APPLICATIONS OF IONISING RADIATION IN MEDICINE, INDUSTRY AND RESEARCH

Dr. Avinash U. Sonawane Head, Industrial Safety Section and Diagnostic Radiology Group Radiological Safety Division Atomic Energy Regulatory Board ausonawane@aerb.gov.in

Contents

What is ionising radiation? Applications Medical, Industrial, Research Radiation facilities and sources in India Radiation protection standards Radiation safety Biological effects of radiation Regulatory framework Conclusion

What is Ionising Radiation?

Radiation is said to be ionising when it has enough energy to eject one or more electrons from the atoms or molecules in the irradiated medium Produces ion pair The ions will upset chemical bond Can result in cell damage by affecting the DNA

Radiation - Natural Part of Our Lives

Fallout from Weapon Testing

Extra Cosmic Rays from Air Travel

Dental X Rays Nuclear Power Plants

Cosmic Rays

Radon & Daughters

Television Luminous Wristwatch Medical X Rays

Terrestrial Radiation

Buried RadioActive Waste

Where do you get these radiation from?

X rays (Low energy) :

Conventional X-ray tube & Bremsstrahlung production

Gamma rays :
From Radioactive Isotopes (Radioactivity)

High energy x-rays

Linear accelerator (Bremsstrahlung -production)

High energy Electrons

Linear Accelerator Thermionic emission and acceleration.

Applications of Radiation Sources

Medical Industrial
Gamma Radiation Processing Plants (GRPPs)

Research

Radiotherapy & Brachytherapy

Agriculture

Nuclear Medicine

Industrial Radiography

Institutional Research

Diagnostic Radiology

Nucleonic Gauge/ Oil Well Logging/ Gamma scanning of process columns

Consumer Products

Radiation facilities and Sources in India

17 Gamma Irradiators. ( 4 under construction) 297 Radiation Therapy Centers and 254 Radiotherapy Machines. 186 Nuclear Medicine Laboratories. Over 500 Radioimmunoassay Centers. 426 Industrial Radiography Organizations Handling 1846 Sources. 1400 Nucleonic Process Control Installations Handling almost 8500 Sources. 1300 Academic and Research Organizations. ~45000 Diagnostic Medical X-ray Installations. ~ 3500 CT scan units and 400 IR installations

Medical Uses of Radiation

Radiation Therapy

Diagnostic Radiology Nuclear Medicine

Radiation Therapy

Radiation Therapy - Aim

The goal of radiation therapy is to kill the cancer cells with as little risk as possible to normal cells

Radiation Therapy

Radiotherapy - techniques

Linear Accelerators (X-ray or electrons) Teletherapy (External Sealed Source)

Traditional Stereotactic Radiosurgery(SRS), SRT Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT) Image Guided Radiotherapy (IGRT) Volumetric Modulated Arc Therapy (VMAT) Proton therapy Low Dose Rate (LDR) High Dose Rate (HDR) Intravascular (IVB) Intraoperative

Brachytherapy (Internal Sealed Source)

Radiation Therapy

Radiotherapy Machine

Radiation Therapy

Teletherapy

Source Head

Radiation Therapy

Teletherapy Source
Capsule
(usually 5,000-6,000 Ci)

18 mm

Cobalt-60 Source Pellets

Radiation Therapy

Low Dose Brachytherapy Sources

Radiation Therapy

High Dose Remote Afterloading (HDR)

DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY

Diagnostic Radiology

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, German Physicist Nov 8, 1895 First Noble prize in Physics in 1901

Diagnostic Radiology

Diagnostic Radiology

AIM- Optimum Image quality with minimum dose to

the Patient

Screen Film Radiography Fluoroscopy ( Conventional / IIT /Digital detectors) Image Quality Computed Tomography Mammography Interventional Radiology (Cath lab) Radiation Dose

Diagnostic Radiology

CR film-Computed Radiography

Diagnostic Radiology

Computed Tomography

Shared noble prize in medicine in 1979

G.N. Hounsfield

A.M. Cormack

Diagnostic Radiology

Construction of CT-scanner

Diagnostic Radiology

Continuous fluoroscopy

Cine Radiography

Diagnostic Radiology

Cardiac CT

Diagnostic Radiology

Interventional Radiology

Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories (cath lab) C-arm fluoroscopy/radiography equipment Used mainly for cardiovascular procedures involving catheterization Even used for all orthopedic surgery and other interventional applications. Digital Subtraction Angiography IAEA has published safety report for optimization of doses in interventional radiology procedures

Diagnostic Radiology

Lengthy and complex procedures Operating staff very close to the patient Prolonged exposure time No shielding Many interventionists are not aware of the potential for injury from procedures, their occurrence or the simple methods for decreasing their incidence utilizing dose control strategies. Many patients are not being counseled on the radiation risks, nor followed up for the onset of injury, when radiation doses from difficult procedures may lead to injury.

