Soap and detergent

1. Definition of soap and examples of soap Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids that contain 12 to 18 carbon atom per molecule Sodium palmimate, potassium oleate and potassium stearate are examples of soaps 2. The history of soap manufacturing :

in 1816, the French chemist Michael Chevruel (1786-1889) dicovered that animal fats are composed of fatty acid and glycerol. this discovery constributed to the rapid development of the soap and candle industry.

in 1816, the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvary (1838-1922) discovered the process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium carbonate. this process is known as Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate which is used to making glass, soaps and detergents.

3. Preparation of soap by saponification Apparatus : beaker, measuring cylinder,glass rod, Bunsen burner, filter funnel, filter paper, wire gauze, spatula and tripod stand. Materials : 5 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution, sodium chloride solution , palm oil, olive oil, corn oil and peanut oil. Procedure : A) preparation of soap 1. using a small (100cm3) measuring cylinder, 10cm3 of palm oil is measured out into a beaker. 2. Using a large (250cm3) measuring cylinder, 50cm3 of concentrated (5mol dm-3) sodium hydroxide solution is measured out and poured into the palm oil in the beaker. 3. The mixture is heated until boiling (figure 5.1(a)). The solution is stirred with a glass rod throughout the experiment 4. The boiling is continued for about 5 minutes until the layer of oil disappears. 5. The Bunsen flame is then turned off and the reaction mixture is left to cool. B) To separate the soap from the reaction mixture 1. Three to four spatula of sodium chloride is dissolve in about 100cm3 of water 2. The salt solution is then added to the soap solution obtained in section A. The mixture is boiled again for about 5 minutes (figure 5.1(b)). 3. When the mixture is cooled, a white precipitate is formed, which floats on the surface of the mixture. 4. The mixture is filtered (figure 5.1(c)) and washed with distilled water to removw excess alkali and salts.

5. A small amount of the residue on the filter paper is examined by (a) rubbing it on the hand, (b) shaking it with a water in boiling tube. The observations are recorded. 6. The experiment is repeated using olive oil, corn oil and peanut oil.
Glass rod Vegetable oil Soap soap solution Filter paper Filter funnel

Concentrated NaOH(aq)
filtrate heat heat

(a) saponification

(b) precipitation of soap Figure 5.1 preparation of soap

(c) filtration

Result : Test a) Rubber on the hand b) Shaken with water Observation Soapy (slippery) feel A lot of foam is produced

Discussion : 1. The white residue on the filter paper is soap because it has slippery feel and produces foam when shaken with water. 2. The soap produced in section A can be orecipitated from the solution by adding sodium chloride and boiling the solution again. The process is called salting out. 3. The salting out process occurs because sodium chloride reduces the solubility of soap in water and causes it to be precipitated. 4. The precautionary step in this experiment is to control the flame of the Bunsen burner. This is because boiling is mixture of palm oil with sodium hydroxide solution produces a lot of froth. Conclusion : soaps can be prepared from vegetable oil and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution by saponification.

4. Definition of detergent and examples of detergent Detergents are synthetic cleaning agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Sodium alkyl sulphate and sodium lauryl sulphate are examples of detergent. 5. Preparation of detergent The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate

step 1 : reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid long chain alcohol + concentrated sulphuric acid hydrogen sulphate + water alkyl

step 2 : neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution alkyl hydrogen sulphate + sodium hydroxide sulphate + water sodium alkyl

The detergent, sodium lauryl sulphate

step 1 : preparation of lauryl hydrogen sulphate lauryl alcohol + sulphuric acid lauryl hydrogen sulphate + water

step 2 : preparation of sodium lauryl sulphate

lauryl hydrogen sulphate + sodium hydroxide sulphate + water solution sodium lauryl

6. The cleansing action of soap and detergent The ionic head (negatively-charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oil The long hudrocarbon tail (neural) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oil

STEP 1 ACTION OF SOAP ON DIRT When soap or detergent is mixed with water, it lowers the surface tension of water and wets the dirty surface The negatively-charged heads of soap or detergent ions dissolve in water (hydrophilic)

The hydrocarbon tails of soap or detergent ions dissolve in the layer of grease (hydrophobic)

STEP 2 DIRT BEING SURROUNDED BY SOAP/DETERGENT IONS

if the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to lift off the surface.

STEP 3 LIFTING DIRTH FROM CLOTH

on further agitation during waashing, the greasy dirth dirt lifted from the surface since the density of grease is less than water.

STEP 4 EMULSIFYING DIRT IN WATER

when the water is shaken, the grease will be emulsified when it breaks into smaller droplets

these greasy droplets repel one another because they carry the same charge. as a result, the grease is suspended in the solution

when the cloth is rinsed with water, the droplets will carried away.

7. The effectiveness of cleansing action of soap and detergent in hard water. SOAPS Soaps are ineffective and hard water or acidic water because the formation of precipitates that are insoluble in water Soaps react with Mg2+ and Ca2+ in hard water to form scum (insoluble salt) biodegrable DETERGENTS Detergents are effective in both hard water and acidic water because no scum is formed Detergents cause water pollution Detergents with straight hydrocarbon chains are biodegrable

antiseptics kill microorganisms that causes diseases or odours.

biological enzymes to brake down fat and protein molecules. the fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.

builders to soften hard water. to enchances the cleaning efficiency of the detergent.

brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter.

