, p. 3, and scene 10, pp. 44-46, respectively.

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the supernatural origins of the star spirits, their incarnation as heroes, the divine sanction they receive, and their deaths and return to Heaven. Major dreams enrich the meaning of the novel and augment its fantastic dimension in various ways. Although supernatural elements may seem like formulaic, simplistic interpolations with little relevance to the plot,56 dreams create and reinforce the psychological, philosophical, religious, and aesthetic complexities of the novel. The dreams of Song Jiang and Li Kui reveal these two characters' deepest concerns. As wishfulfillment, these dreams also give rise to dramatic irony. Li Kui's desires are fulfilled only in his dreams. Song Jiang's dreams similarly underscore the discrepancy between gritty reality and an ideal, peaceful world; but in his waking state he must confront a world filled with bloodshed. Philosophically, some of these dreams offer a separate discourse that questions the predominantly negative representation of women. The heroic and martial ideals are undercut and replaced with a "feminine" and religious preference for peace and harmony. Questioning the distinction between dreaming and waking, some dreams offer a perspective similar to the Buddhist way of seeing all phenomena as illusory. By reinforcing the concept of return, the dreams implicitly reveal the paradox of conflicting Confucian values such as engagement versus withdrawal. Finally, the constant divine presence in the dreams offers the reader a more detached perspective on the events in the novel. The dreams reveal the transience of mortal life, the divine control of human fate, and the supernatural enforcement of poetic justice which may not be otherwise realized. Through the dreams, the eventual dissolution of the outlaw band attains a degree of sublimity. The reader achieves both an ironic vision through detachment and a tragic catharsis through involvement.

56 Hu

Wanchuan, "Xuannii, baiyuan, tianshu," p. 45.