Diagnostic Radiology

Examples of dose values

Diagnostic Radiology

Mammography

Diagnostic Radiology

Other Applications

Dental X-ray Orthopantomography Bone Densitometry

Diagnostic Radiology

DOSE in Diagnostic Radiology (mGy)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Lumbar spine Abdomen Hip Joint Chest Dental Skull

upto 40 10 10 0.4 7 5

Nuclear Medicine

NUCEAR MEDICINE
What is nuclear medicine:

is a medical specialty that uses radioactive materials to both diagnose the body and treat disease;
documents organ function and structure; uses relatively small amounts of radioactive materials (radiopharmaceuticals) which are substances that are localized in specific organs, bones, or tissues.

Nuclear Medicine

diagnosis and treatment of hyperthyroidism; cardiac stress tests to analyze heart function; bone scans for metastatic growths; lung scans for blood clots; kidney, liver and gall bladder procedures to diagnose abnormal function or blockages.

Nuclear Medicine

Diagnosis Medicine Nuclear Medicine Therapy Nuclear medicine uses unsealed radioactive substances for in-vitro/ in-vivo diagnosis Radiopharmaceuticals

Radiopharmaceuticals

Oral

Injections

Capsule

Nuclear Medicine

Diagnosis
Molecular Imaging using PET radioisotopes
Primary diagnosis Cancer staging Assessment of response to therapy

Inflammation Imaging

Therapy

Targeted nuclide therapy

Alpha radionuclides Radiolabeled antibodies (beta isotopes) for treatment of lymphomas Octreotides for treatment of neuro endocrine tumors

Nuclear Medicine

Dose Administration
99mTc

or others
131I

Nuclear Medicine

SPECT

Nuclear Medicine

Medical Cyclotrons
(PET Tracer production systems)

GE PETtrace System 16.4 MeV Protons and 8.4 MeV Deuterons

11C, 13N, 15O

GE MINItrace System 10 MeV Protons

11C, 13N, 15O

and 18F

and 18F

Nuclear Medicine

Nuclear Medicine Studies

Heart Adrenals Thyroid Liver

Skeleton

Brain

Kidney

Lungs

Spleen

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Industrial Applications

Gamma Radiation Processing Plants (GRAPP) /Gamma Irradiators Industrial Radiography Nucleonic Gauges Oil Well Logging Consumer Products Tracer Studies

GRAPP

Applications of GRAPP

Sterilization of medical products (Sterility Assurance Level 10-6)

Surgical Disposables : Bandages, Dressing, Delivery kits etc. Metallic Products : Surgical Blades, Needles, Aluminum caps Plastic & Rubber Items: Petri-dish, Centrifuge Tube, Rubber Gloves, Wrap caovers etc. Pharmaceuticals: Silver Sulphadiazene Cream, Geletine capsule, Opthalmic preparation, Skin oinments Ayurvedic Products : Herbs, Raw Material, Medicines

GRAPP

Applications of GRAPP

Food processing
Inhibition of sprouting Disinfestations Microbial decontamination Delay in ripening

Natural rubber latex vulcanization Waste water treatment Coloring of diamonds & gemstones Polymer modifications- cross linking

GRAPP

Components of Gamma Irradiator

Radiation Sources : Co-60 (1000 TBq and more)

GRAPP

GRAPP

Technological Conditions for Radiation Processing of Food products

Sr. No. 01 Name of Food Purpose of radiation processing Dose (kGy) Min. Max. 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.03 0,.25 0.09 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.75

Onion Potato Ginger, Shallots, Garlic Mango

Sprout Inhibition

02

Shelf life extension/quarantine treatment

03

Rice Semolina, sooji, rawa, atta, maida Raising, dried figs, Dried Dates Meat & Meat Products Frozen sea-foods
Spices

Disinfestations

0.25 0.25 0.25

1.0 1.0 0.75

04

Shelf life extension/ pathogen control

2.5

4.0

05

Microbial Decontamination

6.0

14.0

GRAPP

Advantage of Radiation Processing of Food

Physical Non-additive Process causing minimal changes in food Highly effective Eco-friendly and residue-free process Applied to pre-packed food Preserves food in natural form Cold Process Safe to Workers

GRAPP

Food Irradiation

Unirradiated Irradiated

GRAPP

Disinfestation of Legumes & Pulses

GRAPP

Other Applications

Polymer degradation Gems Semiconductors Art objects

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

Industrial Radiography

Industrial Radiography

key tool in non-destructive testing (NDT) widespread application

Developed film

Incident radiation

Industrial Radiography

Industrial Radiography

Industrial Radiography

Radiography Cameras

Industrial Radiography

Radiography X-Ray Unit Industrial X-ray Machine

Nucleonic Gauges

Nucleonic Gauges

Nucleonic Gauges - Applications

The on-line, non-contact, non-destructive measurement and monitoring of following parameters:

Level Density Thickness Moisture Elemental Analysis Static Elimination Well Logging etc.