DETERGENT ADDITIVES

bleaches whitening agents remove coloured stains sodium perborate decomposes in hot water which is responsible for the whitening action.

drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powder form is always in a dry condition.

stabilisers tp prevent the formation of foam which is excess, affects the perfomance of automatic washing machines.

fragrances to make clothes smell fresh and clean

8. Labels from different cleansing agents Soap : May Sodium palmate Soap : lux Sodium palm kernelate

Shampoo : rejoice Ammonium lauryl sulfate

Toothpaste : colgate Sodium lauryl sulfate

Food Additives

purposes of using food additives

making food last longer by preventing the growth of microorganism

restoring the colour of food destroyed during food processing.

adding colouring to food so as to make the food look fresher, more interesting or more appetisting.

making food last longer by preventing the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air

making food taste or smell better

improving the texture of food and to prevent food from becoming liqiud

2. The types of food additives, their respective examples and functions Type of food additives Preservative Sodium nitrate Benzoic acid Sulphur dioxide Antioxidants Ascorbic acid Citric acid Sodium citrate Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Aspartame Stabilisers and thickening agent Acacia Gelatine Dyes azo Uses To retard or to prevent the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, mould, or fungus so that the food can be stored last longer period. Salt, sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and make the food taste better. To prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.

To bring out the flavours or to enhance the tastes of food. To make them taste better To improve the texture and the blending of food To enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form an emulsion. To thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from liquefying. To give them colour so as to improve their appearance

3. Labels from different food showing the list of ingredients found in them Artificial colour (E102) : tartrazine (dye)

Citric acid : antioxidants

Soya lecithin : stabilizer

Artificial colour (E122) : jerry red

Artificial colour (E133) : caramel

Sulphur dioxide : as bleaches and antioxidants to prevent browninh in fruit juices

Artificial colour (E110) : yellow-orange (dye)

Potassium sorbate : preservative

Sodium citrate : antioxidants

Artificial colour (E129) : allura red AC

Monosodium glutamate : flavouring agents

Sodium aluminium silicate : anti-caking agent

4. The disadvantages of using food additives Allergy Giddiness, chest pain, difficulty in breathing blue baby syndrome Cancer Brain damage Hyperactivity Sodium sulphate, BHA and BHT, MSG, Yellow No.5 MSG Sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite Carcinogens Nitrites Tartrazine

Medicine
1) The examples of traditional medicines, their sources and uses Medicines Garlic Ginger Sources Corn Rhizome (horizontal underground stem) Lemon grass Tongkat ali Stem/leaves Roots Uses For preventing flu or asthma attacks For reducing high blood pressure For treating stomach pain due to wind in the stomach For supplying heat energy to keep the body warm For preventing flu attack For treating itchy skin For treating burns (scalding) on the skin For treating boils or abscesses on the skin For preventing flu attacks For treating skin diseases For treating malaria For preventing muscle cramps As a tonic to improve the overall health of human beings For increasing energy, endurance and reducing fatigue Has antibacterial and antifungal properties For treating coughs As a tonic for after birth and general health

Aloe vera Lemon (lime)

Leaves Fruits

Quinine Ginseng

Bark of cinchona tree Roots

2) The types of modern medicines, their respective examples and functions Medicines Analgesics Antibiotics Psychotherapeutic drugs Examples Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine Penicillin, streptomycin Stimulant, antidepressant and antipsychotic Functions Relieve pain Destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganisms For treating mental or emotional illnesses

3) i) side effects of traditional medicine Medicine Quinine Kava-kava Side effects Hearing loss Liver damage

ii) side effects of modern medicine medicines Aspirin Amphetamine Side effects bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is very acidic allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks people who abuse it are excitable and talkative psychologically addictive, heat attack anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behaviour, decrease appetite emlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands addiction allergic reaction death to people who ate allergic to it nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes, fever loss of hearing following long-term us addition addition headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation tremor and restlessness sedation (make people calmer or make people sleepy )

Codeine Penicillin Streptomycin Stimulant Antidepressant Antipsychotic drug

4) the correct usage of modern and traditional medicines in taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special diet should be followed, what are the side effects and what storage conditions are needed . 5) i) the drugs that are normally abused : nicotine, alcohol, hashish, marijuana, heroin and opium. ii) reasons why teenagers take drugs : stress, social acceptance, low self-esteem, curiosity and self-medication iii) the side effects of these drugs on health : nicotine : increased blood pressure, heart rate, chronic lung disease, cardiovascular disease and stroke alcohol : drowsiness, slurred speech, nausea, emotional volatility and loss of coordination hashish & marijuana : increased heart rate, appetite, impaired learning, anxiety, panic attacks, psychosis, cough, frequent respiratory infections, possible mental health decline and addiction. Heroin & opium : nausea, sedation, feeling of heaviness in the body, slowed or arrested breathing, constipation, endocarditis, hepatitis , HIV, addiction and fatal overdose. iv) the impact of drug abuse on our society : drug abuse causes multiple problems for countries and communities. The medical and psychological effects are very obvious. Addicts cannot function as normal members of society. They neglect or abuse their families, and eventually require expensive treatment or hospitalization. The second effect is on crime. Huge police

resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing. Criminal gangs and mafia underworlds develop with the money from drugs. v) ways to prevent the drug abuse : the menace of drugs can be fought education is the first battle. Children need to be told at home and in school about drugs. People need to be aware of the effects so that they can make avoid this problem. A second approach is to increase police man power and powers to stop dealers and to enforce the law. However the main target should be the user. Families and counselors need to talk to children and help them to Jobs are needed to give people a role in society.

chemistry assignment Chemicals for Comsumer

Written by : Nurul Atiqah bt Zulkifli