Servicing and Maintenance

CT 22
Servicing and Maintenance
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CONTENTS
LESSON I: Direct Memory Access Channels
What is DMA . . . . . . . .
DMA Channel Function and Operation . . . . . .
Why DMA Channels were invented for data transfer . . .

Third-Party and First-Party DMA (Bus Mastering) . . .
Limitations of Standard DMA . . . . .

DMA Controllers . . . . . . .
DMA Channels and the System Bus

DMA Request (DRQ) and DMA Acknowledgement (DACK) . .
DMA Multiple Devices and Conflicts . . . . .
Summary of DMA Channels and their Typical Uses . . .

DMA Channels Details by Number . . . . . . .
DMA0 . . . . . . . .
DMA1 . . . . . . . .
DMA2 . . . . . . . .
DMA3 . . . . . . . .
DMA4 . . . . . . .
DMA5 . . . . . . .
DMA6 . . . . . . .
DMA7 . . . . . . .
LESSON II: File and Directory Structure

Understanding the file structure of the computer . . . . .
Internal Directory Structure . . . . . . .

Root Directory and Regular Directories . . . . .
LESSON III: I/O Addresses

Memory Mapped I/O . . . . . . . .
I/O Address Space Width . . . . . . . .
I/O Address Multiple Devices and Conflicts . . . .
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I/O Address Details by Number . . . . . . .
I/O Address Summary Map . . . . . . .
LESSON IV: Interrupt

Interrupt Function and Operation
Why interrupts Are Used to Process Information . .
Interrupt Controllers . . . . . .
IRQ Lines and the system Bus . . . . .
Interrupt Priority . . . . . .
Non-Maskable Interrupts (NMI) . . . . .
Interrupts, Multiple Devices and Conflicts . . .
Summary of IRQs and their Typical Uses . . .
IRQ Details by Number . . . . . . . .
IRQ0 . . . . . . . .
IRQ1 . . . . . . . .
IRQ2 . . . . . . . .
IRQ3 . . . . . . . .
IRQ4 . . . . . . . .
IRQ5 . . . . . . . .
IRQ6 . . . . . . . .
IRQ7 . . . . . . . .
IRQ8 . . . . . . . .
IRQ9 . . . . . . . .
IRQ10 . . . . . . . .
IRQ11 . . . . . . . .
IRQ12 . . . . . . . .
IRQ13 . . . . . . . .
IRQ14 . . . . . . . .
IRQ15 . . . . . . . .
IRQ16 . . . . . . . .
LESSON V: Keyboard and Mouse Maintenance

Keyboard Maintenance . . . . . . . .
Mouse Maintenance . . . . . . . .
LESSON VI: PC Assembly

PC Assembly Procedure . . . . . . . .
Component Gathering and Inspector Procedure . .

(Gathering and Inspect Components and Tools)
System Case Cover Removal Procedure . . . .
(Remove Cover from System Case)
System Case Preparation Procedure . . . . .
(Prepare System Case for Assembly)
System Layout Planning Procedure . . . .
(Plan System Layout)

Floppy Disk Drive Physical Installation Procedure . . .
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(Install Floppy Disk Drive)
IDE/ATA Device Configuration Procedure . . . .
(Configure Hard Disk Drive and CD ROM Drive)

Hard Disk Drive Physical Installation Procedure . . .
(Install Hard Disk Drive)
CR-ROM Drive Physical Installation Procedure . . .
(Install CD-ROM Drive)
Motherboard Configuration Procedure . . . .
(Configure Motherboard)
Processor Physical Installation Procedure . . . .
(Install Processor)
Heat Sink Physical Installation Procedure . . . .
(Install Heat sink)

Memory Module Physical Installation Procedure . . .
(Install Memory Module)
Motherboard Physical Installation Procedure . . . .
(Configure Installation)
I/O Port Connector Physical Installation Procedure (AT only) . .
(Install I/O Connector)
Motherboard and Case Connection Procedure . . .
(Connect Motherboard and Case)
Floppy Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . .
(Connect Floppy Disk Drive to Motherboard)
Hard Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . .
(Connect Hard Disk Drive to the motherboard)
CR-ROM Drive Connection Procedure . . . .
(Connect CD-ROM Drive to the motherboard)
Video Card Physical Installation Procedure . . . .
(Install Video Card)
Post-Assembly Inspection Procedure . . . .
(Perform Post-assembly inspection)
External Peripheral Connection Procedure . . . .
(Connect Peripheral devices)
Post-Assembly Initial Boot Procedure . . . .
(Perform Initial Boot)
Safe BIOS Set-Up Procedure . . . . . .
(Perform Initial BIOS set-up)

Post-Assembly Initial Test Procedure . . . .
(Perform initial system test)
Additional Peripheral Installation . . . . .
(Install additional peripheral)

Hard Disk Partitioning and Formatting Procedure . . .
(Partition and Format Hard Disk)

CD-ROM Driver Installation Procedure. . . . .
(Install CD-ROM Driver)
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Operating System Installation Procedure . . . .
(Install the Operating System)

Assembly Completion Procedure . . . . .
(Complete Assembly)
System Documentation Procedure . . . . .
(Document System)
LESSON VII: PC Configuration

System Layout Planning Procedure . . . . . .
Case Floor Relocation Procedure . . . . . . .
Floppy Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . . . .
Hard Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . . .
CD-ROM Drive Connection Procedure . . . . . .

IDE/ATA Device Configuration Procedure . . . . . .
Motherboard Configuration Procedure . . . . . .
Motherboard and Case Connection Procedure. . . . . .

External Peripheral Connection Procedure . . . . . .
LESSON VIII: Induction to Troubleshooting Techniques

Troubleshooting and Your Mental State . . . . . .
Steps to Take First When Troubleshooting. . . . . .

Diagnostic Techniques . . . . . . . .
Lesson I: (What is DMA)

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Direct Memory Access
Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a capability provided by some computer bus architectures
that allows data to be sent directly from an attached device (such as a disk drive) to the
memory on the computer's motherboard. The microprocessor is freed from involvement with
the data transfer, thus speeding up overall computer operation.
Usually a specified portion of memory is designated as an area to be used for direct memory
access. In the ISA bus standard, up to 16 megabytes of memory can be addressed for DMA.
The EISA and Micro Channel Architecture standards allow access to the full range of memory
addresses (assuming they're addressable with 32 bits). Peripheral Component Interconnect
accomplishes DMA by using a bus master (with the microprocessor "delegating" I/O control to
the PCI controller).
An alternative to DMA is the Programmed Input/Output (PIO) interface in which all data
transmitted between devices goes through the processor. A newer protocol for the ATA/IDE
interface is Ultra DMA, which provides a burst data transfer rate up to 33 MB (megabytes)
per second. Hard drives that come with Ultra DMA/33 also support PIO modes 1, 3, and 4,
and multiword DMA mode 2 (at 16.6 megabytes per second).
DMA Channel Function and Operation
DMA Channel Details By Number
This section lists each of the 8 DMA channels and provides a full description of what they are,
how they are normally used, and any special information that is relevant to them. The
general format for each section is as follows:
· Channel Number: The number of the DMA channel from 0 to 7.
· Bus Line: Indicates whether or not this DMA channel is available to expansion
devices on the system bus. This will say "8/16 bit" for DMA accessible by all
expansion devices, "16 bit only" for a channel available only to 16-bit cards, or "No"
for a channel reserved for use only by system devices.
· Typical Default Use: Description of the device or function that normally uses this
DMA channel in a regular modern PC.
· Other Common Uses: This is a list of other devices that commonly either use this
channel or offer the use of this channel as one of their options. This list isn't
exhaustive because there are a lot of oddball cards out there that may use unusual
DMAs.
· Description: A description of the channel and how it is used, along with any relevant
or interesting points about it or its history.
· Conflicts: A discussion of the likelihood of conflicts with this DMA channel and what
are the likely causes.
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· Why DMA Channels Were Invented for Data Transfer
As you know, the processor is the "brain" of the machine, and in many ways it can also be
likened to the conductor of an orchestra. In early machines the processor really did almost
everything. In addition to running programs it was also responsible for transferring data to
and from peripherals. Unfortunately, having the processor perform these transfers is very
inefficient, because it then is unable to do anything else.
The invention of DMA enabled the devices to cut out the "middle man", allowing the
processor to do other work and the peripherals to transfer data themselves, and leading to
increased performance. Special channels were created, along with circuitry to control them,
which allowed the transfer of information without the processor controlling every aspect of
the transfer. This circuitry is normally part of the system chipset on the motherboard.
Note that DMA channels are only on the ISA bus (and EISA and VLB, since they are
derivatives of it). PCI devices do not use standard DMA channels at all.
· Third-Party and First-Party DMA (Bus Mastering)
Standard DMA is sometimes called "third party" DMA. This refers to the fact that the system
DMA controller is actually doing the transfer (the first two parties are the sender and receiver
of the transfer). There is also a type of DMA called "first party" DMA. In this situation, the
peripheral doing the transfer actually takes control of the system bus to perform the transfer.
This is also called bus mastering.
Bus mastering provides much better performance than regular DMA because modern devices
have much smarter and faster DMA circuitry built into them than exists in the old standard
ISA DMA controller. Newer DMA modes are now available, such as Ultra DMA (mode 3 or
DMA-33) that provide for very high transfer rates.
· Limitations of Standard DMA
While the use of DMA provided a significant improvement over processor-controlled data
transfers, it too eventually reached a point where its performance became a limiting factor.
DMA on the ISA bus has been stuck at the same performance level for over 10 years. For old
10 MB XT hard disks, DMA was a top performer. For a modern 8 GB hard disk, transferring
multiple megabytes per second, DMA is insufficient.
On newer machines, disks are controlled using either programmed I/O (PIO) or first-party
DMA (bus mastering) on the PCI bus, and not using the standard ISA DMA that is used for
devices like sound cards. Hard disk transfer modes are discussed in detail here. This type of
DMA does not rely on the slow ISA DMA controllers, and allows these high-performance
devices the bandwidth they need. In fact, many of the devices that used to use DMA on the
ISA bus use bus mastering over the PCI bus for faster performance. This includes newer
high-end SCSI cards, and even network and video cards.
· DMA Controllers
Standard DMA transfers are managed by the DMA controller, built into the system chipset on
modern PCs. The original PC and XT had one of these controllers and supported 4 DMA
channels, 0 to 3.
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Starting with the IBM AT, a second DMA controller was added. Much in the way that the
second interrupt controller was cascaded with the first, the first DMA controller is cascaded to
the second. The difference is that with IRQs, the second controller is cascaded to the first,
but with DMAs the first is cascaded to the second. As a result, there are 8 DMAs, from 0 to 7,
but DMA 4 is not usable. There is no rerouting as with IRQ2 and IRQ9 here, because all of the
original DMAs (0 to 3) are still usable directly.
· DMA Channels and the System Bus
All of the DMA channels except channel 4 are accessible to devices on the ISA system bus.
Channel 4 is used to cascade the two DMA controllers together. PCI devices do not use
standard system DMA channels.
As was the case with IRQs, the second DMA controller was added when the ISA bus was
expanded to 16 bits with the creation of the AT. The lines to access these extra DMA
channels were placed on the second part of the AT slot that is used by 16-bit cards. This
means that only 16-bit cards can access DMA channels 5, 6 or 7. Unfortunately, many
devices even today are still only 8-bit cards. You can tell by looking at them and seeing that
they only use the first part of the two-part ISA bus connector on the motherboard.
· DMA Request (DRQ) and DMA Acknowledgment (DACK)
Each DMA channel is comprised of two signals: the DMA request signal (DRQ) and the DMA
acknowledgment signal (DACK). Some peripheral cards have separate jumpers for these
instead of a single DMA channel jumper. If this is the case, make sure that the DRQ and
DACK are set to the same number, otherwise the device won't work (I wonder what goes
through the minds of some peripheral card designers. :^) )
· DMA, Multiple Devices and Conflicts
Like interrupts, DMA channels are single-device resources. If two devices try to use the same
DMA channel at the same time, information will get mixed up between the two devices trying
to use it, and any number of problems can be the result. DMA channel conflicts can be very
difficult to diagnose. See here for more details on resource conflicts.
It is possible to share a DMA channel among more than one device, but only under limited
conditions. In essence, if you have two devices that you seldom use, and that you never use
simultaneously, you may be able to have them share a channel. However, this is not the
preferred method since it is much more prone to problems than just giving each device its
own resource.
One problem area with DMA channels is that most devices want to use DMA channels with
numbers 0 to 3 (on the first DMA controller). DMA channels 5 to 7 are relatively unused
because they require 16-bit cards. Considering that DMA channel 0 is never available, and
DMA 2 is used for the floppy disk controller, that doesn't leave many options. On one of my
systems I wanted to set up an ECP parallel port, a tape accelerator and a voice modem in
addition to my sound card. I ran out of DMA channels between 1 and 3 very quickly. I still
had DMA channels 6 and 7 open but could not use them because all the devices I wanted to
use were either on 8-bit cards or wouldn't support the higher numbers for software reasons.
Speaking of the ECP parallel port, this is another new area of concern regarding DMA
resource conflicts. Many people don't realize that this high-speed parallel port option requires
the use of a DMA channel. (Your BIOS setup program will usually have a setting to select the
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DMA channel, right under where you enable ECP. This should be a good hint but still a lot of
people don't notice this. :^) ) The usual default for this port is DMA 3, which is also used by
many other types of devices. The conflict resolution area of the Troubleshooting Expert can
sometimes help with these situations.
· Summary of DMA Channels and Their Typical Uses
The table below provides summary information about the 8 DMA channel numbers in a typical
PC. You may find this table useful when considering how to configure your system, or for
resolving DMA conflicts.
Typical
B u s
D e f a u l t Other Common Uses
Line?
Use
0 no Memory Refresh None
SCSI host adapters, ECP

parallel ports, tape accelerator
1 8/16-bit Sound card (low DMA)
cards, network cards, voice
modems
2 8/16-bit Floppy disk controller Tape accelerator cards
ECP parallel ports, SCSI host

adapters, tape accelerator
cards, sound card (low DMA),
3 8/16-bit None
network cards, voice modems,
hard disk controller on old
PC/XT
4 no None; cascade for DMAs 0-3 None
SCSI host adapters, network

5 16-bit only Sound card (high DMA)
cards
Sound cards (high DMA),

6 16-bit only None
network cards
Sound cards (high DMA),

7 16-bit only None
network cards
DMA Channel Details by number
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This section lists each of the 8 DMA channels and provides a full description of what they are,
how they are normally used, and any special information that is relevant to them. The
· Channel Number: The number of the DMA channel from 0 to 7.
· Bus Line: Indicates whether or not this DMA channel is available to expansion
devices on the system bus. This will say "8/16 bit" for DMA accessible by all
expansion devices, "16 bit only" for a channel available only to 16-bit cards, or "No"
for a channel reserved for use only by system devices.
· Typical Default Use: Description of the device or function that normally uses this
DMA channel in a regular modern PC.
· Other Common Uses: This is a list of other devices that commonly either use this
channel or offer the use of this channel as one of their options. This list isn't
exhaustive because there are a lot of oddball cards out there that may use unusual
DMAs.
· Description: A description of the channel and how it is used, along with any relevant
or interesting points about it or its history.
· Conflicts: A discussion of the likelihood of conflicts with this DMA channel and what
are the likely causes
· DMA 0
This DMA channel is reserved for use by the internal DRAM refresh circuitry. Dynamic RAM
(used for system memory on almost all PCs) must be refreshed frequently to make sure that
it does not lose its contents. DMA channel 0 is used for this purpose and is not available for
use by peripherals.
Conflicts: Most devices stay far away from DMA0, recognizing its use by the system. Beware
however, as some devices actually offer DMA0 as an option. For example, some sound cards
do. Do not use DMA0 for peripherals. If you have no devices set to use DMA0 but a conflict
becomes apparent anyway, it could be a problem with your motherboard.
· DMA 1
This DMA channel is reserved for use by the internal DRAM refresh circuitry. Dynamic RAM
(used for system memory on almost all PCs) must be refreshed frequently to make sure that
it does not lose its contents. DMA channel 0 is used for this purpose and is not available for
use by peripherals.
Conflicts: Most devices stay far away from DMA0, recognizing its use by the system. Beware
however, as some devices actually offer DMA0 as an option. For example, some sound cards
do. Do not use DMA0 for peripherals. If you have no devices set to use DMA0 but a conflict
becomes apparent anyway, it could be a problem with your motherboard.
· DMA 2
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This DMA channel is used on virtually every PC for the floppy disk controller. As such, it is
usually not offered as an option for use by most peripherals. Some do offer it as an option
however. In particular, tape accelerator cards often offer the use of DMA2 as an option. This
is probably because these cards are used for tape drives that run off the floppy interface, and
many of them can be set to drive floppy disks themselves.
Conflicts: DMA2 is not often a source of conflicts, as long as you remember not to put any
other devices on it if you have a floppy disk controller in your system (which almost everyone
does). Beware tape accelerator cards that default to DMA2 for their channel assignment.
· DMA 3
This DMA channel is normally the only one free on the first controller (DMAs 0 to 3) when you
are using a sound card. As a result, it is probably the "busiest" channel in the PC, with many
different devices vying for its services. One of the most common uses of this channel is by
ECP parallel ports, which require a DMA channel unlike other parallel port modes. On very old
XT systems, DMA channel 3 is used by the hard disk drive.
Conflicts: DMA3 is probably the worst channel in the system for conflicts, because so many
devices try to use it. It is important to watch for conflicts between multiple devices here,
particularly if you are using a sound card or ECP parallel port. More general solutions to
resource conflicts can be found in the conflict resolution area of the Troubleshooting Expert.
· DMA 4
This DMA channel is reserved for cascading the two DMA controllers on systems with a 16-bit
ISA bus. It is not available for use by peripherals.
Conflicts: There should not be any conflicts on this channel; any problems with it indicate a
possible system hardware failure.
· DMA 5
This DMA channel is normally taken by the sound card in your PC for its "high" DMA channel.
Most sound cards today actually use two DMA channels; one must be chosen from DMAs 1, 2
or 3 (the "low" channel), while the other is selected from a high-numbered channel like this
one. Some network cards also use this channel, though others don't use DMA at all.
Conflicts: Few conflicts arise with this channel because there are relatively few devices that
can use DMA channels 5, 6 or 7.
· DMA 6
This DMA channel is normally open and available for use by peripherals. It is one of the least
used channels in the system and is an alternative location for the "high" sound card DMA
channel or other devices.
· DMA 7
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This DMA channel is normally open and available for use by peripherals. It is one of the least
used channels in the system and is an alternative location for the "high" sound card DMA
channel or other devices.
LESSON II: File and Directory Structure