Nucleonic Gauges

Applied physical effects

Radiation transmission Radiation backscattering Radiation absorption Excitation of characteristic X-rays

Nucleonic Gauges

Principle of nucleonic gauges: transmission and backscattering methods

(beta, gamma and neutron)

Detector
Detector

Radiation source

Figure 1.1: Transmission method

Figure 1.2: Bakcscattering method

Radioactive source

Nucleonic Gauges

Continuous level gauge

Detector

Linear radioactive source

Electronic system

Figure : Continuous level gauge

Nucleonic Gauges

Level gauges

For small containers e.g. drink cans, low energy gamma radiation may be used (241Am) or electrically generated x-rays.

Am-241 level gauge

Nucleonic Gauges

Moisture gauging

Nucleonic Gauges

Density gauge

Typical source: 1 GBq Cs-137

Nucleonic Gauges

Asphalt Thickness Gauge

Nucleonic Gauges

Well Logging

USES:
Oil Exploration Field Studies

TYPES:
Gamma Logging Gamma-Gamma Logging Neutron Logging Tracer Studies Logging While Drilling

Nucleonic Gauges

Well Logging Measurement while Drilling (MWD)

Oil Exploration

Nucleonic Gauges

Nucleonic Gauges

Radiotracer Technology

Enhance quality, productivity, reliability and safety Improve efficiency Reduce production down-time Make workers performance easier Reduce industrial pollution Save money

Radiotracer applications for industrial trouble shooting, process optimization and environmental pollution control

Nucleonic Gauges

Investigation on various complex industrial systems in petroleum refineries, coal gasifiers etc to optimise process parameters Computer aided radioactive particle tracking for mapping of flow velocities in industrial systems Evaluating efficacy of waste stabilization ponds, sewage treatment plants etc Applications in ports and harbour development and management Validation of mathematical models of various hydrological and industrial systems

Gamma Column Scanning

Provides clear internal details

Nucleonic Gauges

Co-60

Detector

Co-60 and Cs-137 radioisotope sealed sources of activity 10 70 mCi

Gamma ray Column Scanner

Agriculture

Nuclear techniques in Agricultural & Biological Applications

Neutron induced mutations to produce genotypes with high yield, improved quality, early or late maturity, tolerance to disease & pests.
Induction and isolation of mutant varieties in different crops, plants and ornamentals. P32 labeled bimolecules for advanced work in genetic engineering Studies to confirm the Radiation Induced growth stimulation Study of Post irradiation effects to enhance shelf life of agro products

Agriculture

Trombay Rice variety Hari

Consumer Products

Consumer Products

Gas mantles: thorium Lamp starters: thorium Inspection of baggage: X-ray Painted dials: Radioactive compounds Television: Low energy X-ray Smoke detectors: Radioisotope

Research

Research Applications

Major Radioisotopes : Co-57,Co-60,Cs-137,C-14,Am-241,Cd109,Fe-55,Zn-65,Na-22,Ba-133,Sr-90,Pu-238,Eu-152,Po-210,Cf252,Ra-226,Pm-147,Bi-207,Ca-45,Mn-54,Al-26,Ni-63,Hf-181,Cl36,Pb-210,Tl-204,Am-Be neutron sources Activity Ranges : Ci- few mCi

Research

Major Research application of different radioisotopes

Co-57 :Used as a source for Mossbauer Spectroscopy (a spectroscopic technique based on the recoil free absorption & emission of gamma rays) & one of the sources for XRF. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays.)etc Co-60 : As a gamma reference source for various radiation monitors and other nuclear physics experiments. Cs-137 : As a gamma reference source for various radiation monitors, tomographic studies of materials etc

Research

C-14 : For carbon dating(a radiometric dating technique uses to determine the ages of carbonaceous materials) and other bio technological researches Am-241 : As an alpha reference source, smoke detectors etc Cd-109 : as a gamma reference source, for XRF etc Fe-55: as a gamma reference source, for XRF etc Zn-65:as a tracer in agriculture studies(eg Plant utilisation of zinc nutrients), as a reference source Na-22:for various biotechnological research(eg: autoradiography of rat kidney slices)

Research

Ba-133 :as a gamma reference source in laboratories Sr-90/Y-90:as a beta reference source, as an oxygen eliminator in electron tubes etc Pu-238:as a alpha reference source in, in thermoelectric generators etc Eu-152:tomographic studies, various nuclear physics experiments etc Po-210:as alpha reference in laboratory Cf-252: For neuron activation analysis to detect trace amounts of elements in samples, neutron radiography etc Ra-226:as an alpha reference source

