Essay Writing

Essay Writing
Introduction
Essay writing involves expressing ones views and interpretations in relation to a specified subject area, and this clearly cannot be done in accordance with a fixed or universally applicable formula. Yet we would, I think, all agree that an essay can be judged in terms of what an informed reader can 'get out of it' and also that a 'good essay is one which such a reader will find interesting, informative and easy to understand. If this is accepted it becomes possible to articulate some general features of an essay which will make it more interesting, informative and accessible. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Address the question or title; Follow a structured and sign-posted sequence; Demonstrate a familiarity with relevant literature; Present an analysis and evaluation of the ideas and theories discussed; Reveal internal integration and coherence; Use references and examples to support its claims and arguments; Detail references and sources and bibliography/referencing sections.

Part 1: Writing an Essay

Addressing the Question/Title

An essay should address what is meant by the title/question to which it refers. It should, in other words inform the reader of the issues of which are to be considered and the manner in which they are to be related. This may, for example, be achieved by describing previous definitions of, or approaches to, a problem and/of by offering the writers own interpretation of the issue/s. For Example, on approach to writing an essay entitled 'Is intelligence a valid concept for the educational psychologist' could be introduced as follows:
'The concept of intelligence has been used differently by different psychologists, so that, the very meaning of the term has become a matter of debate. Most noticeable, perhaps, is the divergence of definitions and research programmes adopted by, on one hand, psychometricians, such as Spearman, Burt and Eysenck, and, on the other developmentalists such as Bruner and Piaget... In this essay I shall consider the applicability of these alternative perspectives on 'Intelligence' to the process of education.'

Essay Writing
Such an introduction serves to 'frame' the issues for the reader so that she/he knows what the essay will be about. Having thus 'framed' the content of the essay the writer must ensure that the arguments and evidence she/he presents are directly relevant to the issues as she/he has interpreted them. Briefly then, the essay must outline the issue, which the writer sees as pertinent to the title and must then proceed to present material, which can be clearly demonstrated to be relevant to those issues.

Following a Standard and Sign-posted Sequence

The material in an essay should be seen to be related to the unfolding of the central argument or discussion. The order in which material is presented will, therefore, depend upon the development of the overall structure with earlier sections preparing the ground for later connections and conclusions. This development should be 'sign-posted' for while it may be obvious to the writer it may be far from clear to the reader. For example:
'Having discussed the two different notions of 'ability' which underline the psychometric and developmental approach to intelligence, I shall now consider the implications of each for the organisation of an 'educational system'.

Such 'sign-posting' informs the reader of the significance of what has just been said and prepares her/him for what is to come. Of course the organisation of an essay in terms of such a structured sequence is made a lot easier if the writer begins by spelling out how she/he intends to address the question/title. It is essential, therefore, that before beginning the essayist considers' the question/title in detail and constructs a plan of the points, connections and conclusions she/he wishes to make.

Demonstrating Familiarity with the Literature

An essay should aim to briefly review a number of the major works or positions, which are directly relevant to the topic under discussion. This will serve to inform the reader of the previous research and analyses upon which the writer is basing her/his case. This should not take the form of endless quotations or listings of other people's ideas, but rather concise descriptions (in the essayist's own words) of the approaches adopted by other workers in the field. With regard to the essay on intelligence and educational psychology for example, it would seem almost inevitable that the contributions made by Binet, Burt and Bruner would be relevant at some stage or another. A knowledge of the relevant literature can, of course, only be acquired by reading that literature and an essay will often reveal just how familiar the essayist is with her/his chosen topic.

Presenting and Analysis and Evaluation of the Ideas and Theories Discussed
An essay should, however, do more than report on previous work in the area. It should attempt to relate the various positions reviewed both to one another and to the writer's own position on the issues under discussion. This involves articulating the similarities and differences between different writers perspectives and evaluating them in terms of a set of criteria arising out of me essayist's own discussion. The essayist must, in other words, develop her/his own ideas as she/he explores the topic and judge other writers' approaches in terms of developed arguments. This is often the distinguishing feature of a very 'good' essay. An example of this kind of evaluation in terms of (previously) developed arguments is given below:

Essay Writing
'I have argued that where a conventional view of education (as knowledge transference) is adopted 'intelligence tests' can be used as a convenient means of selection. It also follows, however, that within the alternative of education as a process of cognitive development, these tests are of little or no value.'

Reveal Internal Coherence and Integration

Each part of the essay should relate to the overall theme being expounded. If the essay persistently addresses itself to the title and follows a structured sequence this should be virtually assured, but it is important mat the essayist considers how the implications of what she/he says at any particular point reflect on her/his discussion as a whole. In other words, she/he should ensure that the implications of one piece of analysis are carried forward to later discussions and that there are not implicit, or explicit, contradictions or disjunctions between different parts of the essays. It would, for example, be confusing for the reader if an essayist were to conclude at one point that "intelligence is too broad a concept to be of use to the psychologist" and then go on to argue that the "Welchler Adult Intelligence Scale is their most accurate measure of intelligence in individuals of sixteen years and above". Of course it would be consistent to argue that the W.A.I.S. subscales were accurate measures of specific abilities, but the earlier rejection of its assessment which take 'its' existence for granted.

Use References and Examples to Support Arguments

It is important that where the essayist is not stating her/his own opinions or evaluations she/he should inform the reader of the source of his propositions by noting references. By referencing the essay in this way the writer reveals how her/his position relates to the work of other researchers in the field. For example: It has been argued that 'X' is 'Y' (Brown. 1974; Smith, 1982) Unreferenced statements such as 'psychologists generally think ....;' 'evidence has shown that ....;' 'most people accept that....' should be strictly avoided as they convey a sense of vagueness about the state of research and opinion within the discipline. It is also helpful if the essayist illustrates her/his general statement by means of particular examples. For example:
'It has been pointed out that some of the items included in intelligence tests draw upon culturespecific knowledge. The following examples taken from the Welchsler Intelligence Scale for Children reveal how a knowledge of particular literature'may be requested: 'Who wrote Hamlet?;' 'Who wrote the Iliad?' (Kagan and Lang, 1978).

Detail References and Sources

A reference section details the sources you have mentioned in your essay and allows the reader to follow up what you say. It is important to include all the references you use in the essay and to complete them so that someone less familiar with the literature than yourself can access your sources. A bibliography section will include books and papers you have found useful but not necessarily mentioned. This is not, however, necessary for most essays.