Understanding the file structure of the computer
Understanding the File Structure of Your Computer
So, you want to learn about the file structure of your computer, so that you can download
files from the net, or save those sent to you via email or icq from a friend. You want to be
able to find them afterwards. Perhaps you would like to share a poem or story you have
written in MS Word or WordPerfect, a photo or a pedigree with a friend via email or via ICQ.
but you can't find the file on your computer. You know it is there somewhere, but you just
can't find it. This tutorial will help you learn how to do these things.
First let me explain about the hard drive in your computer. I like to explain it this way.
Your hard drive is like a filing cabinet. If you think of it this way, it will be easier to
understand. Now we all know that a filing cabinet is a system in which things are put away in
an orderly fashion so that you can find them when you need them. Well, your hard drive is
exactly the same. A filing cabinet has dividers and folders within/or behind those dividers.
Your hard drive [C:] is exactly the same.
How is it the same I can hear you asking?
Here is how! Think of the C drive as a large File Cabinet drawer. Think of the directories as
the dividers in that drawer i.e. (bills, receipts, insurance, etc) Think of the sub folders in the
directory as file folders within/behind the dividers in the file drawer. Does this make sense to
you now? (i.e. A folder behind the B divider called bills, a folder called receipts, and one
called insurance) You get the idea. Now you can have a sub folder within a sub folder.....i.e.
in the Bills folder, you may have many folders, each having a name of the bill...i.e. telephone,
gas, visa, mastercard etc.
Hopefully I am making things clearer and not confusing you more! I will go on to show
examples of this later in this tutorial.
To learn about how the file system of your computer works, and where to locate files, first go
to start, then right click on start
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Example 1
Then click on explore
Example 2
Now, if you click on you’re [C:] drive you will highlight it just as mine is highlighted in the
diagram shown below
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example 3
My C:\ drive has been named....Bellcrest. Yours may have a name or or it may not. It will
show as [C:] so you will know you are in the right place. When you highlight C: it shows all
the files (directories) contained on the C: drive on the right side of the screen. These files are
called directories, or folders.
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example 4
In this example you will see that when you click on the + plus sign it changes to a - minus
sign and shows all the directories or folders on the C drive. When in windows explorer, always
be aware of where you are. Watch the 'address' area. This area is outlined in green in this
example.
The next example will show you what happens when you highlight a folder on the C: drive. In
the following example I have highlighted the Download directory or folder as some call it. The
right side of the screen is empty, showing that there are no files in the Download directory. It
also shows that there are no sub folders in the Download directory. (Think of a file cabinet)
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example 5
The reason that we have folders within a directory is so that we can stay organised and find
our files more easily. Again, imagine a filing cabinet drawer that has been opened and
everything has just been thrown in with out filing things in their proper place. Scary isn't it?
Well, your C drive is like that too, if you do not keep it organised it will soon be impossible to
find what you are looking for.
For this example, we are going to make a folder within a directory. Here is how that is done.
Highlight the directory that you want to make sub folders in. Click on file at the top left of
your screen, then click on new then click on folder. Notice that I have drawn a square around
where it says download with a check mark in front of it. This is telling you where you are. You
should always be aware of where you are while working in windows explorer.
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You may name the folder you create anything you like. Think of it as a folder behind a divider
in a filing cabinet. I have my computer set up so that I have folders for most everything. I
like to keep it organized so I can find things when I am looking for them. You will find that
you will make more folders within your directories as you go along and as you learn more
about the structure of your hard drive.
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Understanding the File Structure of Your Computer -
Receiving and saving a file sent via email attachment using Outlook Express
A word of warning. Never open an email attachment (especially one ending in .exe)
if you do not know and trust the person sending it to you! Doing so can cause
unmeasurable harm to your computer.
As a saftey precaution, no matter who it is from, I save an attachment in the manner shown
in this tutorial, and then, scan it with my Norton Anti Virus software. OK, so your friend sends
you an email and has attached a file to it that you would like to save. You will want to be able
to find that file after you have saved it.
For the first part of this tutorial we will assume that the file sent to you is a photo that you
will want to be able to find again to look at and perhaps print out.
Your incoming mail will show a paper clip on the left side of the message as in this example
Double click on the message to open it. This is what it will look like when you open the
message
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Now you will highlight one of the attachments, and right click on it.
Then click on save as. When you do that you will get a pop up box that looks something like
the one below. It may not be exactly the same, because at this point your computer will take
you to where you last were. The file directory name in the 'save in' box (outlined in red) may
be different on your machine than on mine.
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Click on the small black arrow in the green circle with the arrow pointing to it. You will get a
drop down menu as in this example below.
This is what you will see after clicking on the arrow. Now click on the [C:] drive. Once you are
at the [C:] drive you will see all the directories that are on the [C:] drive just as in example
5 in the Understanding the File structure of your Computer Tutorial
You will navigate to the My Documents directory.
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Now that you are there, highlight the My Documents Directory. You may either double click
on My Documents or click on open. This will open the My Documents directory showing you
all the files that are in that directory.
Click on the file you wish to open and click on open. This will open that folder. You may have
made sub folders in this folder to store your documents in a more organised manner as
shown in the example below. If you have not made sub folders and want to place you file
directly in this folder, now is the time to hit save.
You will be able to save any attachment that you receive via email in this manner. You will
have to learn the file structure of your hard drive [C:] so that your will be able to find the files
again. In the example shown, we have saved a MSword file attached to an email message.
You may save a photo/picture file in the same way. You may have a special folder on your
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hard drive called, Photos that you keep all your pictures in. Perhaps you have sub folders in
that folder so you can keep your pictures organised.
Find and Send a file via email attachment using Outlook Express
This time we will send a photo to a friend by email. You can send any kind of file you like, I
just thought a photo would be a fun thing to send.
Again, this tutorial is written with the understanding that you know how to receive and send
email using Outlook Express.
Open your Outlook Express and start a new email. Address it and put the subject in. Type
your message in the body of the email. Now click on the paperclip (with blue square around it
and a blue arrow). The insert attachment box will open. It may or may not open in the same
location as mine. What you will do now is click on the arrow within the green circle (with the
green arrow pointing to it). You will get a drop down menu similar to the one shown here.
You will now click on the [C:] drive. This will allow you to see all the directories that are on
the [C:] drive (your hard drive).
Navigate to the directory that contains the photo you wish to attach to your email.
Here is an example of what my file structure looks like. I am going to go to the Photos
directory and to a folder within that Photos directory to find the file I want to send to my
friend.
You may need to move to the right to see all the folders within your directory, as I did in my
Photos directory. There are two ways to do this. You can click on the slide bar that I have
encircled in red and pointed at with a blue arrow. When you click on it, you will hold down
your left mouse button and slide the slider to the right.
Another way to move to the right is to click on the small arrow on the right which I have
drawn a purple circle around and pointed to with a green arrow. You will click on the small
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black arrow and hold down your mouse until you get to where you want to be. Highlight the
Photos directory, and double click on it to open it.
Notice the open file folder next to the directory name Photos in the diagram below
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In this diagram you will see that I am now in the Photos directory and am about to open the
puppies folder where I will find the photo I want to attach to my email. Take note of the 'look
in' box (I have put a red square around it). Always watch this box so you will know where you
are. Highlight, and double click on the puppies folder to open it.
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Notice that the puppies folder is now open. You will now navigate to the file that you want to
send by email. Highlight it and then click on attach.
Finding and sending a Pedigree created by Canine Specialty Software via email
attachment using Outlook Express
When you are in your Canine Specialty Software Boxer Base, and decide that you would like
to send a copy of one of your dog's pedigree's to a friend via email, this is the way it is done.
Call up the name of the dog whose pedigree you wish to send. Then click on print pedigree.
The pedigree information screen will pop up. Make sure the information is filled in and the
click on print pedigree. Now Click on 'Create email attachment'. You will get this pop up
screen telling you that 'a file called pedigree.rtf has been created' (this is a MS Word
file). It will also tell you where that file is located......'It is in the C:\CSS directory' you will
now click ok. You will now hit return and either mininimize the boxerbase program or close it
the proper way.
We will now go find the pedigree file that you just created and email it to a friend. This
tutorial assumes that you know how to receive and send email using Outlook Express. Click
on New mail, then address the email to your friend, add the subject then click on the
paperclip at the top right. It says attach under the paperclip.
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This is the screen that appears on my machine. You may or may not get the same one
because the last file to be opened is the one that will open here. Below is an alternative that
you may get.
'Look in' area (I have placed a red square around it in this example). Always pay careful
attention to what is in this area! It tells you where you are! You will click on the small
arrow that I have circled in purple on the example above and green on this example. You will
get a drop down menu as shown in the next example.
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This is what you will see after clicking on the arrow. Now click on the [C:] drive. Once you are
at the [C:] drive you will see all the directories that are on the [C:] drive just as in the
example 5.
You will navigate to the CSS directory
Now double click on the CSS directory to open it. Navigate to the MS Word pedigree
document ( it will have a turquoise coloured w beside the word pedigree).
Wasn't that easy!!
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Note: If you are using Netscape Mail, the procedure is very similar. When you click on the
paperclip you will get a choice, file or webpage. Choose file. Then click on the arrow as shown
above and navigate to the CSS directory the same way as shown above
Find and Send a file via ICQ

You have downloaded and installed ICQ and learned how to send messages back and forth to
friends on your contact list. You have probably at this point learned how to chat with your
friends on ICQ. Now that you are comfortable with ICQ it is time to learn something new.
Would you like to learn how to find a file on your hard drive and send it using ICQ? It can be
most any kind of file, a joke, a poem, or perhaps a picture of yourself or your dog.
Let's say, for instance, that you want to send a poem to a friend. These are the steps you
would follow to do that.
Once you have decided which friend you want to send your poem to, click on their name. It
does not matter if they are online or not because ICQ will wait and send the file as soon as
they come online. It is more fun to send files back and forth with ICQ if both you and the
person you are sending it to are online.
I have my ICQ set up so that I right click on a name on my contact list. Some people have
theirs set up to left click on the name. Which ever way you normally do it is the way you do it
to send a file. Highlight the name by clicking on it.
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In this image, I have chosen to send a file to a friend that is online. As you know, if you are
familiar with ICQ, those people on your contact list whose names are blue are the ones that
are online at the present time. Those names that appear red are not online now, but as they
come online they will move up to the top and the names will turn blue.
Click on the name of the person you are sending the file to. Next, Click on file and then the
open box will pop up. It will pop up to wherever you have last looked for a file.
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Always watch where you are. check the 'look in' square (outlined in red) often to see your
location. Being aware of this will save you untold miseries. Not paying attention to this will
get you into difficulties. Now click on the small black arrow that is circled in green with the
green arrow pointing to it.
You will get a drop down menu. Click on the [C:] drive.
You will now be at the C:\ drive. The directories on your C:\ drive will now be visible. You can
now navigate to the Directory that contains the file which you wish to send. Double click on
it to open.
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I am now in the My Documents directory where I will now navigate to the folder that I keep
poems in. If you use WordPerfect, the directory you will most likely be looking in will be My
Files.
I can not emphasize enough that you should pay attention to where you are by
always reading what is in the 'look in' square! I have outlined in red with a green
arrow pointing to it.
You will now choose the folder and then the file that you wish to send. In my case, I have a
poems folder which is highlighted in this diagram. I double clicked on to open it. You may
also open it by highlighting it and then clicking on open. Once the folder is open, I highlighted
the poem I wish to send.
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In my diagram I am now in the poems folder and have highlighted the poem I want to send.
I will now either double click on it, or I will click on open.
When you have opened the folder that contains the file you wish to send, highlight it. In the
'enter file description area' you can type in a short message as I have done. When you are
ready, click on send. Another screen will pop up and let you know that the person the file was
sent to is receiving it. Once they have fully received the file, another screen pops up. You will
now click ok on that screen.
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Receive and Save a file sent via ICQ
This tutorial is written assuming that you are comfortable with ICQ. You have downloaded it,
installed it, and learned how to send messages back and forth to friends on your contact list.
Now, let's assume someone on your contact list has sent you a file.
You don't know what to do. Well, you are going to learn what to do
in this tutorial. You will learn to receive the file and save is to a
folder where you will be able to find it.
When one of your friends is sending you a file, you will notice the
yellow file beside their name flashing. You will also get a verbal
message (if your speakers are on) that says something like,
incoming file transfer. You will now click on their name and the next
screen will pop up.
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You will now click on receive.
Incoming file request screen

will pop up after you have
clicked on receive. (it is in
the background in this
diagram). You will click on
save. Then the screen in
front will pop up. This is the
place where you will select
a directory to place the file
in. Mine has come up at the
C:\ drive, with the My
Documents Directory open.
Notice the open folder
beside it. I will now have to
navigate to whichever
directory that I want to
save my file to. If the
directory you want is not
shown, you will have to go
to it. You may use the slide
bar (red arrow) click on it
and hold down your left
mouse and slide it
downward. Or if your
directory is somewhere else on the C:\ drive, double click on the C:\ and all the directories on
the C:\ drive will be visible. you may have to scroll down to get to the one you want.
Please note that at this point you are also given the option to create a directory to place your
file in. I have drawn a pink circle around it.
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Once you are in the proper folder, where you would like to save the file. Click on save.
This has been the most difficult tutorial to write. I have had to take screen shots with each
step as I am receiving a file. My thanks goes to my daughter Sandy for her patience in
resending the file over and over so I could get the appropriate screen shots.
Internal Directory structure
Every file on the system is stored in a directory. A directory is nothing more than a file itself,
except that it is specially structured and marked on the disk so that it has special meaning. A
directory is a table that contains information about files (and subdirectories) that it contains,
and links to where the file (or subdirectory) data begins on the disk. The paper analogy would
be a table of contents to a book, except that directories of course use a hierarchical tree
structure and books do not.
Each entry in a directory is 32 bytes in length, and stores the following information:
File Name and Extension: This is the 11-character name of the file using the
conventional 8.3 DOS file naming standard, for example, COMMAND.COM. Note that
the "dot" in "COMMAND.COM" is implied and not actually stored on the disk. See here
for more on file naming and also on VFAT long file names, which use a special
structure. The file name field is also used to indicate directory entries that have been
deleted.
File Attribute Byte: There are several different attributes which the operating system
uses to give special treatment to certain files; these are stored in a single byte in
each directory entry. Note that it is one of these file attributes that indicates whether
an entry in the directory represents a "real" file, or a subdirectory.
Last Change Date/Time: There is a space for each file to indicate the date and time
that it was created or modified. You should know that these fields can be arbitrarily
modified by any program to be whatever they want, so this date/time shouldn't be
taken too religiously. I occasionally am asked if the date/time on a file can be used to
prove when someone did something or not on their PC. It cannot, because it's too
easy to change this information.
File Size: The size of the file in bytes.
Link to Start Cluster: The number of the cluster that starts the file (or subdirectory) is
stored in the directory. This is what allows the operating system to find a file when it
is needed, and how all the different files and directories are linked together on the
disk.
Every regular directory on the disk has two special entries that refer to the directory itself
and to the parent directory. These are named "." (single dot) and ".." (Double dot)
respectively. These entries are used for navigation purposes; if you type "chdir .." then DOS
will change your current directory to the parent of the one you were in.
Root Directory and Regular Directories
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The directory at the "base" of the directory structure that defines the logical tree that
organizes files on a hard disk is the root directory. The root directory is special because it
follows special rules that do not apply to the other, "regular" directories on the hard disk.
There can only be one root directory for any disk volume; obviously, having more than one
would result in chaos, and there isn't any need to have more than one anyway. In order to
"anchor" the directory tree, the root directory is fixed in place at the start of the DOS volume.
It is located directly below the two copies of the FAT, which is itself directly below the other
key disk structures. This contrasts with regular (sub) directories, which can be located
anywhere on the disk.
In addition to being fixed in location, the root directory is also fixed in size. Regular
directories can have an arbitrary size; they use space on the disk much the way files do, and
when more space is needed to hold more entries, the directory can be expanded the same
way a file can. The root directory is limited to a specific number of entries because of its
special status. The number of entries that the root directory can hold depends on the type of
volume:
Maximum Number of
Volume Type
Root Directory Entries
360KB 5.25" Floppy Disk 112
720KB 3.5" Floppy Disk 112
1.2MB 5.25" Floppy Disk 224
Hard Disk 512
Note that the newer FAT32 version of the FAT file system does not have the restriction on
placement and size of the root directory. In this enhancement the root directory is treated
like a regular directory and can be relocated and expanded in size like any other.
There are a couple of other special things about the root directory. One is that it cannot be
deleted; the reason for this I would think to be obvious. Also, the root directory has no
parent, since it is at the top of the tree structure. The root directory still contains a ".." entry,
but instead of pointing to the cluster number of the parent directory like a regular directory's
parent entry, it contains a null value (zero).
LESSON III: I/O Addresses

Memory –Mapped I/O
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Input / Output (I/O) Addresses
Input/output addresses (usually called I/O addresses for short) are resources used by
virtually every device in the computer. Conceptually, they are very simple; they represent
locations in memory that are designated for use by various devices to exchange information
between themselves and the rest of the PC.
· Memory-Mapped I/O
You can think of I/O addresses like a bunch of small two-way "mailboxes" in the system's
memory. Take for example a communications (COM) port that has a modem connected to it.
When information is received by the modem, it needs to get this information into the PC.
Where does it put the data it pulls off the phone line?
One answer to this problem is to give each device its own small area of memory to work with.
This is called memory-mapped I/O. When the modem gets a byte of data it sends it over the
COM port, and it shows up in the COM port's designated I/O address space. When the CPU is
ready to process the data, it knows where to look to find it. When it later wants to send
information over the modem, it uses this address again (or another one near it). This is a
very simple way of dealing with the problem of information exchange between devices.
· I/O Address Space With
Unlike IRQs and DMA channels, which are of uniform size and normally assigned one per
device--sound cards use more than one because they are really many devices wrapped into
one package--I/O addresses vary in size. The reason is simple: some devices (e.g., network
cards) have much more information to move around than others (e.g., keyboards).
The size of the I/O address is also in some cases dictated by the design of the card and (as
usual) compatibility reasons with older devices. Most devices use an I/O address space of 4,
8 or 16 bytes; some use as few as 1 byte and others as many as 32 or more. The wide
variance in the size of the I/O addresses can make it difficult to determine and resolve
resource conflicts, because often I/O addresses are referred to only by the first byte of the
I/O address.
For example, people may say to "put your network card at 360h", which may seem not to
conflict with your LPT1 parallel port at address 378h. In fact many network cards take up 32
bytes for I/O; this means they use up 360-37Fh, which totally overlaps with the parallel port
(378-37Fh). The I/O address summary map helps you to see which I/O addresses are most
used, and to visualize and avoid potential conflicts.
· I/O Addresses, Multiple Devices and Conflicts
I/O addresses, like other system resources, are normally used only by single devices. Having
multiple devices try to use the same address would cause information to get mixed up and
overwritten, sort of like having two people share a mailbox (where none of the envelopes had
anything printed on them. :^) )
There are some unusual exceptions to this however, mostly for historical reasons. They are
discussed in the next section where individual addresses are reviewed. One of the problems
with I/O addresses and conflicts is simply keeping track of them all. They can be quite
confusing to keep straight, particularly since different devices use different sized address
spaces.
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I/O addresses suffer from the same problem that IRQs and DMA channels do: many conflicts
occur not because there aren't enough I/O addresses to go around, but because they aren't
allocated or spaced out in an organized way. Too many devices attempt to use the same
addresses, or have too few different configuration options to allow them all to find a place to
use without getting in each others' way. This is largely due to historical reasons.
One additional note about parallel ports. The I/O addresses used for the different parallel
ports (LPT1, LPT2, LPT3) are not universal. Originally IBM defined different defaults for
monochrome-based PCs and for color PCs. Of course, all new systems have been color for
many years, but even some new systems still default LPT1 to 3BCh. Here is how the two
different labeling schemes typically work.
"Monochrome" " C o l o r "

