Angle of attack sensing The angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (a) angle, is the angle between the chord

line of the wing of an aircraft and the direction of the relative airflow, and is a major factor in determining the magnitude of lift generated by a wing. Lift increases as a increases up to some critical value at which it begins to decrease due to separation of the slow-moving air (the boundary layer) from the upper surface of the wing, which, in turn, results in separation and turbulence of the main airflow. The wing, therefore, assumes a stalled condition, and since it occurs at a particular angle rather than a particular speed, the critical AoA is also referred to as the stalling angle. The angle relates to the design of aerofoil section adopted for the wings of any one particular type of aircraft, and so, of course, its value varies accordingly; typically it is between 12 and 18. The manner in which an aircraft responds as it approaches and reaches a stalled condition depends on many other factors, such as wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back, and also on whether the horizontal stabilizer is in the 'T'-tail configuration. Other factors relate to the prevailing speed of an aircraft, which largely depends on engine power settings, flap angles, bank angles and rates of change of pitch. The appropriate responses are pre-determined for each type of aircraft in order to derive specifically relevant procedures for recovering from what is, after all, an undesirable situation. An aircraft will, in its own characteristic manner, provide warning of a stalled condition, e.g. by buffeting, gentle or severe pitch-down attitude change, and/or 'wing drop', and although recoverable, in a situation such as an approach when an aircraft is running out of airspace beneath itself, these inherent warnings could come too late! It is, therefore, necessary to provide a means whereby a can be sensed directly, and at some value just below that at which a stalled condition can occur it can provide an early warning of its onset. Stall warning systems The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft, consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted

Figure 13.8.188 Alpha Sensor

in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes into the airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel position. If the aircraft's attitude changes such that a increases, then, by definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the vane to be deflected. When a reaches that at which the warning unit has
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been preset, the vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in the cockpit. In larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to perform a more active function, in that they are either of the 'stick- shaker' or 'stick push or nudger' type; for some aircraft configurations they are used in combination. Figure 13.8.188 illustrates the type of sensor normally used for these systems. It consists of a precision counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The vane is protected against ice formation by an internal heater element. The complete unit is accurately aligned by means of index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an aircraft. Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the extension of its flaps, the sensor synchro is also interconnected with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap position indicating system, in order to modify the a signal output as a function of flap position Stick-shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to a control column and drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column, to simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition. Sensor signals, and signals for the testing of a system, are processed through a circuit module unit located on a flight deck panel. Control switches for normal operation and for testing are also provided in this unit. Sensing relays and shock strut microswitches on the nose landing gear are included in the circuit of a system to permit operational change-over from ground to air. The circuit of a typical system is shown in basic form in Fig. 13.8.189. When the aircraft is on the ground and electrical power is on, the contacts of the landing gear microswitches complete a dc circuit to a sensing relay K1, which, on being energized, supplies an ac voltage (in this case 11.8 V) to the circuit module amplifier. The output is then supplied to a demodulator whose circuit is designed to 'bias off the ac voltage from the contacts of K1 so that the solid-state switch SS, remains open to isolate the stick-shaker motor from its dc supply. The vane heater element circuit is also isolated from its ac supply by the opening of the second set of contacts of K 1. The sensor synchro is supplied directly from the ac power source. During take-off, and when the nose gear 'lifts off, the microswitches operate to de-energize relay K1 and with the system control switch at 'NORMAL', the system is fully activated. The only signal now supplied to the amplifier and demodulator is the modified a signal. In normal flight, the signal produced and supplied as input to the amplifier is less than a nominal value of 20 mV, and in phase with the ac voltage supplied as a reference to the demodulator. If the aircraft's attitude should approach that of a stalled condition, the signal will exceed 20 mV and become out-of-phase. The demodulator then produces a resultant voltage which triggers the switch SS, to connect a 28 V dc supply direct to the stick-shaker motor, which then starts vibrating the control column.

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Figure 13.8.189 Stick shaker system

A confidence check on system operation may be carried out by placing the circuit module control switch in the 'TEST' position. This energizes a relay which switches the sensor signal to the motor of an indicator, the dial of which will be rotated by the motor if there is circuit continuity. Since the switch isolates the sensor circuit from the amplifier, the reference voltage to the demodulator triggers the switch SS, to operate the stick-shaker motor. The control switch also has a 'HEATER OFF' position which isolates the vane heater circuit from its power supply, thus enabling the vane to be manipulated manually without inflicting burns. In most cases, two systems are installed in an aircraft, so that a sensor is located on each side of the front fuselage section, and a stick-shaker motor on each pilot's control column. In certain types of aircraft the sensor signals are transmitted to an air data computer, which then supplies an output, corresponding to actual angle, to a comparator circuit within an electronic module of the stall warning system. The comparator is also supplied with signals from a central processor unit (also within the module) which processes a programme to determine maximum angles based on the relationship between flap position and three positions of the leading edge slats. The positions &re: retracted, partially extended and fully extended, and so signals corresponding to three different computed angles are processed for comparison with an actual angle signal. If the latter is higher than a computed maximum, the circuit to the stick-shaker motor is completed. Stick-pushers In some types of aircraft, particularly those with rear-mounted engines and a 'T'-tail configuration, it is possible for what is termed a 'deep' or 'super' stall situation to develop. When such aircraft first get into a stalled condition then, as in all cases, the air flowing from the wings is of a turbulent nature, and if the angle is such that the engines are subjected to this airflow, loss of power will occur as a result of surging and possible 'flame-out'. If, then, the stall develops
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still further, the horizontal stabilizer will also be subjected to the turbulent airflow with a resultant loss of pitch control. The aircraft then sinks rapidly in the deep stalled attitude, from which recovery is difficult, if not impossible. This was a lesson that was learned, with tragic results, during the flight testing of two of the earliest types of commercial aircraft configured as mentioned, namely, the BAC 1 11 and HS 'Trident'. In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, warning systems are installed which, in addition to stick-shaking, utilize the sensor signals to cause a forward push on the control columns and downward deflection of the elevators. The manner in which this is accomplished varies; in some aircraft, the signals are transmitted to a linear actuator which is mechanically connected to the feel and centering unit of the elevator control system. In aircraft having computerized flight control systems, sensor signals are transmitted to the elevator control channel of the flight control computer. Whenever stick-push is activated, the elevator control channels of automatic flight control systems are automatically disengaged via an interlock system. Indicators There is no standard requirement for angle of attack indicators to be installed in aircraft, with the result that the adoption of any one available type is left as an option on the part of an aircraft manufacturer and/or operator. When selected for installation, however, they must not be used as the only means of providing stall warning, but as a supplement to an appropriate type of stickshake and stick-push system. Indicators are connected to the alpha sensors of a stall warning system, and display the relevant data in a variety of ways, depending on their design. In some cases a conventional pointer and scale type of display is used, while in aircraft having electronic flight instrument display systems, the data can be programmed into computers such that it is displayed against a vertical scale, usually located adjacent to that indicating vertical speed, on the attitude director indicator. Another type of indicator currently in use has a pointer which is referenced against horizontal yellow, green and red bands; a dividing line between the yellow and green bands signifies the angle at which the stick-shaker operates.

Figure 13.8.189a: AOA indicator

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Airspeed Terminology

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