Research

Pm-147:as a beta reference source, in nuclear battery etc Bi-207:as a gamma reference source, in nuclear physics experiments etc Ca-45 : as a beta reference source, various biotechnological researches etc Al-26: radiometric dating(using the study the natural abundance of Mg-26 is the daughter product of Al-26), various biotechnological studies etc Ni-63 : As a micro irradiator( a microelectrode with a radioactive element of high flux deposited on its surface),as a beta reference etc

Research

Hf-181 : as a beta reference source Cl-36 :dating of water, ice and sediments, in geological sciences , as beta reference source etc Pb-210 : to determine the accumulation rate of sediments in lakes, ocean etc, as a beta reference source etc Tl-204 : as a beta reference source Am-Be Neutron sources : Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis, light element analysis via neutron deflection, neutron fluence spectrometry etc

Radiation Protection Standards

To prevent deterministic effects

To reduce the probability of stochastic risk at an acceptable level

System of Dose Limitation

Justification of practice

Net benefit positive

Optimization of protection ALARA Dose limitation Never to exceed Dose Limits

Dose Limits
Part of the body Whole body (Effective dose) Occupational Exposure 20 mSv/year averaged over 5 consecutive years; 30 mSv in any single year Public Exposure 1 mSv/y

Lens of eyes (Equivalent dose) Skin (Equivalent dose) Extremities (Hands and Feet) Equivalent dose

150 mSv in a year

15 mSv/y

500 mSv in a year

50 mSv/y

500 mSv in a year

Radiation Safety
Total Radiation Safety is achieved by Built-in safety
combined with

Operational Safety

Built-in Radiation Safety

Sources - Standards Equipment Shielding and design Installation Siting, shielding & design Transport package design

Operational radiation safety

Standard Operating Procedures Implementation of AERB Safety Codes, Standards, Guides and Manuals Emergency response plans & Preparedness Training Programs Periodic awareness programs, seminars, workshops etc.

Biological effects of ionizing radiation

Deterministic occurs beyond a threshold dose severity of the effect increases with increase in dose. - chromosome aberrations, radiation sickness
Stochastic Statistical/probabilistic in natureNo threshold dose Chance for occurrence increases with increase in dose cancer, genetic effects.

Whole body Exposure (Acute)

Dose Range Immediate Effect

Less than 0.1 Gy

Above 0.1 Gy

No detectable effect
Chromosome aberrations detectable

Above 0.5 Gy
Above 1 Gy 3 5 Gy 5 10 Gy

Transient reduction in WBC count

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea (NVD) Lethal Dose (LD50/60) Severity of above effects Almost 100% death (at higher dose)

Local Irradiation (Acute)

Dose Range 0.15 Gy Region Testes Effect Temporary Sterility

3.5 - 6.0 Gy
1.5 - 2 Gy 2.5 - 6 Gy

Testes
Ovaries Ovaries

Permanent Sterility
Temporary Sterility Permanent Sterility

3 Gy 5 Gy 6 Gy 10 -20 Gy

Hair follicles Eye Skin Skin

Temporary Epilation Cataract (after 5-10 yrs) Skin Erythema Burns, Blisters, Wounds, Necrosis, Permanent hair loss

Structure of the Legal Framework

Principal requirements

Legislation Atomic Energy Act 1962

Detailed requirements

Regulations
AE(RP)R, 2004

Practice specific requirements or guidance

Codes of practice
Practice Specific

Rules Issued Under The Act

Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004

Atomic Energy (Working of Mines, Minerals and Handling of Prescribed Substances) Rules, 1984 Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987 Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996

Atomic Energy (Control of Irradiation of Food) Rules, 1996

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

AERB constituted in 1983. The mission of the Board is to ensure that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health and the environment. Chairman, AERB is the Competent Authority for radiation protection in India.

Licence in accordance with AE(RP)R, 2004 from AERB is mandatory requirement for the procurement and use of radiation sources in India.

Conclusions

The applications of ionising radiation for human welfare are indispensable and are well established. The multifarious applications of ionising radiation and the associated nuclear technology in various fields continues to grow rapidly all over the world for immense societal benefits. We must remember all the time that radiation sources are used, transported and stored with due respect and in accordance with the prescribed regulatory requirements. It must be realized that radiation is one of the hazardous material and may case harm if not handled judiciously. In case of radiation injuries to exposed individual, his counseling, reassurance, removal of misconcepts of radiation effects and radiation phobia from his mind shall be taken utmost care to allay fear about radiation hazards.

 The journey of development of radiation technology & its applications continues...