Port
Systems Systems
LPT1 3BC-3BFh 378-37Fh
LPT2 378-37Fh 278-27Fh
LPT3 278-27Fh
· I/O Address Details By Number
Here I describe some of the more interesting I/O addresses in use in the typical PC. Of
particular interest are those where conflicts are likely to occur, due to a large number of
devices using the address or offering it as an option
060h and 064h: These two addresses are used by the keyboard controller, which
operates both the keyboard and the PS/2 style mouse (on devices that use it).
130-14Fh and 140-15Fh: These addresses are sometimes offered as options for SCSI
host adapters. Note that these options partially overlap (from 140-14Fh).
220-22Fh: This is the default address for many sound cards. It is also an option for
some SCSI host adapters (first 16 bytes).
240-24Fh: This is an optional address for sound cards and network cards (first 16 bytes
for NE2000 cards).
260-26Fh and 270-27Fh: This is an optional address for sound cards and network
cards. NE2000-compatible network cards take 32 bytes; if set to use this I/O
address, they will conflict with several system devices as well as the I/O address for
either LPT2 or LPT3 in the 270-27Fh area.
280-28Fh: This is an optional address for sound cards and network cards (first 16 bytes
for NE2000 cards).
300-30Fh: This is the default for many network cards (NE2000 cards extend to 31Fh).
300-301h is also an option for the MIDI port on many sound cards.
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320-32Fh and 330-33Fh: This is a busy area in the I/O memory map. First, 330-331h
is the default for the MIDI port on many sound cards. 320-33Fh is an option for some
NE2000-compatible network cards and will conflict with the MIDI port at this setting.
Some SCSI host adapters also offer 330-34Fh as an option. Finally, the old PC/XT
hard disk controller also uses 320-323h.
340-34Fh: Optional areas for several device types overlap here, including two options
for SCSI host adapters (330-34Fh and 340-35Fh) as well as network cards
360-36Fh and 370-37Fh: This is another "high traffic" area. 378-37Fh is used on most
systems for the first parallel port, and 376-377h is used for the secondary IDE
controller's slave drive. These can conflict with an NE2000-compatible network card
placed at location 360h. Tape accelerator cards often default to 370h, which will also
conflict with a network card placed at 360h).
3B0-3BBh and 3C0-3DFh: These are used by VGA video adapters. They take all of the
areas originally assigned for monochrome cards (3B0-3BBh), CGA adapters
(3D0-3DFh) and EGA adapters (3C0-3CFh).
3E8-3EFh: There is a potential conflict here in locations 3EE-3EFh if you are using a
third serial port (COM3) and a tertiary IDE controller.
3F0-3F7h: There is actually a "standard" resource conflict here: the floppy disk
controller and the slave drive on the primary IDE controller "share" locations
3F6-3F7h. These devices are actually both present in many systems. Fortunately,
this conflict (which exists for historical reasons) is fairly well known and compensated
for, so it will not result in problems in a typical system. Note that some tape
accelerator cards also offer the use of 3F0h as an option, which will conflict with the
floppy disk controller.
· I/O Address Summary Map
The table below shows the I/O addresses from 000 to 3FFh, along with the devices that
typically use them. This table is slightly different than the ones that show default and optional
use of IRQs and DMA channels. There are many different addresses of different sizes, so in
order to keep the table a manageable size, it was made somewhat two-dimensional. Each
row is 16 bytes and is divided into four columns; the first is for bytes 0 to 3, the second 4 to
7, the third 8 to B and the fourth C to F. So to find address 3BCh, you would look in the
fourth column of row "3B0-3BFh".
Items in the table in bold print represent standard devices in a typical PC configuration.
Items in regular print represent optional devices or optional locations for addresses of
standard devices. Blank spaces are areas that are open. Multiple lines are used to show
multiple items that go in the same address space. Where you see two or more items
overlapping in the same address space, there is the potential for a resource conflict.
To see I/O address usage organized by device instead of address, see this device resource
summary instead:
Addr. First Quad Second Quad Third Quad Fourth Quad
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(xx0h to xx3h) (xx4h to xx7h) (xx8h to xxBh) (xxCh to xxFh)
000-00
DMA controller, channels 0 to 3
Fh
010-01
(System use)
Fh
Interrupt
020-02
controller #1 (System use)
Fh
(020-021h)
030-03
(System use)
Fh
040-04
System timers (System use)
Fh
050-05
(System use)
Fh
Keyboard &
Keyboard &
060-06 PS/2 mouse
PS/2 mouse
Fh (060h), Speaker
(064h)
(061h)
070-07 RTC/CMOS, NMI

(System use)
Fh (070-071h)
DMA page DMA page DMA page DMA page

080-08
register 0-2 register 3 registers 4-6 register 7
Fh
(081-083h) (087h) (089-08Bh) (08Fh)
090-09
(System use)
Fh
Interrupt
0A0-0A
controller #2 (System use)
fh
(0A0-0A1h)
0B0-0B
(System use)
Fh
0C0-0C
DMA controller, channels 4-7 (0C0-0DFh, bytes 1-16)
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Fh
0D0-0D
DMA controller, channels 4-7 (0C0-0DFh, bytes 17-32)
Fh
0E0-0Ef
(System use)
h
0F0-0F
Floating point unit (FPU/NPU/Math coprocessor)
Fh
100-10
(System use)
Fh
110-11
(System use)
Fh
120-12
(System use)
Fh
130-13
SCSI host adapter, (130-14Fh, bytes 1 to 16)
Fh

140-14
Fh
150-15
Fh
160-16 Quaternary IDE controller, master

Fh drive
170-17 Secondary IDE controller, master

Fh drive
180-18
Fh
190-19
Fh
1A0-1A
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Fh
1B0-1B
Fh
1C0-1C
Fh
1D0-1D
Fh
1E0-1E
Tertiary IDE controller, master drive
Fh
1F0-1F Primary IDE controller, master

Fh drive
200-20 (System use,

Joystick port
Fh 20C-20Dh)
210-21
Fh
Sound card
220-22
Fh
230-23
Fh
Sound card
240-24 Non-NE2000
Fh network card
NE2000 network card (240-25Fh, bytes 1 to 16)
250-25
Fh
Sound card
260-26
Fh
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Non-NE2000
network card
Plug and Play LPT2 (second parallel port) (color

(System use)
system devices systems)
270-27
LPT3 (third parallel port)
Fh
(monochrome systems)
Sound card
280-28 Non-NE2000
Fh network card
290-29
Fh
2A0-2A Non-NE2000
fh network card
vvv NE2000 network card (2A0-2BFh, bytes 1 to 16)
2B0-2B
NE2000 network card (2A0-2BFh, bytes 17 to 32)
Fh
2C0-2C
Fh
2D0-2D
Fh
2E0-2Ef
COM4 (fourth serial port)
h
2F0-2F
COM2 (second serial port)
Fh
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Sound card (MIDI
port) (300-301h)
300-30
Non-NE2000
Fh
network card
310-31
Fh
Non-NE2000
network card
320-32
Fh NE2000 network card (320-33Fh, bytes 1 to 16)
Hard disk controller on old PC/XT
Sound card
(MIDI port)
(330-331h)
330-33
Fh

340-34
Fh Non-NE2000
network card

350-35
Fh
Quaternary IDE
360-36 Tape accelerator
controller (slave
Fh card (360h)
drive) (36E-36Fh)
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Non-NE2000
network card
Secondary IDE
Tape accelerator controller (slave LPT1 (first parallel port) (color
card (370h) drive) systems)
(376-377h)
370-37
Fh
LPT2 (second parallel port)
(monochrome systems)
380-38 Sound card (FM

Fh synthesizer)
390-39
Fh
3A0-3A
Fh
LPT1 (first parallel

3B0-3B port)
VGA/Monochrome Video
Fh (monochrome
systems)
3C0-3C
VGA/EGA Video
Fh
3D0-3D
VGA/CGA Video
Fh
Tape accelerator
COM3 (third serial port)
card (3E0h)
3E0-3E
Fh Tertiary IDE
controller (slave
drive) (3EE-3EFh)
3F0-3F Floppy disk controller COM1 (first serial port)

Fh
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Primary IDE
Tape accelerator controller (slave
card (3F0h) drive)
(3F6-3F7h)
LESSON IV: Interrupt

Interrupt Function and Operation
Why Interrupts Are Used to Process Information

The processor is a highly-tuned machine that is designed to (basically) do one thing at a
time. However, we use our computers in a way that requires the processor to at least appear
to do many things at once. If you've ever used a multitasking operating system like Windows
95, you've done this; you may have been editing a document while downloading information
on your modem and listening to a CD simultaneously. The processor is able to do this by
sharing its time among the various programs it is running and the different devices that need
its attention. It only appears that the processor is doing many things at once because of the
blindingly high speed that it is able to switch between tasks.
Most of the different parts of the PC need to send information to and from the processor, and
they expect to be able to get the processor's attention when they need to do this. The
processor has to balance the information transfers it gets from various parts of the machine
and make sure they are handled in an organized fashion. There are two basic ways that the
processor could do this:
Polling: The processor could take turns going to each device and asking if they have
anything they need it to do. This is called polling the devices. In some situations in
the computer world this technique is used, however it is not used by the processor in
a PC for a couple of basic reasons. One reason is that it is wasteful; going around to
all the devices constantly asking if they need the attention of the CPU wastes cycles
that the processor could be doing something useful. This is particularly true because
in most cases the answer will be "no". Another reason is that different devices need
the processor's attention at differing rates; the mouse needs attention far less
frequently than say, the hard disk (when it is actively transferring data).
Interrupting: The other way that the processor can handle information transfers is to let
the devices request them when they need its attention. This is the basis for the use of
interrupts. When a device has data to transfer, it generates an interrupt that says "I
need your attention now, please". The processor then stops what it is doing and deals
with the device that requested its attention. It actually can handle many such
requests at a time, using a priority level for each to decide which to handle first.
It may seem like an inefficient way to run a computer, having it be interrupted all the time.
I'm sure it must remind you of a day at the office, where the phone kept ringing every 5
minutes and you couldn't get anything done. However, without the ringer on the phone, the
alternative would be to keep picking up the phone every 30 seconds to see if someone was
trying to call you, which even the most ardent telephone-hater would have to admit is much
worse. :^)
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It's also interesting to put into perspective just how fast the modern processor is compared
to many of the devices that transfer information to it. Let's imagine a very fast typist; say,
120 words per minute. At an average of 5 letters per word, this is 600 characters per minute
on the keyboard. You might be fascinated to realize that if you type at this rate, a 200 MHz
computer will process 20,000,000 instructions between each keystroke you make! You can
see why having the processor spend a lot of time asking the keyboard if it needs anything
would be wasteful, especially since at any time you might stop for a minute or two to review
your writing, or do something else. Even while handling a full-bandwidth transfer from a
28,800 Kb/sec modem, which of course moves data much faster than your fingers, the
processor has over 60,000 instruction cycles between bytes it needs to process.
In addition to the well-known hardware interrupts that we discuss in this section, there are
also software interrupts. These are used by various software programs in response to
different events that occur as the operating system and applications run. In essence, these
represent the processor interrupting itself! This is part of how the processor is able to do
many things at once. The other thing that software interrupts do is allow one program to
access another one (usually an application or DOS accessing to the BIOS) without having to
know where it resides in memory.
· Interrupt Controllers
Device interrupts are fed to the processor using a special piece of hardware called an
interrupt controller. The standard for this device is the Intel 8259 interrupt controller, and has
been since early PCs. As with most of these dedicated controllers, in modern motherboards
the 8259 is, in most cases, incorporated into a larger chip as part of the chipset.
The interrupt controller has 8 input lines that take requests from one of 8 different devices.
The controller then passes the request on to the processor, telling it which device issued the
request (which interrupt number triggered the request, from 0 to 7). The original PC and XT
had one of these controllers, and hence supported interrupts 0 to 7 only.
Starting with the IBM AT, a second interrupt controller was added to the system to expand it;
this was part of the expansion of the ISA system bus from 8 to 16 bits. In order to ensure
compatibility (isn't that a recurring theme?) the designers of the AT didn't want to change the
single interrupt line going to the processor. So what they did instead was to cascade the two
interrupt controllers together.
The first interrupt controller still has 8 inputs and a single output going to the processor. The
second one has the same design, but it takes 8 new inputs (doubling the number of
interrupts) and its output feeds into input line 2 of the first controller. If any of the inputs on
the second controller become active, the output from that controller triggers interrupt #2 on
the first controller, which then signals the processor.
So what happens to IRQ #2? That line is now being used to cascade the second controller, so
the AT's designers changed the wiring on the motherboard to send any devices that used
IRQ2 over to IRQ9 instead. What this means is that any older devices that used IRQ2 now
use IRQ9, and if you set any device to use IRQ2 on an AT or later system, it is really using
IRQ9.
Devices designed to use IRQ2 as a primary setting are rare in today's systems, since IRQ2
has been out of use for over 10 years. In most cases IRQ2 is just considered "unusable",
while IRQ9 is a regular, usable interrupt line. However, some modems for example still offer
the use of IRQ2 as a way to get around the fact that COM3 and COM4 share interrupts with
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COM1 and COM2 by default. You may need to do this if you have a lot of devices contending
for the low-numbered IRQs (which is very common).
· IRQ Lines and the System Bus
The devices that use interrupts trigger them by signaling over lines provided on the ISA
system bus. Most of the interrupts are provided to the system bus for use by devices;
however, some of them are only used internally by the system, and therefore they are not
given wires on the system bus. These are interrupts 0, 1, 2, 8 and 13, and are never
available to expansion cards (remember, IRQ2 is now wired to IRQ9 on the motherboard).
As explained in this section on the ISA bus, the original bus was only 8 bits wide and had a
single connector for expansion cards. The bus was expanded to 16 bits and a second
connector slot added next to the first one; you can see this if you look at your motherboard,
since all modern PCs use 16-bit slots.
The addition of this extra connector coincided with the addition of the second interrupt
controller, and the lines for these extra IRQs were placed on this second slot. This means
that in order to access any of these IRQs--10, 11, 12, 14 and 15--the card must have both
connectors. While almost no motherboards today have 8-bit-only bus slots, there are still
many expansion cards that only use one ISA connector. The most common example is an
internal modem. These cards can only use IRQs 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (and 6 is almost always not
available since it is used by the floppy disk controller). They can also use IRQ 9 indirectly if
they have the ability to use IRQ2, since 9 is wired to where 2 used to be.
· Interrupt Priority
The PC processes device interrupts according to their priority level. This is a function of which
interrupt line they use to enter the interrupt controller. For this reason, the priority levels are
directly tied to the interrupt number:
On an old PC/XT, the priority of the interrupts is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
On a modern machine, it's slightly more complicated (what else is new). Recall that the
second set of eight interrupts is piped through the IRQ2 channel on the first interrupt
controller. This means that the first controller views any of these interrupts as being
at the priority level of its "IRQ2". The result of this is that the priorities become 0, 1,
(8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. IRQs 8 to 15 take the place of IRQ2.
In any event, the priority level of the IRQs doesn't make much of a difference in the
performance of the machine, so it isn't something you're going to want to worry about too
much. If you are a real performance freak, higher-priority IRQs may improve the
performance of the devices that use them slightly. If you could actually notice this in any way
other than examining the system under the microscope of a benchmark suite, I'd be pretty
surprised...
· Non-Maskable Interrupts (NMI)
All of the regular interrupts that we normally use and refer to by number are called maskable
interrupts. The processor is able to mask, or temporarily ignore, any interrupt if it needs to,
in order to finish something else that it is doing. In addition, however, the PC has a
non-maskable interrupt (NMI) that can be used for serious conditions that demand the
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processor's immediate attention. The NMI cannot be ignored by the system unless it is shut
off specifically.
When an NMI signal is received, the processor immediately drops whatever it was doing and
attends to it. As you can imagine, this could cause havoc if used improperly. In fact, the NMI
signal is normally used only for critical problem situations, such as serious hardware errors.
The most common use of NMI is to signal a parity error from the memory subsystem. This
error must be dealt with immediately to prevent possible data corruption.
· Interrupts, Multiple Devices and Conflicts
In general, interrupts are single-device resources. Because of the way the system bus is
designed, it is not feasible for more than one device to use an interrupt at one time, because
this can confuse the processor and cause it to respond to the wrong device at the wrong
time. If you attempt to use two devices with the same IRQ, an IRQ conflict will result. This is
one of the types of resource conflicts.
It is possible to share an IRQ among more than one device, but only under limited conditions.
In essence, if you have two devices that you seldom use, and that you never use
simultaneously, you may be able to have them share an IRQ. However, this is not the
preferred method since it is much more prone to problems than just giving each device its
own interrupt line.
One of the most common problems regarding shared IRQs is the use of the third and fourth
serial (COM) ports, COM3 and COM4. By default, COM3 uses the same interrupt as COM1
(IRQ4), and COM4 uses the same interrupt as COM2 (IRQ3). If you have a mouse on COM1
and set up your modem as COM3--a very common setup--guess what happens the first time
you try to go online? :^) You can share COM ports on the same interrupt, but you have to be
very careful not to use both devices at once; in general this arrangement is not preferred.
See here for ideas on dealing with COM port difficulties.
Many modems will let you change the IRQ they use to IRQ5 or IRQ2, for example, to avoid
this problem. Other common areas where interrupt conflicts occur are IRQ5, IRQ7 and
IRQ12. The conflict resolution area of the Troubleshooting Expert can sometimes help with
these situations.
· Summary of IRQs and Their Typical Uses
The table below provides summary information about the 16 IRQ levels in a typical PC. You
may find this table useful when considering how to configure your system, or for resolving
IRQ conflicts. For an explanation of the categories, along with more detailed descriptions, see
here. To see IRQ usage organized by device instead of IRQ number, see this device resource
summary:
Typical Default
IRQ Bus Line? Priority Other Common Uses
Use
0 no 1 System timer None
K e y b o a r d
1 no 2 None
controller
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None; cascade for
Modems, very old (EGA) video
n o IRQs 8-15.
2 n/a cards, COM3 (third serial port),
(rerouted) Replaced by IRQ
COM4 (fourth serial port)
9
COM4 (fourth serial port),

COM2 (second
3 8/16-bit 11 modems, sound cards, network
serial port)
cards, tape accelerator cards
COM3 (third serial port), modems,

COM1 (first serial
4 8/16-bit 12 sound cards, network cards, tape
port)
accelerator cards
LPT2 (second parallel port), LPT3

(third parallel port), COM3 (third
serial port), COM4 (fourth serial
5 8/16-bit 13 Sound card
port), modems, network cards,
tape accelerator cards, hard disk
controller on old PC/XT
Floppy disk
6 8/16-bit 14 Tape accelerator cards
controller
LPT2 (second parallel port), COM3

(third serial port), COM4 (fourth
LPT1 (first
7 8/16-bit 15 serial port), modems, sound cards,
parallel port)
network cards, tape accelerator
cards
8 no 3 Real-time clock None
Network cards, sound cards, SCSI

9 16-bit only 4 host adapters, PCI devices,
rerouted IRQ2 devices

host adapters, secondary IDE
10 16-bit only 5
channel, quaternary IDE channel,
PCI devices

host adapters, VGA video cards,
11 16-bit only 6
tertiary IDE channel, quaternary
IDE channel, PCI devices
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12 16-bit only 7 PS/2 mouse host adapters, VGA video cards,
tertiary IDE channel, PCI devices
Floating Point
Unit (FPU / NPU
13 no 8 None
/ Math
Coprocessor)
Primary IDE
14 16-bit only 9 SCSI host adapters
channel
Secondary IDE
15 16-bit only 10 Network cards, SCSI host adapters
channel
IRQ Details by Number
This section lists each of the 16 interrupt lines and provides a full description of what they
are, how they are normally used, and any special information that is relevant to them. The
IRQ Number: The number of the IRQ from 0 to 15.
16-Bit Priority: The priority level of the interrupt. 1 is the highest and 15 is the lowest.
Bus Line: Indicates whether or not this IRQ is available to expansion devices on the
system bus. This will say "8/16 bit" for an interrupt line available to all expansion
devices, "16 bit only" for a line available only to 16-bit cards, or "No" for an interrupt
used only by system devices.
Typical Default Use: Description of the device or function that normally uses this IRQ in
a regular modern PC.
Other Common Uses: This is a list of other devices that commonly either use this IRQ
or offer the use of this IRQ as one of their options. This list isn't exhaustive because
there are a lot of oddball cards out there that may use unusual IRQs.
Description: A description of the interrupt and how it is used, along with any relevant or
interesting points about it or its history.
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Conflicts: A discussion of the likelihood of conflicts with this IRQ and what are the likely
causes.
· IRQ0
This is the reserved interrupt for the internal system timer. It is used exclusively for
internal operations and is never available to peripherals or user devices.
Conflicts: This is a dedicated interrupt line; there should never be any conflicts. If software
indicates a conflict on this IRQ, there is a good possibility of a hardware problem somewhere
on your system board.
· IRQ 1
This is the reserved interrupt for the keyboard controller. It is used exclusively for keyboard
input. Even on systems without a keyboard, IRQ1 is not available for use by other devices.
Note that the keyboard controller also controls the PS/2 style mouse if the system has one,
but the mouse uses a separate line, IRQ12.
on your system board; this can be a motherboard or chipset (keyboard controller) problem.
· IRQ 2
This is the interrupt number that is used to cascade the second interrupt controller to the
first, allowing the use of extra IRQs 8 to 15. This use as a linkage between the two interrupt
controllers means that IRQ2 is no longer available for normal use. For compatibility with older
cards that used IRQ2 on the original PC or XT machines (which had only one controller and a
normal IRQ2 line), the motherboard of modern PCs reroutes IRQ2 to IRQ9. Hence IRQ2 can
still be used but appears to the system as IRQ9. The most common cards that do this are old
EGA video cards, and newer cards making IRQ2 available with the knowledge that it will be
routed to IRQ9.
Conflicts: This interrupt is normally not used on most systems, mostly because the whole
IRQ2/IRQ9 thing confuses a lot of people so they tend to avoid it. Conflicts on this line
generally come from trying to use a device on IRQ2 and another on IRQ9 at the same time.
Some modems and serial port cards allow IRQ2 to be used as an alternative for the two
standard lines used for modems and serial ports (IRQ3 and IRQ4) in order to avoid conflicts
in those two heavily-contested areas. This is generally a good configuration decision since
unused IRQs from 3 to 7 are harder to find than unused IRQs from 10 to 15. If you want to
use IRQ2, move any device using IRQ9 to another line like 10 or 11.
· IRQ 3
This interrupt is normally used by the second serial port, COM2. It is also the default interrupt
for the fourth serial port, COM4, and a popular option for modems, sound cards and other
devices. Modems often come pre-configured to use COM2 on IRQ3.
Conflicts: Conflicts on IRQ3 are relatively common. The two biggest problem areas are first,
modems that attempt to use COM2/IRQ3 and clash with the built-in COM2 port; and second,
systems that attempt to use both COM2 and COM4 simultaneously on this same interrupt
line. In addition, some devices, particularly network interface cards, come with IRQ3 as the
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default. In most cases the problem can be avoided by changing the conflicting device to a
different interrupt (IRQ2 and IRQ5 usually being the best choices). If the built-in COM2 is not
being used, it can be disabled in the BIOS setup, which will allow a modem to stay at
COM2/IRQ3 without causing any problems. More general solutions to these issues can be
found in the conflict resolution area of the Troubleshooting Expert.
· IRQ 4
This interrupt is normally used by the first serial port, COM1. On PCs that do not use a
PS/2-style mouse, this port (and thus this interrupt) are almost always used by the serial
mouse. IRQ4 is also the default interrupt for the third serial port, COM3, and a popular option
for modems, sound cards and other devices. Modems sometimes come pre-configured to use
COM3 on IRQ4.
Conflicts: Conflicts on IRQ4 are relatively common, although not as common as on IRQ3. On
systems that do not use a serial mouse, problems are less common, because COM1 isn't
automatically busy whenever the mouse is in use. The two biggest problem areas are
modems that attempt to use COM3/IRQ4 and clash with COM1, and systems that attempt to
use both COM1 and COM3 simultaneously on this same interrupt line. In most cases the
problem can be avoided by changing the conflicting device to a different interrupt (IRQ2 and
IRQ5 usually being the best choices). If a PS/2 mouse is being used, you can disable the
built-in COM1 port in the BIOS setup, which will allow a modem to stay at COM3/IRQ4
without causing any problems. However, this is not really recommended. More general
solutions to these issues can be found in the conflict resolution area of the Troubleshooting
Expert.
· IRQ 5
Conflicts on IRQ5 are very common because of the large variety of devices that have it as an
option. Since virtually every PC today uses a sound card, and they all like to grab IRQ5, it is
almost always taken before you even start looking at more esoteric peripherals. If a second
parallel port (LPT2) is being used to allow access to two printers or a printer and a
parallel-port drive, then IRQ5 will usually be taken right away. If for some very strange
reason you have three parallel ports, watch for a conflict here or with IRQ7, since 5 and 7 are
the only two normally used as defaults for parallel ports. Sound cards that default to IRQ5
are generally best left there, to avoid problems with poorly written older software that just
assumed the sound card would always be left at IRQ5. To whatever extent possible, move
devices that can use higher-valued IRQs away from IRQ5. For example, you can't move
COM3 to IRQ11, but you usually can move a network card to it. See the conflict resolution
area of the Troubleshooting Expert for more ideas.
· IRQ 6
This interrupt is reserved for use by the floppy disk controller. Technically, it is available for
use by other devices, and some devices will allow you to select IRQ6. Most however do not,
realizing that virtually every PC uses at least one floppy disk drive. The most common devices
that will let you use IRQ6 are probably tape drive accelerator cards. This is probably because
these cards are used for tape drives that run off the floppy interface, and many of them can
be set to drive floppy disks themselves.
Conflicts: Conflicts on IRQ6 are uncommon and are usually the result of an incorrectly
configured peripheral card, since IRQ6 is pretty standardized in its use for the floppy disks. If
you use a tape accelerator card along with an integrated floppy disk controller on your
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motherboard, watch out for the accelerator trying to take over IRQ6; some even do this by
default.
· IRQ 7
This IRQ is used on most systems to drive the first parallel port, normally for the use of a
printer. These days of course many other devices use parallel ports, including external drives.
If you are not using a printer or other device then IRQ7 can be used in a similar way to IRQ5:
as an alternate for any of the devices that would normally be fighting over IRQ3 or IRQ4.
Conflicts: Conflicts on IRQ7 are relatively unusual. One thing to watch out for if you are
using two parallel ports is to make sure the second one is set up to use IRQ5 or another
available IRQ. Some add-in parallel boards try to make LPT2 also use IRQ7, which generally
won't work. Otherwise, avoiding using IRQ7 for an expansion card if you are using it for LPT1
will eliminate conflicts in most cases.
· IRQ 8
This is the reserved interrupt for the real-time clock timer. This timer is used by software
programs to manage events that must be calibrated to real-world time; this is done by
setting "alarms", which trigger this interrupt at a specified time. For example, if you are using
an electronic datebook and have it set to pop up screen messages or beep the PC when it is
time for a meeting, the software will set a timer to count down to the appropriate time. When
the timer finishes its countdown, an interrupt will be generated on IRQ8.
on your system board.
· IRQ 9
This is usually an open IRQ on most systems, and is a popular choice for use by peripherals,
especially network cards. On most PCs it can be used freely since it has no default setting.
Conflicts: There are a couple of things to watch out for when using this IRQ. First, if you are
trying to use IRQ2, you cannot use IRQ9 as well, since devices that try to use IRQ2 really end
up using IRQ9 instead. Also, some systems that use PCI cards that require the use of a
system IRQ line will grab IRQ9; this can be changed in some cases using the BIOS setup
parameters that assign IRQs to PCI devices.
· IRQ 10
This is usually open and one of the easiest IRQs to use since it is generally not contested by
many devices. While the secondary IDE controller can sometimes be set to use IRQ10, it
almost always uses IRQ15 instead.
Conflicts: Conflicts on IRQ10 are unusual; the only thing to watch out for is a PCI card that
needs an interrupt line being assigned IRQ10 by the BIOS; this can be changed in some
cases using the BIOS setup parameters that assign IRQs to PCI devices.
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· IRQ 11
This line is usually open and relatively easy to use since it is generally not contested by many
devices. If you are using three IDE channels (the third typically being on a sound card),
IRQ11 is typically the one that the tertiary controller will try to use. Also, some PCI video
cards will try to use IRQ11.
Conflicts: Watch out for PCI cards, especially video cards, that grab IRQ11. This can be
changed in some cases using the BIOS setup parameters that assign IRQs to PCI devices.
· IRQ 12
On machines that use a PS/2 mouse, this is the IRQ reserved for its use. Using a PS/2 mouse
frees up the COM1 serial port and the interrupt it uses (IRQ4) for other devices. Normally this
is a good trade since free IRQs with numbers below 8 are harder to find than ones above 8. If
a PS/2 mouse is not used, IRQ12 is a good choice for use by other devices such as network
cards.
Conflicts: There are some potential problems here. Watch out for PCI cards that can
sometimes be assigned this line by the system BIOS. This can be changed in some cases
using the BIOS setup parameters that assign IRQs to PCI devices. If you are using a PS/2
mouse you need to make sure no other devices use IRQ12.
· IRQ 13
This is the reserved interrupt for the integrated floating point unit (on 80486 or later
machines) or the math coprocessor (on 80386 or earlier machines that use one). It is used
exclusively for internal signaling and is never available for use by peripherals.
on your system board, or possibly with your processor or math coprocessor.
· IRQ 14
On most PCs, this IRQ is reserved for use by the primary IDE controller, which provides
access to the first two IDE/ATA devices (usually hard disk drives and/or CD-ROM drives). On
machines that do not use IDE devices at all, this IRQ can be used for another purpose (such
as a SCSI host adapter to provide SCSI drives). In order to do this, you will normally have to
disable the IDE channel using either the appropriate BIOS setting (for integrated IDE support
on newer boards) or jumpers on the controller board (for older machines that use an IDE
controller card).
Conflicts: Problems with IRQ14 are rare, since the universality of its use for IDE means most
peripheral vendors avoid offering it as an option. If you are using SCSI and not IDE, and want
to use IRQ14, make sure any integrated IDE controllers are disabled first.
· IRQ 15
On most newer PCs, this IRQ is reserved for use by the secondary IDE controller, which
provides access to the third and fourth IDE/ATA devices (usually hard disk drives and/or
CD-ROM drives). If you are not using IDE, or are using only two devices and want to put
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them on the primary channel to free up this IRQ, that can be done easily as long as you
remember to disable the secondary IDE channel using either the appropriate BIOS setting
(for integrated IDE support on newer boards) or jumpers on the controller board (for
older machines that use an IDE controller card).
Conflicts: Problems with IRQ15 typically result from assigning a peripheral to use it while
forgetting to disable the integrated secondary IDE controller. Most Pentium or later
(PCI-based) motherboards have two integrated IDE controllers. Some people incorrectly
assume that there will be no conflict if nothing is attached to the secondary channel, but
this is not always the case.
· IRQ 16
LESSON V: Keyboard and Mouse Maintenance

Keyboard Maintenance
Keyboards
Keyboards are one of the most abused parts of the average system. They get pounded on,
covered with dirt, loaded with dust and food particles, and even the occasional cup of decaf.
:^) The extent to which keyboard care is important depends on how much you care about
your keyboard, and what it costs. Cheap keyboards go for as little as $10 these days; if you
don't care about what kind of keyboard you use, you can practically treat them as a
disposable item, just getting a new one when they get damaged or gummed up from
excessive gunk. (A rather wasteful attitude, I think, but one that does make sense in some
circumstances.) Other people (such as myself) rely upon unique keyboards with special
features, some of which are hard to replace if they become damaged, and so care and
maintenance become much more important.
Fortunately, most decent keyboards are fairly resistant to abuse, but over time, if they are
never maintained, they can eventually fail. Common failure modes are keys that stick or
repeat, or have to be pressed multiple times to get a character to show up. Assuming that
you do want your keyboard to last, I recommend the following routine care steps be taken:
Keep Food and Drink Away: The number one enemy of keyboards is not dust, but in
fact food and drink. If you can "simply" make a policy of never eating or drinking
while using your PC, you will have taken one of the best preventive measures that
you can to keeping your keyboard working reliably. I put the word "simply" in quotes
because this is sure as heck not something that I've ever been able to do! :^) If
you're like me you can still minimize problems by trying to keep the food and drink
away from the keyboard itself. Keeping your coffee mug more than "spill's distance"
from the PC is a wise move.
Clean the Keyboard: Over time dirt and natural oils from your fingers will accumulate
on the keycaps, and dust and debris will fall into the keyboard between the keys.
These should be cleaned at least annually, by wiping with a damp cloth. Cleaning a
keyboard isn't always that simple; opening it up can in fact ruin it, and some
attempts at cleaning a keyboard can in fact make things worse.
Check the Cable and Connector: Make sure that the keyboard cable is not caught on
anything or pinched between your desk drawers, etc., to prevent damage. There
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should be slack in the cable as well; if the keyboard cable is too tight this can damage
the cable, connector, or worst of all, the plug on the motherboard where they
keyboard connects to it. (This can result in your needing to replace your
motherboard!)
In the unfortunate event that you spill coffee or other liquids into the keyboard, it is still
possible in some cases to save the device, but often you will need to replace it.
Mouse Maintenance
Like keyboards, mice are devices that are handled a great deal and are therefore subjected
to a fair bit of abuse--and dirt. Most mice are much more sensitive to dirt than keyboards
are, however. The reason is of course simple: the ball that rolls on the surface of the desk to
provide movement. If the ball becomes dirty then it doesn't roll properly, and your cursor
won't move smoothly. And of course, these balls are designed to have "traction" to grip your
desk or mousepad, and as a consequence they grip most dirt and dust well too.
While most mice are cheap enough to practically be considered throw-away items, they get
dirty enough to stop functioning properly far too often for the "disposable mouse" to ever
become popular. I recommend the following be done to care for the mouse:
Clean the Mouse Regularly: I recommend cleaning the mouse on a monthly basis. This
includes cleaning the mouse ball, and also the rollers on the inside of the unit.
Rubbing alcohol is the best thing to use for the mouse ball (don't pour alcohol into the
mouse body though.)
Check the Cable and Connector: Make sure that the cable does not get stuck in any
part of your desk or workspace, to prevent damage. There should be slack in the
cable as well; if it is pulled too tight this can damage the mouse, the cable, or worse,
the plug on the motherboard where they keyboard connects to it. PS/2-style mice
that use the round DIN connectors are probably more susceptible to damage than the
9-pin D-connectors used by serial mice. In either case though, damage is easily
avoidable.
LESSON VI: PC Assembly

PC Assembly Procedure
New PC Assembly Procedure
This procedure describes how to build a modern, Pentium-class Windows 95 personal

computer. Starting from components, the instructions here will tell you how to physically
assemble the unit, get it running, test it, and even set up and optimize the operating system.
My goal in creating this procedure was to make it simple and clear enough that virtually
anyone could use it to make their own PC. To meet this goal I have provided a great deal of
detail, far more than you will find in other similar descriptions. I have also distilled into these
pages my experiences in building and rebuilding dozens of machines, so the common pitfalls
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are foreseen and you can better avoid the many mistakes that I made while building my first
PCs without the benefit of a procedure such as this one. :^)
This assembly procedure is comprised entirely of subprocedures, to keep it to a reasonable

length and to allow you to skip the details of any parts of the overall procedure that you
already understand. The steps for the procedure are in the Index frame; each loads a
subprocedure here, into the Contents frame. You can also use the links at the bottom of this
page if you desire.
This procedure concentrates on the assembly and setup of the PC itself. It does not deal with
any of the important pre-assembly work, such as planning a system, specifying and
purchasing components, etc. These will be covered in future sections of The PC Guide, with
links placed here as appropriate. It does, however, include the important steps after
assembly is completed, which most other assembly procedures gloss over: testing the
system, getting the CD-ROM drive running, and installing the operating system. I assume the
installation of Windows 95 here, just because it is the most popular operating system right
now.
Note: The procedure overview below applies to the whole build procedure. Each of
the individual subprocedures also has its own overview, which you will see when you
select one from the Index Frame.
Procedure Overview:
Difficulty Level: 4 (High).
Risk Factor: 4 (High). There is a slight chance of hardware damage with this procedure.
There is no risk of data loss if a new, clean hard disk is being used, otherwise there is
a remote chance of data loss as well.
Hardware Required: See procedure step 1.
Software Required: See procedure step 1.
Time to Perform: Typically two to three hours for someone doing this the first time. This
depends a great deal on: the exact system being built, the builder's experience level,
how many problems are encountered during assembly, and many other factors.
Preparation / Warnings:
Please be sure you have read these safety precautions before beginning a full
system build.
If you have not already done so, please read this section on general installation
and assembly tips.
Do not run the system with the power supply plugged in so you can use it to
ground yourself to avoid static. Static is bad, electrocution is much worse.
I would recommend familiarizing yourself with at least the basics of how the PC
works before starting. Try reading various sections of the Reference Guide for
starters. It is especially beneficial to have a decent understanding of the PC's
boot process when building a new PC.
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This procedure is geared towards those creating a new, modern PC from scratch.
Some of what it contains is not relevant for those building an older PC,
performing upgrades, etc. I also do not cover the specifics of installing
peripherals, esoteric things like RAID controllers, multiple-disk setups, and
the like. You can easily extrapolate these from what is here, however.
I assume the use of IDE/ATA/ATAPI hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives, not
SCSI. I may add steps for SCSI at a later date.
If the hard disk drive being used in the system was purchased new from a
discounter or other company you don't have a lot of experience with, you
should take whatever precautions you can to verify that it is legitimate and
has not been resold to you after being stolen. Hard disk drive theft is
becoming an epidemic, and some vendors are starting to crack down on it.
For example, Western Digital Corporation is now refusing to provide warranty
service on drives that have been reported as stolen. Unfortunately, most of
these are resold to unknowing third parties who do not find out about it until
they try to return the drive after they have a problem. Western Digital has a
page on their web site that will let you enter the serial number from your
drive to see if it has been reported stolen. If it has been, return it at once and
take any other appropriate steps that you deem necessary. Make sure you
always buy from a reputable vendor, and beware of any deal that's "too good
to be true", because there is usually a reason. This sort of a problem is rare
when you buy from an established dealer.
Some of the steps can be done in a different order with no ill effects. I have them
in the order that I prefer them. Most of these are based on experience; for
example some may find it odd to set the jumpers on the motherboard before
installing it, but it's much easier to reach the jumpers that way. I also find
putting the drives in before the motherboard makes it easier to reach the
drives for mounting, especially on smaller cases. Finally, I have found it easier
to put the heat sink on the processor after installing the processor in its
socket.
There are millions of combinations of components out there. Please use discretion
in following the instructions. I am not omniscient.
If you have problems getting the new system to work, try looking in the
Troubleshooting Guide. I have references to more specific areas of the
Troubleshooting Expert within the subprocedures themselves.
Some of the steps apply only to systems using the AT form factor, and not the
ATX form factor. I personally have far more experience with AT and therefore
the chances of errors in the procedure are higher in the areas that are
specific to ATX.
· Component Gathering Inspection Procedure
Component Gathering and Inspection Procedure
This subprocedure of the New PC Assembly Procedure covers the details of gathering and
inspecting the components and tools necessary for a new PC build. This is a step that many
people skip when building a new PC, and the result is often that they get half-way through
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the build and then realize that they are missing something they need to complete the job.
Taking a few minutes at the start of the process to catalog your equipment can often save
time in the long run and will also increase your chances of a successful, problem-free build.
Procedure Overview:
Difficulty Level: 1 (Very low).
Risk Factor: 2 (Low). Watch out for ESD when handling loose components.
Hardware Required: See below.
Software Required: See below.
Time to Perform: Assuming you have everything you need, about 10 minutes.
Preparation / Warnings: Every PC assembly job is different, so you may need to adjust
what you gather to match what you are putting into the system. This procedure is a
guideline and is meant to cover "the essentials".
Procedure Steps:
Gather and Inspect Primary Components: The following are the major components of
a modern PC:
System Case: A new case normally comes with many subcomponents that you
need in order to assemble a new PC. See here for a list of what a case should
contain. Make sure you have all of these parts, and inspect everything to
make sure there is no damage before you begin--needing to return the case
for exchange after you've half-completed building the PC is not fun.
Motherboard: The motherboard should also come with several components that
you will need to assemble the PC. In particular, make sure you have the
cables that go with the motherboard--sometimes vendors omit these. Make
sure you have the manual. Inspect the motherboard closely to ensure that
there is no damage; look for bent or broken pins or missing components.
System Processor: Now is the time to make sure that you have been sent the
correct processor and that it is not damaged. Look on the top of the chip and
make sure it is the correct speed. Check for bent or broken pins. Do not touch
the pins!
Secondary Cache Module (if appropriate): Many motherboards today come

with only integrated cache and do not use a seperate cache module.
System Memory: Make sure you have the correct amount of the right type of
memory. If you are using 72-pin SIMMs on a Pentium class or later system,
you need identical pairs of SIMMs. Handle modules by their edges.
Video Card: Inspect the video card carefully to make sure there is nothing
missing or broken. You should also ensure that the card has a manual and a
driver disk or CD with it. Handle the card by its edges.
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Floppy Disk Drive: Pretty straight-forward. Make sure it isn't broken in some
odd way. Check the pins on the back of the drive to make sure they are
straight and whole.
Hard Disk Drive: Inspect the drive carefully to make sure it is the correct type
and size. Do not touch the controller board. Make sure the disk has a manual
with it.
CD-ROM Drive: Check the CD-ROM drive to ensure that it is not damaged. You
also want to check for two important pieces that normally come with the
drive: the CD audio cable (for attaching to the sound card) and the driver disk
(without which you likely won't be able to install the operating system).
Sound Card: This should come with drivers and a manual. Inspect for physical
damage. Set aside for installation later on.
Network Card: This should come with a manual and probably will come with
driver disks as well. Inspect for physical damage. Set aside for installation
later on.
Modem: This should come with a manual to help you with configuration, and
possibly a driver utility of some sort. Inspect for physical damage. Set aside
for installation later on.
Mouse: You need a mouse, either serial or PS/2 style, depending on what you're
going to run on your system. Tip: During the initial installation, use a mouse
from another system that you know works, or test out the new mouse on an
existing system. This makes troubleshooting much easier if there is a problem
during assembly.
Keyboard: You need a keyboard for the system. Make sure that it has the
correct sized plug for your motherboard; otherwise, you may need to
purchase an adapter (some keyboards come with them.) Tip: During the
initial installation, use a keyboard from another system that you know works,
or test out the new keyboard on an existing system. This makes
troubleshooting much easier if there is a problem during assembly.
Monitor: Unpack the monitor and check it for damage. Make sure you have its
manual and interface cable. I strongly recommend trying out a new monitor
on an existing PC if at all possible before assembling the PC. A monitor that is
not functioning properly can cause you to think you have a hardware problem
with the new system and lead to a lot of hair pulling.
Gather and Inspect Secondary Components: The following are the smaller
components needed for a new PC build:
Heat Sink / Fan for the Processor: You need a heat sink, usually with a fan,
for most modern processors. Note that some processors come with the heat
sink already attached to them.
Heat Sink Compound: This white compound is used to ensure good thermal
transfer between the CPU and the heat sink. You don't need this if your heat
sink is already attached to the CPU.
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IDE Cable(s): One IDE cable normally comes with the motherboard. If you are
planning to use two IDE channels (which is common, one for the hard disk
and one for the CD-ROM) then you need a second IDE cable.
Floppy Cable: This normally comes with the motherboard.
CD Audio Cable: This normally comes with the CD-ROM drive and is used to
allow audio CDs to be played through the sound card..
Mounting Hardware: These are the metal and plastic spacers, standoffs and
screws that are used to attach the motherboard to the system case. They
should come with the system case.
Drive Rails (if required): Some cases require these, and should supply them
with the case if so.
Screws: You need screws to mount your storage devices into the case.
Sometimes these come with the device; sometimes they come with the case;
sometimes they come with neither and you will have to find some
somewhere; a local computer store is a good bet to try. Also, there are
different sizes so make sure you have the right ones. Try them out in the
devices before you try to install.
Y-Adapters (if required): Many system cases only come with power plugs for
four internal devices. If you have more than this number, you will need to
purchase a "Y adapter" (named for its shape) that lets two drives run off one
power plug.
Gather Tools and Other Equipment: See this section for a discussion of the contents
of a good tool kit. If you have a good kit, you probably have all you need. Here
specifically are the items of importance for building a PC:
A good screwdriver, preferably with interchangeable flat and Phillips bits.
Needle-nose pliers.
Wire snips.
A small flashlight, for peeking inside the case and looking under things.
A 3/16" hexagonal nut driver. This is the size of nut used for mounting the
motherboard into the case, and for mounting the serial and parallel
connectors to the case (for AT form factor systems).
Gather Software and Drivers: In order to complete the installation of the new system,
you will need certain software items:
Boot Disks: You must have at least one floppy boot disk to enable you to start
up the new system when you are assembling a PC with a new hard disk. I
recommend that you have at least two, because floppies are prone to failure.
Make sure that they have the correct operating system on them; make them
on another PC that has the same operating system, or use the boot disk that
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comes with your operating system CD-ROM. See this procedure for
instructions on creating boot disks.
CD-ROM Driver: You must have a driver disk for your CD-ROM drive, to allow
the CD-ROM to be accessible so you can install the operating system.
Operating System CD-ROM: You should have your operating system CD-ROM
ready for installation. Make sure you have the license key code and the
manual.
Video Card Driver: Your video card should come with a driver disk or CD-ROM,
which you will need during installation.
Sound Card Driver: Your sound card should also come with a driver disk or
CD-ROM, which you will need.
Other Drivers: Any other drivers needed for your hardware.
Prepare the Work Environment: Get your work area ready for the new build by
clearing space and setting aside the components you will not need for the start of the
assembly job. These include the monitor, keyboard, mouse, sound card, modem, and
other peripherals.
· System Case Cover Removal Procedure
System Case Cover Removal Procedure
This procedure provides specific instructions on how to remove the cover from and thereby
open a variety of different types of system cases. While it may seem like overkill to have a
procedure for what seems on the surface to be a simple matter, in fact some cases can be
surprisingly difficult to figure out if you're used to a different style.
Procedure Overview:
Difficulty Level: 1 (Very low).
Risk Factor: 1 (Very low).
Hardware Required: Phillips-head screwdriver for conventional models, none for most
screw less or single-screw models.
Software Required: None.
Time to Perform: 5 minutes or less.
Preparation / Warnings:
If this case is on a retail or brand-name PC that is under warranty, be very sure

that opening the case will not void your warranty. Some vendors now have
this policy, and you may even see stickers on the case that say that if they
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are removed or broken the warranty is void (but some have the policy and
not the stickers!)
Case and system manufacturers are getting quite creative, so not every
imaginable case design is covered here. If you read all of the different choices
you are likely to find one that is close to what you have, however. If you run
into anything radically different from what I have here, please write me and
I'll add it.
Be careful not to touch any of the internal components when removing the cover
Procedure Steps:
Disconnect Cables: Make sure the PC itself is off. Detach all the cables from the back of
the system case. Make a note of what went where so that you will know how to
reconnect them later on.
Remove Monitor and Other Devices From Top of Case: If you have a desktop case,
you of course need to move the monitor so that you can open the case. Also remove
any other devices from the top of the case. (This is also a good time to clean the case
if it is dusty).
Remove Plastic Back Panel (If Necessary): Some cases, especially older full tower
models, have a plastic panel about a half-inch thick that mounts onto the back of the
case. You have to remove this panel to access the screws that actually hold the
cover. It usually pulls right off the back of the case. Start with one corner and gently
pull it loose and set it aside.
Loosen and Remove Cover: The instructions for removing the cover depend on what
sort of case you have. Find the one that best describes your system:
Conventional Tower: This is the classic design that has been around for years
and is still being sold. Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the
case, and remove them using a screwdriver. There are usually three to six.
Gently pull back on the U-shaped top cover about a half-inch.; you may have
to rock it slightly. Lift the cover up off the frame of the case. Be careful, as
these covers are large and unwieldy.
Conventional Desktop: The conventional desktop case has been around since
the original IBM PC in 1982, and is still sometimes seen in new systems,
although not as often with the latest machines. Locate the screws along the
edge of the back of the case, and remove them with a screwdriver. There are
usually five but may be fewer. Gently push the cover forward. Watch out for
drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you try to slide it
forward. On some cases, the front cover slides all the way off the front of the
case. On others it will slide forward a couple of inches and stop, and then you
lift it up off the case.
Front-Screw Desktop: An odd design found on some slimline and proprietary

systems, this case has the screws that hold the cover on the front of the
case, and in a very hard to find spot. (The first time I ran into one of these I
was scratching my head for quite a while trying to figure it out). Look at the
front of the case near the bottom, where you may see small sliding plastic
doors on both sides of the case. Lift these out of the way and they will reveal
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small screws. Loosen the screws, and the slide the cover forward off the case.
There may be additional screws at the back of the case as well. Watch out for
drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you slide it.
Front-Screw Tower: I have seen some tower cases that have screws on the
front of the case holding the top cover on. There may be a front panel that
you have to remove to expose the screws and allow you to loosen and
remove the cover.
Single-Screw Tower / Desktop: This is a popular design amongst many

brand-name PC manufacturers, although the fully screw less design is now
replacing it. Locate the single screw at the top of the back of the case; this
can usually be loosened with your fingers. Look at the bottom of the case to
see if there are any clips holding the cover to the case, as there sometimes
are. Loosen these. Push the cover forward about an inch and then lift it off
the case frame. Some of these may lift straight up instead of sliding off from
the front.
Screwless Tower / Desktop: There are many different screw less designs; the
one I describe here is popular in such cases as those made by Enlight
Corporation. The trick with these puppies is that they often come apart in
pieces. Usually you have to start by pulling the front panel off. From the
bottom, grasp the plastic front panel and pull it loose, working your way to
the top. You may need to use a screwdriver to loosen it (ironic, isn't it?) Then
slide each of the side panels forward about a half-inch and lift up to remove
them. Finally, lift the top of the case straight up to remove it.
Store Screws In Safe Place: Some people forget this step and are very sorry for it later
on. :^)
Procedure Steps:
Disconnect Cables: Make sure the PC itself is off. Detach all the cables from the back of
the system case. Make a note of what went where so that you will know how to
reconnect them later on.
Remove Monitor and Other Devices From Top of Case: If you have a desktop case,
you of course need to move the monitor so that you can open the case. Also remove
any other devices from the top of the case. (This is also a good time to clean the case
if it is dusty).
Remove Plastic Back Panel (If Necessary): Some cases, especially older full tower
models, have a plastic panel about a half-inch thick that mounts onto the back of the
case. You have to remove this panel to access the screws that actually hold the
cover. It usually pulls right off the back of the case. Start with one corner and gently
pull it loose and set it aside.
Loosen and Remove Cover: The instructions for removing the cover depend on what
sort of case you have. Find the one that best describes your system:
Conventional Tower: This is the classic design that has been around for years
and is still being sold. Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the
case, and remove them using a screwdriver. There are usually three to six.
Gently pull back on the U-shaped top cover about a half-inch.; you may have
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to rock it slightly. Lift the cover up off the frame of the case. Be careful, as
these covers are large and unwieldy.
Conventional Desktop: The conventional desktop case has been around since
the original IBM PC in 1982, and is still sometimes seen in new systems,
although not as often with the latest machines. Locate the screws along the
edge of the back of the case, and remove them with a screwdriver. There are
usually five but may be fewer. Gently push the cover forward. Watch out for
drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you try to slide it
forward. On some cases, the front cover slides all the way off the front of the
case. On others it will slide forward a couple of inches and stop, and then you
lift it up off the case.
Front-Screw Desktop: An odd design found on some slimline and proprietary

systems, this case has the screws that hold the cover on the front of the
case, and in a very hard to find spot. (The first time I ran into one of these I
was scratching my head for quite a while trying to figure it out). Look at the
front of the case near the bottom, where you may see small sliding plastic
doors on both sides of the case. Lift these out of the way and they will reveal
small screws. Loosen the screws, and the slide the cover forward off the case.
There may be additional screws at the back of the case as well. Watch out for
drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you slide it.
Front-Screw Tower: I have seen some tower cases that have screws on the
front of the case holding the top cover on. There may be a front panel that
you have to remove to expose the screws and allow you to loosen and
remove the cover.
Single-Screw Tower / Desktop: This is a popular design amongst many

brand-name PC manufacturers, although the fully screwless design is now
replacing it. Locate the single screw at the top of the back of the case; this
can usually be loosened with your fingers. Look at the bottom of the case to
see if there are any clips holding the cover to the case, as there sometimes
are. Loosen these. Push the cover forward about an inch and then lift it off
the case frame. Some of these may lift straight up instead of sliding off from
the front.
Screwless Tower / Desktop: There are many different screwless designs; the
one I describe here is popular in such cases as those made by Enlight
Corporation. The trick with these puppies is that they often come apart in
pieces. Usually you have to start by pulling the front panel off. From the
bottom, grasp the plastic front panel and pull it loose, working your way to
the top. You may need to use a screwdriver to loosen it (ironic, isn't it?) Then
slide each of the side panels forward about a half-inch and lift up to remove
them. Finally, lift the top of the case straight up to remove it.
Store Screws In Safe Place: Some people forget this step and are very sorry for it later
on. :^)
· System Case Preparation Procedure
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System Case Preparation Procedure
This procedure covers preparing the system case for the installation of a new system. You will
want to perform this procedure when you are assembling a new PC, performing a major
upgrade such as a full system upgrade, or moving a system to a new case. The focus of this
procedure is on preparing a new system case, but the steps generally apply to an older case
being reused as well. There will just be less assembly in the event of an older case (but you
will need to clean the inside of the case most likely).
This procedure is geared more towards tower cases, since that is all that I use. Tower cases
are superior to desktop cases for those doing their own PC assembly.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 1 (Very low).
· Risk Factor: 2 (Low).
· Hardware Required: Screwdriver.
· Software Required: None.
· Time to Perform: About 5-10 minutes.
· Preparation / Warnings:
· Make sure the case is unplugged at all times.
· The system case should be open before you begin. For instructions on
opening the case, refer to this procedure.
· Watch out for sharp metal edges inside the system case. I've cut myself
before.
· Cases vary widely and you may need to adjust these instructions. I use
high-quality, name-brand cases but there are hundreds of designs.
Procedure Steps:
1. Inspect Case Contents: Inspect the contents of the case to ensure that everything
that should be with it, is. New or old, you will need these components.
2. Clean Case (if necessary): If this is an older case it probably could use a good
cleaning by blowing out the whole interior with compressed air.
3. Inspect Power Supply: Make sure the power supply is tightly attached to the case.
If this is an old case, make sure the vents from the fan are clean; if not clean them
using compressed air or a vacuum. If this is a new case, double-check the input
voltage setting (110V or 220V) to make sure it is correct (or else!!)
4. Inspect Power Switch: Make sure the power switch is mounted securely to the
front of the case and the wire going back to the power supply is intact, not pinched,
and not loose.
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5. Install Feet (if necessary): Some cases come with separate plastic feet in a bag
inside the box. Put these into their holes in the bottom of the case now. You may not
be able to access the bottom later on (happened to me, big waste of time pulling
everything out).
6. Install Slot Inserts (if necessary): Some cases come with the inserts that go in
the expansion slots in a separate plastic bag. You can install these now (leaving out
one where you think the video card and other cards will go) or install them later. Your
choice, just do it at some point.
7. Install or Remove Drive Bay Faceplates: Some cases come with all of their drive
bay faceplates (plastic covers, bezels) installed and some come with all of them
loose. You will want to insert the faceplates into the drive bay positions you don't plan
to use and remove them from those you are going to use. To some extent you can't
finalize this until after you plan your system layout, but you can always change them
later on.
8. Install Additional Cooling Fan (optional): Some cases come with space for an
additional cooling fan. If you are going to use a second fan, install it now. For an AT
form factor system, the second fan should blow into the case (advice from Enlight
Corporation, major case manufacturer).
9. Jumper LED Display (optional): Some cases still have an LED display to show the
"speed" of the system. The speed is set using jumpers inside the case; set them now
if you are going to do this. If the manual doesn't tell you how to set the jumpers,
you're pretty much out of luck...
10. Detach Motherboard Panel: Most newer tower cases today come with a detachable
panel upon which the motherboard is mounted. Detach this panel now. Usually, this
is done by pulling down on the U-shaped handle on the outside of the panel. It can
take significant force to overcome the springs holding the panel in place. On some
cases, the panel is held in place using screws.
· System Layout Planning Procedure
This procedure discusses some of the important considerations in planning the internal case
layout of a system. This is a step that many people forget about when assembling a new PC,
and as a result, they end up wasting a lot of time moving components around after they have
been installed. Worse, poor planning increases the chances of problems with the system,
especially due to cooling, that may not show up until weeks or months after the system has
been installed. This procedure may also help those who have an existing system experiencing
overheating problems; using the guidelines here you may want to make changes to how the
system is laid out.
Note: This procedure isn't so much a set of step-by-step instructions like most of the others
are, but more of a collection of specific items to take into account when preparing to build or
rebuild a PC.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2 (Low).
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· Risk Factor: 1 (Very low).
· Hardware Required: None.
· Time to Perform: Approximately 10-15 minutes.
· Having the system case open in front of you makes this procedure much
easier to do, because it allows for much easier visualization. For instructions
on opening up the case, see here.
· As usual, be careful when handling loose components, ground yourself first,

and avoid touching anything made of metal.
Procedure Steps:
1. General Layout Planning Considerations:
· It is almost always better to place components further away from each other
than right next to each other. This means that if at all possible, leave space
between expansion cards, hard disk drives, etc. This improves cooling and
reduces the chances of physical interference.
· Items that generate a great deal of heat should be placed in a part of the
case that will get more ventilation.
· Always allow slack in planning the length of cables. A cable that just barely
reaches between two components is much more likely to be pulled out
accidentally.
· You may want to very carefully place the loose motherboard into the system
case in the approximate place where it is going to go. This will allow you to
plan much better. Make sure you insulate the motherboard completely from
the metal of the system case!
· Similarly, you may want to temporarily slide the drives into their bays to see
where their connectors end up. Be careful.
2. Plan Location of Drives: Plan where you are going to put the drives in your system.
These are the factors you need to take into account:
· Decide how many IDE channels you are going to use; see the section on
setting hard disk and CD-ROM jumpers for more information on this. Then
examine the distance between the IDE header(s) on the motherboard, and
the drive bays in the case. Compare to the length of the IDE cables; obviously
they have to reach. If you are going to put two devices on the same cable,
make sure the cable will reach both drives.
· Some IDE devices are sensitive to the length of the cable used. Shorter is
better, all else being equal. You can get extended length IDE cables but I
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don't recommend it with newer drives. The standard IDE cable limit is 18
inches.
· Check the distance of the floppy drive from the location of the floppy drive
header pins on the motherboard, and compare to the length of the floppy
cable. You can get extended-length floppy cables; the floppy is a low-speed
device so this doesn't usually cause a problem.
· Check the length of your CD audio cable. The CD-ROM drive cannot be further
away from the sound card than the length of this cable.
· Watch out for intereference between drives and the motherboard. In

particular, the voltage regulator on modern motherboards can get very hot in
operation, and you want to keep it away from hard disk drives. In general, I
try to keep drives of all sorts away from the motherboard.
· It is preferable to mount hard disk drives horizontally (label up), rather than
vertically (on their side).
· Some cases have a spot for mounting a hard disk at the very top of the case.
This is usually not the best position for a hard disk, for two reasons: First, the
ventilation in this part of the case is usually poor. Second, this part of the
case is usually farthest from the motherboard, making it a stretch to get the
cable to reach.
· You can mount a 3.5" drive into a 5.25" drive bay using a mounting kit
adapter available at most computer stores. If you are low on bays, it is best
to use 3.5" bays for 3.5" drives whenever possible, since you can't go the
other way. If you have a lot of bays, you may want to decide on where to put
the drives based more on cooling considerations.
· If the system is in a tower case that is going to be placed on the floor, it's
easier for the user to reach the drive doors to change media in floppy or
CD-ROM drives when they are towards the top of the case.
· Count the number of drives that are going into the system. Then count the
number of power plugs that come from the power supply. If the first number
exceeds the second, you will need to purchase and use a "Y adapter" to split
one of the plugs out for use by two devices.
· Check the ability of the power plugs from the power supply to reach the
drives in your planned locations.
3. Plan Location of Expansion Cards: There are a few considerations to take into
account when planning which expansion card slots you are going to use for which
devices:
· Consider where the video, sound, network and other cards are going to go in
the system and visualize whether they will conflict with any motherboard
devices or drives in the system.
· It is better not to place cards in adjacent slots. This allows for better cooling
and makes it easier to see the card without having to remove it.
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· AT form factor motherboards usually have only a couple of slots that will
accomodate a full-length card. Leave these open unless you need them. Put
short cards in slots that can't take long cards due to their position with
respect to the processor socket or voltage regulator.
· Some slots may be directly next to pin headers or jumpers on some

motherboards. Using these slots makes reaching the headers more difficult.
· If your motherboard has a shared PCI/ISA slot, do not use it during the initial
system setup unless absolutely necessary. It gives you more flexibility for
future expansion, when you don't know which bus type you will need.
· Floppy Disk Drive Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for physically installing a floppy disk drive into a system
case. This is really not a very difficult process, and doesn't really take that long to do. This
procedure covers 3.5" and 5.25" floppy drives and deals only with the physical installation.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: Screwdriver and screws; you may need additional screws if
using a mounting kit.
· Time to Perform: Usually about 5-10 minutes. Can take slightly longer if there are
fit problems or adapters are needed.
· If you have not already done so, please read the section on general
installation and assembly tips.
· Make sure that the floppy cable will reach the drive in its intended location.
Refer to the system layout planning procedure if necessary. You can buy a
longer floppy cable if you need one; there aren't the same distance concerns
here as with hard disk interface cables.
· Make sure that a power cable from the power supply will reach the drive. 3.5"
drives use the smaller mini-plug usually provided on modern supplies.
Adapters are available for a couple of bucks for use in older systems.
· Make sure that you don't mount the drive upside-down. For a 3.5" drive, the
button goes underneath the disk slot. For a 5.25" drive, the level pulls down
to close on an inserted disk.
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· Some cheap cases are made from very flimsy sheet metal and may require
you to flex them somewhat to get the drive to slide in properly.
Procedure Steps:
1. Find Pin 1 On Drive: Take a close look at the drive and determine which end of the
interface connector is pin 1. There should be some sort of a marking near pin 1 to
indicate it, which may be a small number "1", a dot, an arrow, a square around the
pin where it connects to the circuit board, or some other indication. You'll need to
know where pin 1 is when you connect the drive up, which may be quite a while later
on. It's much harder to determine which end is pin 1 after the drive is installed.
2. Install Mounting Kit, If Necessary: If you are installing a 3.5" drive into a 5.25"
drive bay, you will need to use a mounting or adapter kit. To use this kit, place the
3.5" drive into the middle of the adapter, and then use four screws to mount the
drive to the inside of the adapter. Some adapters mount using screwholes on the
bottom of the drive and some using screwholes on the side. Make sure you orient the
drive correctly. Then test the mounted drive by sliding it into the drive bay. Ensure
that it fits properly. Once this is done, you continue this procedure and just treat this
drive+kit assembly mechanically as if it were a 5.25" drive.
3. Mount Drive Into Case: There are at least four different ways of mounting a floppy
drive into the system case that I have encountered, and there are probably more.
Determine which of the following matches your case and follow the appropriate
instructions:
· Direct Mount: The simplest and most common mounting method is the
direct mount, where the drive slides into the bay and mounts directly to the
drive bay walls. Slide the drive into the bay, and align the drive's faceplate
with the front of the case (you may need to put the front of the case back on
to do this). When the drive is lined up correctly, secure the drive to the bay
using four screws.
· Drive Rails: Some cases, especially older ones, use two thin rails that are
mounted to the drive, and then used to slide the drive into the drive bay. If
your cases uses these, select two matching rails, one for either side of the
drive. Place the drive into the bay without the rails first, to allow you to
visualize where the rails need to mount onto the drive so that once inserted,
the drive will line up correctly with the front of the case. Attach the rails to
either side of the drive, using two screws per rail. Then slide the drive into the
bay. Verify that the front of the drive lines up correctly. Some drive rail cases
have spring-loaded clips on the front that snap into place when the drive is
inserted all the way (mostly newer cases). Others require you to screw the
drive into the bay anyway, using holes in the front of the drive bay. Either
way, make sure the drive is not free to move around when you are done.
· Mounting Plate: Some cases mount 3.5" drives using a thin mounting plate
that attaches to the bottom of the drive. If your case has one of these,
detach it from the case. Then screw the drive into the plate, and reinsert the
plate into the case. Some plates detach from the case using a single screw.
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The drive should like up properly once reinserted; this is part of the reason for
this design, as it eliminates the alignment step in most cases.
· Mounting Box: Some cases, especially desktops, use a removable metal box
into which the drive is mounted. The procedure here is similar to that for
direct mount, above, except that you have to remove the box first and insert
the drive into it, then remount the box. Be sure to check the alignment before
you tighten the screws.
4. Double-Check Installation: Make sure the drive has been fitted properly into the
case and that there is no interference with other components. Ensure that it is not
loose in the case.
· IDE /ATA Device Configuration Procedure
This procedure describes how to configure the IDE/ATA/ATAPI devices in the system. This
includes of course most common hard disk and CD-ROM drives, as well as other ATAPI
devices such as tape drives, Zip drives, etc. This procedure should be used when installing a
new PC, when changing the configuration of an existing system, or when adding a new device
to the system. This procedure does not deal with SCSI devices, which are configured and
handled completely differently.
In this procedure I try to look at configuring all the devices in the system as a whole. While
the task of configuring devices for a new PC install may seem totally different from what you
have to do when adding a new device, in fact, they are quite similar. The reason is that
because the configuration of the different IDE/ATA devices in the system has a strong impact
on performance. Adding a new device may require changing the configuration of existing
devices, or may simply mean that changing the configuration will make the PC run more
optimally. For this reason, it is always best to at least examine the configuration of all
IDE/ATA devices in the system whenever adding, removing or changing any of them.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). It's not difficult to actually configure the
devices in most cases, but it can be tricky with some devices. It can also take some
experience to know how best to configure the devices when there are more than two.
· Hardware Required: Needle-nose pliers, or another tool for grasping small objects
(long fingernails will do for some people).
· Software Required: None, but you may need the manual to help you configure one
or more of the drives.
· Time to Perform: 5 minutes, plus whatever analysis time is required to figure out
how you want to set up the system. For a simple system (one hard disk and one
CD-ROM drive), this means pretty much 5 minutes. :^)
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· I strongly recommend reading this large section devoted to IDE/ATA

configuration if you do not understand what all of the following terms mean in
the context of IDE/ATA configuration: primary IDE channel, secondary IDE
channel, master, slave, jumpering. This section will give you a great deal of
background information that will be of value in performing this procedure.
· This procedure assumes that all of the devices can be configured as either
master or slave. Some devices can only be configured as either master or
slave, or may have problems in one configuration or the other. Obviously, this
needs to be taken into account when setting up the system.
· If you are using bus mastering drivers, you may run into compatibility
problems if you put hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives on the same IDE
channel.
· Tip: If a particular device requires that no jumpers at all be set for it to be in

the configuration you require, hang the jumper off a single jumper pin. This
will act the same as if the jumper were totally removed, and it will be there if
you need it in the future.
Procedure Steps:
1. Determine Configuration: The first thing you need to do is to decide how you want
to configure your system. A system with one hard disk and one CD-ROM is usually
configured with the hard disk as the master drive on the primary channel and the
CD-ROM as the master drive on the secondary channel. However, some systems
place both drives on the same channel (which I usually do not recommend). There
are many different factors that must be taken into account when deciding on a
configuration. I cover this topic in detail here. In addition, I provide specific
configuration recommendations here, for various common combinations of hard disk
and CD-ROM drives. Refer to these sections and decide how you want to set up your
system.
2. Determine Which Drives Require Jumpering: Any new drives being added to the
system should be double-checked to ensure their configuration matches your system
configuration plan. However, existing drives that you've decided not to change do not
require rejumpering.
3. Determine How to Jumper Each Device: Examine each drive you are going to
jumper, to determine how it is supposed to be set. Take into account the following:
· The best place to find jumpering information is the drive's manual. Major
manufacturers also provide jumpering information for all new and most legacy
devices on their web sites.
· Some drives jumper only as master or slave, while others have master, slave,
and "single" configurations. In the latter case, "single" is used when the drive
is by itself on the channel.
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· There is no standard for jumpering IDE/ATA hard disk drives. Each drive may
have different numbers of jumpers, and they may be in different places.
Fortunately, most hard disk drives at least now put the jumpering information
on the drive labels.
· CD-ROM drives are fairly similar in the location of their jumpers and are
almost always labeled.
· You can technically leave a CD-ROM jumpered as a slave drive by itself on a

channel, but it's better to just make it the master.
4. Set Jumpers For Each Device: Using a pair of needle-nose pliers or a similar tool
(or your fingernails), set the appropriate jumpers for each device.
· Hard Disk Drive Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for installing a hard disk drive into a system case.
Performing this installation is not that difficult as long as you follow the directions, of course.
:^) It is important to install hard disk drives correctly, because as the warehouse for your
data, the hard disk is one of the most important devices in the PC. This procedure deals only
with the physical installation of the drive.
Procedure Overview:
· Risk Factor: 2-4 (Low to High). The actual risk to the drive is quite low. The risk is to
any data that may be on the drive. If the drive is empty or at least has been backed
up, there isn't really that much risk.
· Hardware Required: Screwdriver and screws; you may need additional screws if
using a mounting kit.
fit problems or adapters are needed.
· It is always wise to make sure you have a backup of any drive before moving
it to a new PC or reinstalling it. Of course, it's generally too late to do
anything about this if the drive is already out of its system. :^)
· Ensure you have already decided how you want to configure the hard disk
drive, and that you have already set the appropriate jumpers. See this
procedure if you have not already done this.
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· Make sure that the interface cable will reach the drive in its intended location.
Refer to the system layout planning procedure if necessary. Unlike with floppy
drives, you cannot just get a longer cable in most cases when you are dealing
with IDE/ATA drives. The length of the cable is limited to 18" and in some
cases less. See here for more details.
· Ensure that a power cable from the power supply will reach the drive.
· Make sure that you don't mount the drive upside-down or backwards. The
label of the drive goes up, and the circuit board down. The connectors should
face into the middle of the case so the interface cable can reach them.
· Internal hard disk drives have an exposed circuit board on the bottom (the
drive's integrated logic board). Be especially careful not to damage this
board, and ensure during installation that nothing contacts it. Check after
installation to ensure that nothing can accidentally contact the board.
Procedure Steps:
interface connector is pin 1. There should be some sort of a marking near pin 1 to
indicate it, which may be a small number "1", a dot, an arrow, a square around the
pin where it connects to the circuit board, or some other indication. You'll need to
know where pin 1 is when you connect the drive up, which may be much later on. It's
much harder to determine which end is pin 1 after the drive is installed.
Tip: Hard disks usually have pin 1 of the connector next to the drive's power connector.
2. Install Mounting Kit, If Necessary: Virtually all modern cases have internal 3.5"
drive bays meant specifically for hard drives. However, if you are installing into an
older case or one that has its internal 3.5" bays full, you will need to use a mounting
or adapter kit. To use this kit, place the drive into the middle of the adapter, and then
use four screws to mount the drive to the inside of the adapter. Some adapters
mount using screwholes on the bottom of the drive and some using screwholes on
the side. Make sure you orient the drive correctly. Then test the mounted drive by
sliding it into the drive bay. Ensure that it fits properly.
3. Mount Drive Into Case: There are three common ways of mounting a hard disk
drive into the system case that I have encountered. Determine which of the following
matches your case and follow the appropriate instructions:
drive bay walls. Slide the drive into the bay and align the holes on the side of
the drive with the holes in the drive bay. There may be more than one place
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in the bay where the drive will fit into the case. When the drive is lined up
correctly, secure the drive to the bay using four screws.
the drive will fit properly into the bay. Attach the rails to either side of the
drive, using two screws per rail. Then slide the drive into the bay. Verify that
the front of the drive lines up correctly. Some drive rail cases have
spring-loaded clips on the front that snap into place when the drive is inserted
all the way (mostly newer cases). Others require you to screw the drive into
the bay anyway, using holes in the front of the drive bay. Either way, make
sure the drive is not free to move around when you are done.
the drive into it, then remount the box.
case and that there is no interference with other components. In particular, make
sure that the logic board on the bottom of the drive is not touching anything. Ensure
that it is not loose in the case.
· CD-ROM Drive Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure describes how to install a CD-ROM drive into a system case. This procedure
deals only with the physical installation of the drive.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: Screwdriver and screws.
fit problems.
· Ensure you have already decided how you want to configure the CD-ROM
drive, and that you have already set the appropriate jumpers. See this
procedure if you have not already done this.
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· Make sure that the interface cable will reach the drive in its intended location.
Refer to the system layout planning procedure if necessary. Unlike with floppy
drives, you cannot just get a longer cable in most cases when you are dealing
with ATAPI CD-ROM drives. The length of the cable is limited to 18" and in
some cases less. See here for more details.
· Ensure that a power cable from the power supply will reach the drive.
· If you are using a sound card, make sure that the audio connect cable that
will run between the CD-ROM and the sound card will reach the CD-ROM in its
intended location.
· Make sure that you don't mount the drive upside-down. The eject button for
the drive goes underneath the drive tray.
· Most CD-ROM drives cannot be mounted sideways, because the CD will not
stay in the tray if it is vertical. Some drives that use caddies can be mounted
on their sides, however.
Procedure Steps:
interface connector is pin 1. While this can be quite confusing with hard disk drives,
most CD-ROM drives have decent labeling on the drive itself to tell you "which end is
up". You'll need to know where pin 1 is when you connect the drive up, which may be
much later on. It's much harder to determine which end is pin 1 after the drive is
installed.
Tip: CD-ROM drives usually have pin 1 of the connector next to the drive's power connector.
2. Mount Drive Into Case: There are three common ways of mounting a CD-ROM
drive into the system case that I have encountered. Determine which of the following
matches your case and follow the appropriate instructions:
drive bay walls. Slide the drive into the bay, and align the drive's faceplate
with the front of the case (you may need to put the front of the case back on
temporarily to do this). When the drive is lined up correctly, secure the drive
to the bay using four screws.
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the drive will line up correctly with the front of the case. Attach the rails to
either side of the drive, using two screws per rail. Then slide the drive into the
bay. Verify that the front of the drive lines up correctly. Some drive rail cases
have spring-loaded clips on the front that snap into place when the drive is
inserted all the way (mostly newer cases). Others require you to screw the
drive into the bay anyway, using holes in the front of the drive bay. Either
way, make sure the drive is not free to move around when you are done.
the drive into it, then remount the box. Be sure to check the alignment before
you tighten the screws.
case and that there is no interference with other components. Ensure that it is not
loose in the case.
· Motherboard Configuration Procedure
This procedure describes the steps required to configure a motherboard for installation. You
will normally use this procedure when building a new PC or performing a motherboard
upgrade. Configuring the motherboard is traditionally done using jumpers, which are small
pieces of plastic and metal that are used to change how the circuitry on the motherboard
functions. Some newer boards today are called jumperless, because they use not jumpers
but rather a special group of BIOS settings to set most of the configuration options that are
set with jumpers on conventional boards (they do still have some jumpers so the name isn't
entirely accurate). These boards reduce this particular procedure a great deal (but add an
additional step later on in the build process). You still need to look through this procedure
however since as I say, these boards do have some jumpers.
Note that this procedure covers configuration only; installation is addressed in this procedure.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 3 (Moderate). Motherboards can be quite confusing to figure out

and it can be hard to find where all the jumpers are.
· Risk Factor: 4 (High). Setting the incorrect jumpers on the motherboard can lead to
permanent hardware damage or data loss. If you are careful this won't happen but it
is a possibility.
(jumpers are very small). Long fingernails will do for some people.
· Time to Perform: 10-15 minutes, as long as you know what the jumper settings
need to be or your manual contains the necessary information.
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· This procedure lists the most common jumper settings, and is not an
exhaustive list. Always set and/or check every jumper that your board has.
Similarly, some of the settings discussed here may not apply to your
particular board.
· Some motherboards aggregate two or more of the individual jumper settings

listed in this procedure into a "processor type" group setting that changes
several functions at once. For example, some boards instead of spelling out
the jumper settings for processor core voltage, I/O voltage, system bus
speed and multiplier, just list every one of the common CPUs and tell you how
to set a block of different jumpers. Some manuals actually show it both ways.
It doesn't really make much difference, although you should realize that if the
individual jumpers are not listed, and you are using a newer CPU that wasn't
around when the manual was printed, you will have to contact the
manufacturer to find out what the jumper settings are for it. This procedure
shows only the individual settings.
· Always check all the jumper settings. Many motherboards have some jumper
settings that are almost never changed from their defaults. Do not be lulled
into not checking these, as sometimes the manufacturer will not correctly set
defaults. Incorrect jumper settings can cause bizarre problems later on that
are very hard to trace back to their actual cause.
· Similarly, some vendors will considerately pre-jumper the board to match the
CPU and other hardware you are using, if you buy this other material with the
motherboard. This is a nice service, but you should still double-check the
settings. Vendors are human too, and it's your hardware.
· Jumpers are most often labeled with a "JP" prefix, such as "JP20", however
many boards label them differently. Watch out for boards that use "JP" for
jumpers" and "J" for pin connectors (such as the hard disk LED, speaker, etc.)
It can be easy to mix up "J16" and "JP16". I've seen boards that even mixed
"J" and "JP" for both jumpers and connectors! I'd like to smack some of these
designers around sometimes. :^)
· Be careful to jumper the processor based on the true bus speed and
multiplier settings required for it, and do not be fooled by the "P" rating on
some CPUs. For example, the Cyrix 6x86L-PR166 runs at 133 MHz, not 166.
See the reference section on processor families if you need to look up the
specifics for any processor, but this information is normally in a good
motherboard manual.
· Some newer CPUs interpret multiplier settings differently from what they are
specified as in the motherboard manual. In particular, since most standard
Pentium motherboards do not have a 3.5x multiplier, processors like the
K6-233 interpret 1.5x as 3.5x, and should be jumpered using the 1.5x
setting.
· If necessary, first carefully unpack the motherboard from its packaging and
inspect it for damage.
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· Always exercise care in the handling of the motherboard. Watch out for ESD.
I normally place the motherboard on top of the anti-static bag in which it
came while working on it, and then on top of something soft to cushion the
metal pins that stick through the bottom of the board. Do not put the board
directly on a work surface or you could damage the bottom of the board.
Always work on a flat surface.
Procedure Steps:
1. RTFM: This of course stands for "Read The Fine Manual". (Now, now, none of that
please, this is a "G-rated" site. :^) ) Trying to configure a motherboard without
having the manual around is an exercise in masochism. If you don't have the manual,
find it, ask your vendor or local shop if they have a spare, or try to see if you can find
jumpering information from the manufacturer or on the Internet. Assuming you do
have the manual, read the section that describes the jumpers on your particular
board. You will want to set or check every one of these jumpers. Also look at the
picture of the board included in most decent manuals, to physically locate where the
jumpers are.
2. Set Processor Voltage Jumper(s): Most newer motherboards will have two voltage
specifications, one for the internal (core) voltage of the CPU, and one for the external
(I/O) voltage. See here for details on these voltage levels. Be sure to set the correct
levels for your CPU; again, the manual may tell you what settings you need for the
processors it supports. If you are using an older processor without split-rail voltage,
set both settings the same (obviously).
3. Set Processor Speed Jumpers: The speed of the processor is determined by two
primary jumper settings: the system bus speed, and the multiplier (how many times
the bus speed the CPU speed is). For example, a Pentium with MMX 200 uses a
system bus speed of 66 MHz and a multiplier of 3x. Watch out for newer CPUs that
use a lower multiplier which is interpreted differently by the CPU. For example, 233
MHz processors are often jumpered as 66x1.5, and the CPU interprets the 1.5x as
3.5x internally. Again, consult your manual.
4. Set Secondary Cache Size and Type Jumper: Some motherboards accept cache
in different configurations and therefore have jumpers depending on how much cache
is on the board and whether it is soldered on or inserted via a COASt module. Some
boards, especially those using the Intel 430HX chipset, may have a jumper that
needs to be set if you have inserted a second tag RAM chip to enable caching over 64
MB of system memory. Increasingly, newer boards are doing away with these
different configurations so this jumper is becoming less common. You definitely won't
find anything like this on a Pentium Pro or Pentium II motherboard, since these
processors have their own integrated secondary cache.
5. Check Flash BIOS Jumper: If your system has a jumper to enable the flash BIOS
feature, check it to make sure that it is disabled. This should be the default.
6. Check CMOS Clear Jumper: Some systems have a jumper that will let you clear the
contents of the CMOS memory, something that is needed most often when a system
password is set and then forgotten. Make sure that this jumper is set to the normal or
default position, or you won't be able to set any BIOS settings.
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7. Check Battery Source Jumper: Some motherboards use a jumper to determine if
the onboard battery is to power the CMOS memory, or an external battery. Again,
make sure this is set to the default position (onboard battery) unless using an
external.
8. Check Disable Jumpers: Some motherboards have special jumpers to allow you to
enable or disable parts of the motherboard at a hardware level (for example, the
serial/parallel ports or the floppy disk controller). Make sure that these jumpers are
set properly (normally, you won't want to disable any of these items).
9. Set Memory Size Jumpers: Very rarely seen on new boards, jumpers to set the
size of the system memory were common on 486-class boards. Set these if your
board requires them.
10. Double-Check Settings: It may seem redundant to make all the settings and then
check them, but it's worth a few minutes to do this. Incorrectly-jumpered
motherboards are a leading cause of system problems and can be very hard to
diagnose.
· Processor Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure describes how to install a system processor in a motherboard. This is a fairly
straightforward process, although of course you want to be very careful when performing it
due to the fragility of the component. This procedure provides steps and caveats for
installation of all types of socketed CPUs. I will add instructions for installing slotted CPUs
(those using an SEC package, i.e. the Pentium II) at a later time. Note that this procedure
deals only with the physical installation of the CPU, and does not contain all of the steps
necessary for a CPU upgrade, for example.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-4 (Low to High). For most newer processors in modern
motherboards, this is a simple procedure. For some older ones that go into older
motherboards, it can actually be quite difficult to get the processor to install.
· Risk Factor: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). Despite the fragility of the processor, it's quite
rare to wreck one just by trying to install it. If you insert the processor incorrectly into
the socket, however, you definitely risk damaging it.
· Time to Perform: Less than 5 minutes
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· This procedure assumes that the socket is already empty and does not
include instructions for removing any processor that may have been there
before.
· This procedure assumes that the processor has not had a heat sink attached
to it yet. The instructions don't really differ that much if the sink is already
attached, however.
· Make sure that the motherboard is on a flat, clean, sturdy, static-free surface.
· Do not attempt to install the processor if you cannot be sure that you have
oriented the processor correctly in the socket.
· Heat Sink Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure describes how to install a heat sink onto a conventional, socketed system
processor. Modern CPUs require special cooling to ensure that they function properly, and the
heat sink must be installed correctly to ensure that it does its job. Some processors come
with an integrated heat sink and fan, and if you are installing one of these then you do not
need to follow this procedure. I cover the installation of both passive heat sinks and active
heat sinks (those that include a fan) here.
Procedure Overview:
· Risk Factor: 1 (Very low). This assumes the CPU is already in the socket, otherwise
the risk of damaging the CPU increases significantly.
· Hardware Required: Heat sink compound.
· This procedure assumes that the processor has already been installed into the
motherboard. You can attach some heat sinks to a loose CPU as well, but
some require the socket to secure properly to the chip.
· If you want to double-check the markings on the CPU, for example to make
sure that it has not been remarked, you will want of course to do this now,
before you install the heat sink.
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· This procedure does not provide instructions for heat sink installation onto
Pentium II processors (which are not socketed but use the SEC packaging
format).
Procedure Steps:
1. Attach Fan to Heat Sink: Some active heat sinks come with the fan not actually
attached to the heat sink. If yours is like this, then attach the fan to the fins of the
heat sink now. This is usually done by screwing the fan into the heat sink using four
screws supplied with it.
2. Apply Heat Sink Compound: Open up the heat sink compound and apply a thin
layer to the surface of the CPU using your finger. The layer should just be thick
enough to obscure the surface of the chip. On CPUs that are totally flat, go almost all
the way to the edges. On CPUs that have a raised metal plate in the center, apply the
compound almost to the edge of the plate; you should not try to spread it over the
whole surface of the chip, just the raised area (this is how the package is designed).
Do not apply too much compound--more is not better here, and too much will make a
huge mess when you attach the heat sink.
3. Attach Heat Sink: Place the heat sink on the surface of the CPU. Then secure the
heat sink to the processor. Some heat sinks simply slip over the edges of the
processor and just kind of "sit there". Most newer ones use metal clips that attach to
the processor socket. To apply these, slip one of the metal clips over the plastic nub
on one side of the socket, then stretch the clip across the CPU and over the nub on
the other side. It may take a bit of pressure to bend the metal clip so that it will fit
over the socket; this is what forces the heat sink onto the processor to ensure good
contact. Just don't press too hard.
Warning: The suction formed by the heat sink compound can cause the heatsink to
bond tightly to the CPU. In the next step you will be instructed to pull the heat sink
straight off the CPU without sliding it. Only do this if you can do it without using
excessive force, or you may damage the processor.
4. Check and Adjust Heat Sink Compound: Carefully remove the heat sink, by
loosening it and lifting it straight up off the processor (don't slide it off, but bear in
mind the warning immediately above). Then look carefully at the heat sink compound
on the processor. You may see some areas where the heat sink compound is still
smooth from where you applied it with your finger, and other areas where it has been
disturbed (it may have a stippled appearance here, like a stucco ceiling). The
disturbed areas are where the heat sink was making contact with the heat sink
compound; the smooth areas are where it was not touching. In the areas that were
not making good contact, apply a small amount of additional compound. Then
reattach the heat sink. Repeat this step as necessary until you have good contact
over most of the surface area of the chip.
5. Clean Up (If Necessary): If you're like me, you'll apply too much heat sink
compound the first few times you do this. :^) Check around the perimeter of the CPU
for extra compound that has oozed out from between the heat sink and CPU, and
wipe it up. Do it now, because once the processor heats up the compound becomes
more liquid and will make an enormous mess
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· Memory Module Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for physically installing memory modules into a
motherboard. I include here instructions for installing both SIMM and DIMM packaged
memory. Installing memory modules can be a bit tricky, because SIMM sockets especially are
both delicate and sometimes difficult to use.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). Some SIMM sockets can be extremely
troublesome to use and it may take some patience to get the modules to install
properly. Others are easier to use. DIMM sockets are also easier to deal with.
· Risk Factor: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). It is possible to damage a SIMM socket by

trying to force a module into the socket incorrectly (but only if you are impatient and
force it). I have also received reports indicating the possibility of a damaged
motherboard if a module is inserted incorrectly.
· Hardware Required: A small, thin, flat-bladed screwdriver may be handy in some

cases.
· This procedure assumes that the sockets are already empty and does not
include instructions for removing any modules that may already be present.
· Make sure that the motherboard is on a flat, clean, sturdy, static-free surface.
· Make sure that you are using the correct type of module for your system.
· For Pentium-class or later systems, 72-pin SIMMs must be used in identical

pairs to make up a bank; 168-pin DIMMs are used individually. For 486-class
systems, 72-pin modules are used individually and 30-pin modules in groups
of four to make up a bank. If you need assistance understanding the concept
of a bank of memory, please refer to this page.
· This procedure assumes industry-standard SIMM sockets that are mounted to

the motherboard so that when properly installed, the SIMMs will be
perpendicular to the motherboard. There are some motherboards that have
different types of sockets and the instructions below would have to be
improvised to suit these.
Procedure Steps:
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1. Identify Installation Socket(s): Determine which memory module sockets you are
going to use for these modules. As usual, the best way to do this is to consult your
motherboard documentation; most motherboards will also physically label the
modules with numbered identifiers. For a new system, you will normally want to use
the first bank of memory on the motherboard, which normally means the
lowest-numbered socket(s). If you are installing more than one module, be sure to
install them in the correct order. This should be obvious by looking at the orientation
of the sockets on the motherboard. If you install them in the wrong order then you'll
block off the second socket with the first SIMM in most cases, and you'll have to
remove and then reinstall them in the correct order.
Warning: SIMM and DIMM sockets are sometimes numbered staring with zero. This means
that on a motherboard that takes SIMMs, the first bank of memory may be "SIMM0" and
"SIMM1". If you use "SIMM1" and "SIMM2", you will be accidentally installing half a bank of
memory into each of the first two banks on the motherboard, and the system will not
f u n c t i o n .
2. Orient Module: Line up the module next to the socket. Modules are keyed to
prevent incorrect insertion. The keying on the module itself is obvious, but you may
have to look very carefully at the socket to see which way the notch goes, and the
module itself may appear to be able to sit into the slot either way. Don't worry too
much about this; if you put the module in the wrong way you'll realize it as soon as
you try to tilt the module into place (it won't work).
3. Insert Module: Insert the module into the socket. The instructions depend on the
type of module:
· SIMM: Hold the module at about a 60 degree angle to the motherboard and
then insert it into the socket. You will probably have to rock the module back
and forth slightly to get it to go in. Make sure that the module is seated all
the way into the bottom of the module; if it won't go all the way in, you may
have it oriented backwards.
· DIMM: Firmly but gently push the module straight down into the socket. It
will not go all the way to the very bottom at this stage, but make sure it is
pushed in as far as it will go without requiring excessive force.
4. Lock Module Into Place: The module will still be loose in the socket at this point; it
is not fully installed until you lock it into position:
· SIMM: Tilt the module up from the approximately 60 degree angle you used
when inserting it, to a 90 degree angle (perpendicular to the motherboard).
This may require a bit of pressure, but if the module will not tilt up at all, it is
almost certainly inserted either backwards or not all the way into the bottom
of the socket. Do not force the module. Pull it out and reinsert it if necessary;
don't feel bad, this happens to me all the time. After you tilt the module into
place, you should see (and may even hear) small metal or plastic clips snap
into place around the module's circuit board, on either side. Sometimes the
clips don't snap properly and you may need to jimmy them a bit to get them
to tuck behind the SIMM; a small screwdriver may help here, but be careful
with it.
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· DIMM: There should be a plastic lever on either end of the socket. Grasp the
lever and tilt it up. As you do this, the DIMM should be drawn down into the
socket. Tilt up both levers and the module should be installed.
5. Double-Check Installation: It's sometimes hard to be sure that modules are

inserted correctly. The module should be securely and firmly in its socket. It may
wiggle a bit if you try to move it but it should not be loose. For SIMMs, there should
be clips on either side of the module holding it into the socket. The contacts should be
squarely inside the socket. If you have installed two identical modules, check their
height from the surface of the motherboard; it should be the same for both modules.
6. Repeat If Necessary: Repeat steps 2 to 5 as necessary for each module being

installed.
· Motherboard Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure describes how to install a motherboard into a system case. I have taken great
pains to be excruciatingly detailed in this procedure, for one simple reason: physically
installing the motherboard is probably the trickiest part of building a new system or
performing a motherboard upgrade. It's not that the actual installation is all that difficult, it's
just that it is a process that requires more experience, you might even say "finesse", than
many other installation or configuration jobs. I have not found any other procedures on the
'net that really address this procedure at the level of detail that someone needs when they've
never done this before. One reason why this is hard to do is that there are so many different
combinations of motherboards and cases...
Note that this procedure covers installation only; you should in most cases configure the
motherboard before installing it; see this procedure for details if you have not already done
this.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 4 (High). As I state above, it can be tricky to get the motherboard
installed properly. Be patient with this one. It's worth taking a few extra minutes to
get this correct.
· Risk Factor: 3-4 (Moderate to High). It's pretty easy to not install the motherboard
properly, which can result in spurious operation or even hardware damage.
· Hardware Required:
· Phillips head screwdriver.
· Motherboard mounting hardware: brass and/or plastic standoffs, screws, and

sometimes paper washers. These should come in a small bag with the system
case. See this page for a full description of this hardware.
· Wire snips, knife or scissors.
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· Recommended: 3/16" hexagonal nut driver. This corresponds to the size used
by the metal spacers that go between the motherboard and system case.
Otherwise, you'll need a pair of needle-nose pliers or similar.
· Time to Perform: 10-20 minutes, assuming that you don't have too much trouble
getting the board to fit..
· The instructions in this procedure are derived primarily from my experiences

installing AT form factor motherboards. ATX motherboard installation will
require some improvization; I will change the procedure when I have more
experience with ATX.
· There is a very high degree of variability in motherboards and cases. It's not
too likely that your hardware will match exactly what I describe in this
procedure, and in particular, there seem to be no two system cases that are
alike. So stay on your toes in following these directions.
· Be very careful when physically manipulating the board not to bang it or any
of the components on it, into anything. Handle the board by the edges.
· If the system case has a removable motherboard panel (and most newer
tower cases do) then remove it before beginning this procedure; it will make
your life a lot easier. The steps below are geared toward either a direct case
installation or installation to a removable panel.
· I would strongly recommend against installing the motherboard into the case
if when you are finished, the board is not firmly supported in at least six
places around the board, including at least one point in the center. If the
board is not supported properly, the chance of damage later on is very real.
· When you are finished with the installation, check under the motherboard for
loose screws or other hardware; you definitely do not want these left inside
the case!
Procedure Steps:
1. Orient Case or Mounting Panel: Arrange the case (or removable motherboard
mounting panel) so that the the expansion card slots and keyboard and other
connectors are farthest away from you. For the rest of this procedure, I refer to the
the edge of the motherboard where the connectors go as the "back" of the
motherboard.
2. Find Motherboard Mounting Holes: Examine the motherboard and locate its
mounting holes. These are usually found as follows:
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· One row of three or four holes along the back of the board, where the
expansion slots are.
· A second row of either two or three holes somewhere in the middle of the
board. These may not all be in a straight line.
· A third row of usually two holes, but maybe three, along the front edge of the
board.
3. Find System Case or Mounting Panel Holes: Examine the system case and see
what types of mounting holes it uses. You will generally see the following:
· Threaded screw holes: These are small screw holes that are intended to take
screw-in metal standoffs. All cases have at least a couple of these; some
have more than others.
· Eyelet holes: These are large, oblong holes about an inch or so in length that
take the sliding plastic standoffs. They are narrower at one end than the
other. Some cases no longer use these at all.
4. Orient Motherboard and Match Motherboard Mounting Holes to Case

Mounting Holes: Take the motherboard and physically locate it in space a few
inches over the case (or removable case panel). Orient the motherboard so that it is
approximately where it will be when installed. Any integrated connectors on the back
of the motherboard should line up with the holes in the case designed for them,
especially the keyboard connector. Then take note of the following:
· Determine which motherboard mounting holes line up with threaded screw

holes on the case or mounting panel. There must be at least two of these or
you cannot properly secure the motherboard to the case. These will usually
be found in the back of the case near the expansion slots (if nowhere else).
· Determine which motherboard mounting holes line up with eyelet holes on

the case or mounting panel. They should line up with the narrow end of the
eyelet hole.
· Determine which motherboard mounting holes line up with no holes at all on

the case or mounting panel. This is quite common and nothing to be
concerned about as long as most of the holes do line up. It is most common
for the holes along the front of the motherboard to not line up with the holes
along the front of the case, because the size of motherboards varies from the
nominal standard. The holes along the back and middle will almost always line
up.
5. Install Standoffs: Attach the mounting hardware, following these specific

instructions for each of the different case hole types mentioned in the step above:
· For those motherboard holes that line up with screw holes in the case, screw
a metal standoff into the case (or mounting panel). Use a 3/16" nut driver if
you have one.
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· For the motherboard holes that line up with eyelet holes, insert a plastic slider
standoff into the motherboard. Push the pointed end into the appropriate hole
from the bottom, until it pushes through the top of the board.
· For the motherboard holes that do not have a matching case hole, take one of
the plastic slider standoffs mentioned just above. Using a pair of wire snips or
a knife, cut off the small plastic disk at the end of the standoff opposite the
pointed end. Then push the pointed end into the hole from the bottom as for
the eyelet holes. Cutting off the disk at the end will allow this modified spacer
to support the motherboard without having to insert into the case in the
location where there is no matching hole (a little trick I discovered).
6. Slide Motherboard Into Place: Follow the appropriate directions depending, again,
on the type of holes being used:
· If there are eyelet holes in the case, then place the motherboard so that the
round plastic parts at the end of the plastic standoffs are inserted into the
wide part of the eyelet holes. Then slide the board so that the standoffs move
toward the narrow part of the hole. When you have completed doing this, the
other mounting holes should line up with the metal standoffs they are mated
with. Double-check that the alignment is correct. Be careful when sliding the
board not to rub the bottom of the board against anything, including any
metal standoffs in the case.
· If there are no eyelet holes, then you can just put the motherboard down
directly into the case. Double-check that all of the holes line up with the metal
standoffs underneath them.
7. Determine If Washers Are Required: Examine the heads of the screws that you
will use to secure the motherboard to the metal standoffs under the screw-in
mounting holes. If the head of the screw is large enough that after tightening the
screw the head might make contact with the circuitry on the motherboard, you must
use a plastic or paper washer under the screw head to prevent accidentally shorting
out the motherboard. Most motherboard manufacturers are smart enough today to
leave a little extra space around the mounting holes.
8. Screw Motherboard Into Place: Using washers (if necessary), screw the
motherboard into the metal standoffs underneath it. First insert all the screws and
hand-tighten them, then tighten them all using a screwdriver (not too tight).
9. Replace Removable Panel: If your case uses a removable motherboard mounting

panel, replace it into the case now. This basically just means undoing whatever you
did to remove the panel in the first place; most cases either have a pull-down,
spring-loaded "handle" that loosens the panel, or they use screws to secure it. Be
careful to make sure that the bottom of the panel is in the right place where it fits
into the bottom of the case; in most cases there are metal guides or tabs that the
panel must align with in order to be reinserted properly. Also be careful not to
damage the motherboard in this step by banging it (or anything inserted into it like
the CPU or memory modules) against anything else in the case.
10. Test Motherboard Installation: An incorrectly-installed motherboard can be the

bane of any homebuilt PC; strange and unpredictable behavior will result that can be
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very hard to diagnose. I would therefore take the time to check the following after
installing the board:
· Level: Check the board to ensure that it is flat in the case. All parts of the
motherboard should be the same distance from the case.
· Contact: Make sure that no part of the motherboard is touching anything

that it should not be. Look under the board too, if possible.
· Fit: Check to make sure that the board is not loose. You should not be able to
move it around in the case.
· Alignment: Double-check that the motherboard is in the correct position.

The expansion card slots should line up with the expansion slot holes in the
case. The keyboard connector should line up as well.
· Rigidity: This one is important, and is not addressed sufficiently by enough

homebuilders in my opinion. The motherboard must be adequately supported
to ensure that it can take the biggest torture test that any motherboard goes
through: insertion and removal of expansion cards. Test the installation of a
video card, for example. Start trying to insert the card into a slot; if the
motherboard starts bending more than a tiny amount, stop right away! This
means that the board has not been properly supported and you will need to
address this before proceeding. The motherboard should not flex under the
pressure of inserting or removing the card.
· I/O Port Connector Physical Installation Procedure
This procedure describes how to install serial and parallel port connectors to the system case
of a system that uses the AT form factor, and connect them to the motherboard. These are
the 9-pin or 25-pin connectors on the back of the system case into which you plug the cables
for your printer, modem, or other peripherals. You will generally use this procedure when
installing a new motherboard or building a new system. ATX form factor motherboards have
these connectors integrated onto the board and therefore do not require this procedure.
Procedure Overview:
· Risk Factor: 2 (Low). There is a slight risk of damaging the port connectors, but it's
slight, and the components are not valuable.
· Hardware Required: Depends on how exactly you install the ports, but you may
need one or more of the following:
· Phillips head screwdriver, if you are going to install the ports into an
expansion card slot insert.
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· Either a 3/16" hexagonal nut driver, or a pair of pliers, if you plan to mount
the ports directly into the system case. I strongly recommend the 3/16" nut
driver for this procedure, as it will save you a lot of time and hassle.
· Time to Perform: 5-10 minutes.
· You should have the motherboard already installed in the case before
commencing.
· The standard for I/O port connectors is one parallel port and two serial ports,
and this is what this procedure assumes.
· Be very careful when tightening the hexagonal nuts on the port connectors. If
you use too much force the nut will shear right off from the threaded screw
portion and ruin the connector. When tightening with a nut driver, the
sensation can change from "this feels too loose" to snap rather quickly. (You
can guess how I know this. :^) )
· Make sure that you install the I/O ports that come with the motherboard
being used in the system. These ports are not universal and you may have
problems if you use a type that was not specifically matched to your
motherboard.
· I assume that the I/O port connectors came pre-mounted into screw-in
expansion slot inserts, as they do with most motherboards.
Procedure Steps:
1. Determine Install Method: There are two distinctly different ways to install the I/O
connectors. The I/O connectors are normally pre-mounted into slot inserts that are
meant to be placed into expansion slot bays in the back of the PC. You can insert
them there if you wish. The main advantage of doing this is that it saves time and
hassle. There are disadvantages however: you will end up blocking off one or more of
your motherboard expansion slots; the connectors will tend to be less rigid and
harder to attach cables to when installed this way (because the metal slot insert will
bend when pressure is put on it); and the cables inside the box coming from the
connectors will get in the way of other parts of the motherboard more. The
alternative is to remove the connectors from the metal inserts they come in, and
mount them directly to the system case. This takes more work.
Procedure Steps:
1. Determine Install Method: There are two distinctly different ways to install the I/O
connectors. The I/O connectors are normally pre-mounted into slot inserts that are
meant to be placed into expansion slot bays in the back of the PC. You can insert
them there if you wish. The main advantage of doing this is that it saves time and
hassle. There are disadvantages however: you will end up blocking off one or more of
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your motherboard expansion slots; the connectors will tend to be less rigid and
harder to attach cables to when installed this way (because the metal slot insert will
bend when pressure is put on it); and the cables inside the box coming from the
connectors will get in the way of other parts of the motherboard more. The
alternative is to remove the connectors from the metal inserts they come in, and
mount them directly to the system case. This takes more work.
Note: Depending on your hardware, you may have no choice about how to do the
installation. If your connectors did not come preinstalled in metal slide-in expansion card
inserts, you will have to use the mounting holes in your case. On the other hand, some
system cases may not have direct-mounting holes, so you will have to use the inserts in this
situation. Also watch out for a mismatch in size on the second serial port connector: some
motherboards ship with two 9-pin serial connectors while some cases have holes for one
9-pin and one 25-pin, and vice-versa. If you have a mismatch here, again, you may need to
stick with the inserts.
If you are going to leave the connectors in the metal inserts, continue with these steps:
2. Identify Slots for Installation: Choose an appropriate location for the inserts; you
will usually need two of them. The best expansion slots to choose are any that don't
actually line up with expansion slots on the motherboard (most systems have more
inserts in the case than the motherboard actually has slots). This way you don't
unnecessarily block off any expansion slots on the motherboard. You will also
generally want to use slots near where the port cables connect physically to the
motherboard; make sure the cables will reach.
3. Remove Slot Inserts: If there are any blanks in the slots you want to use, remove
them using a screwdriver. Save them in case you ever need them again in the future.
4. Install Port Connector Inserts: Mount the connector port inserts into place and
secure them using a screw for each.
5. Double-Check Installation: Check to make sure the connectors are installed

properly. They should be secure in their installed location. Try attaching an external
cable to one of the connectors if you wish, to verify that it works.
6. Connect Cables to Motherboard: Connect the internal cables coming from each
connector to the appropriate headers on the motherboard. Refer to your motherboard
manual if you need it. Be sure to line up the red wire on the cable with pin 1 on the
connector. If you have one 9-pin serial port connector and one 25-pin, you will
normally want to make the 9-pin the first serial port and the 25-pin the second.
If you decide to mount the connectors directly to the system case, continue here instead:
2. Identify Mounting Holes: Many cases, especially larger ones, come with many
holes, more than you need to mount your connectors. Choose three holes that are
the right shape to match the size of connectors you have (9-pin or 25-pin). Try to
keep the serial ports together and the parallel port separate if possible, as this makes
things less confusing for some users. Make sure that the cables coming from the
connectors are long enough to reach the motherboard headers to which they will
attach, from the location you are selecting.
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3. Open Mounting Holes: Remove any metal plates blocking off the mounting holes.
These are usually either held in place with screws on older cases; on newer ones the
manufacturer just punches the outline of the hole and leaves the metal part
connected to the case with a sliver of metal. For these, punch the metal out using a
screwdriver, or bend the metal back and forth until it snaps out of the way.
4. Remove Connectors From Metal Inserts: Unscrew the connectors from the metal
inserts they come in. Use a nut driver (if you have one) or a pair of pliers. Quick tip:
to remove a connector you don't have to completely remove both screws. Remove
one and loosen the other half-way, and the connector will slide out. Doing this saves
time and makes mounting the connectors into the case easier.
5. Mount Connectors to System Case: Slide the connectors into the holes in the back
of the case and then tighten the hexagonal nuts using either a nut driver or a pair of
pliers. Don't leave them too loose, or they will come off when you detach a cable
weeks or months later. Don't over-tighten them, or they will snap off and leave you
with a mess to deal with. Also, be careful not to mount the connectors upside-down;
the longer side should be up (the row of 13 pins on a 25-pin connector, or 5 pins on a
9-pin connector) and the shorter side down (the row of 12 or 4 pins).
6. Double-Check Installation: Check to make sure the connectors are installed

properly. They should be very secure in their location in the back of the case. Try
attaching an external cable to one of the connectors if you wish, to verify that it
works.
7. Connect Cables to Motherboard: Connect the internal cables coming from each
connector to the appropriate headers on the motherboard. Refer to your motherboard
manual if you need it. Be sure to line up the red wire on the cable with pin 1 on the
connector. If you have one 9-pin serial port connector and one 25-pin, you will
normally want to make the 9-pin the first serial port and the 25-pin the second.
· Motherboard and Case Connection Procedure
This procedure describes how to make the internal electrical and signal connections between
the motherboard and the system case. This includes providing power to the motherboard,
and hooking up the LEDs and switches on the case. This is an important part of the assembly
of a new system or installing a new motherboard. This procedure does not deal with the
physical installation of the motherboard, only with making these necessary connections. See
this procedure instead for help with the installation itself.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 3 (Moderate). Some of the connections can be tricky to make in

some circumstances.
· Risk Factor: 3 (Moderate). You can destroy your AT-style motherboard if you plug
the power cords into it backwards. The only reason I don't rank the risk factor even
higher is that I took such exceptional steps to warn about this prominently below. :^)
· Hardware Required: A flashlight is often very helpful for this step, as it can be hard
to see the minute printing on the motherboard after it has been installed into the
system case.
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· Time to Perform: 10 to 15 minutes.
installation and assembly tips. Pay particular attention to the notes about
connecting cables.
· For reference, you may want to read this section describing the cables and
connectors coming from the power supply, and/or this section describing the
connections on the motherboard.
· Motherboards and system cases vary. Your motherboard may not have all the
items I mention here, and the same holds true for your case. Furthermore,
you may find that your case and motherboard don't match in every situation;
for example, some cases have a turbo button and some do not, and some
motherboards have a connection for a turbo button and some don't.
· Watch out for "off by one" errors when attaching cables to pin headers. In
particular, some motherboards combine several pin connectors into a larger
block. The individual connections are the same, the motherboard just
physically groups the pins together into a larger matrix. Be careful when
working with these as making a mistake is much easier to do. Refer to the
manual.
· If the system is in a tower case, it is much easier to perform this procedure

with the case resting on its side.
· LEDs have two wires and are unidirectional, so they will not work if attached
backwards. You need to connect the positive lead from the case to the
positive pin on the motherboard, and the same with the negative.
Unfortunately, the case connector almost never has the positive and negative
labeled. Fortunately, attaching them backwards will usually not cause any
damage; the LED just won't work. One tip you can use: most cases employ
for each LED one colored wire (green, yellow, red, orange, blue) and another
wire that is either black or white. When this is the case, usually the colored
wire is positive (signal) and the black or white wire is negative (ground). This
isn't always true, but it's better than a random guess in most cases.
Procedure Steps:
1. Connect Power to Motherboard: Find the special power connector(s) coming from
the power supply and attach them to the motherboard. The details of this step
depend on the form factor you are using:
· AT Form Factor: There should be a pair of six-wire cables coming from the
power supply. These go to the 12-pin power connector on the motherboard.
The connector has 12 pins in a long row. Now this is important: the four black
wires go together in the middle and the colored wires go on either side. (You
may be wondering: why did they do this, make two six-wire connectors that
can be so easily mixed up? Good question, but it's been this way since the
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earliest PCs!) The connectors can be a bit tricky to get onto the pins due to
the funny plastic tabs that some of them have. Be patient.
· ATX Form Factor: There should be a single cable with up to 20 wires in a 2

by 10 rectangular configuration. Somebody wised up here and keyed this
connector, so you cannot insert it incorrectly.
Warning: If you are careful about nothing else in this procedure, be careful about this step if
you are working in an AT system. If you connect these cables backwards, I see a new
motherboard purchase (and maybe more) in your immediate future. Seriously.
2. Connect Power to CPU Fan: Attach the connector coming from your CPU fan to one
of the four-wire power cables coming from the power supply. Many of these fans
actually have a dual in/out "pass-through" connection that lets you connect the fan
and still leave a connector free to attach to another device. Some CPU fans use a
two- or three-hole mini-plug that gets power from the motherboard instead of the
power supply directly. If your motherboard has a matching connector, you can use
this; otherwise, you will need an adapter or a different fan.
3. Connect Case Power Switch (ATX systems only): On ATX systems the power
switch on the case attaches to the motherboard and not the power supply. Find the
appropriate two-pin connector and attach the wires coming from the switch to them.
Make sure you don't mix this up with the reset switch.
4. Connect Turbo Switch (if applicable): If your case has a turbo switch and your
motherboard has a connector to which to attach it, connect it now if you so desire.
Bear in mind that in modern PCs, even if the motherboard has a place to connect
this, it doesn't really do anything. If there is no place to connect this or you decide
not to bother, then roll up the wires coming from the switch and tuck them away
somewhere out of the way within the case. Note that on older PCs, the system may
not function properly if the turbo switch is not connected (or it may only function in
creaking "non-turbo" mode).
5. Connect Reset Switch: Find the wires coming from the reset switch and attach
them to the appropriate pin connector on the motherboard. This switch has no
polarity so it doesn't matter which way you connect it to to the motherboard.
6. Connect Power LED and/or Keylock Switch: OK, this one is a bit of an oddball
that depends entirely on the system case you have. Most motherboards have a
five-pin connector that is used for both connecting the power LED and the keylock
switch. The pins are normally laid out as follows:
Pin # Signal
1 Power LED Output (positive)
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2 No Connection (NC)
3 Power LED Ground (negative)
4 Keylock Signal (positive)
5 Keylock Ground (negative)
The reason that these two seemingly-unrelated functions are together in a single,
five-pin header on the motherboard is that older cases had the four signals attached
to a single, five-pin connector that matched. You may find one of these in your case,
or you may find two separate connectors, one for the power LED and one for the
keylock switch. Make sure you connect them properly, and refer to your motherboard
manual for details on how to align the connectors. Some cases of course do not have
a keylock switch, so you will leave those pins unconnected in that situation.
7. Connect Turbo LED: Find the wires that come from the turbo LED on the case and
connect them to the appropriate place on the motherboard. As with the turbo switch,
this is a bit of a leftover from years gone by and may not be present on all systems.
In addition, on modern systems even if there is somewhere to connect it, the
motherboard won't likely actually be controlling it. I usually connect it anyway to
avoid concerns about why the LED isn't lit, but it really is entirely optional on newer
systems. You may use this LED for other purposes if you wish; for example, on a
system with a SCSI host adapter you can connect the LED to the host adapter and
use it as a SCSI activity indicator.
8. Connect Hard Disk Drive Activity LED: Find the appropriate pins on the
motherboard and connect the wires coming from the hard disk activity LED to them.
Here again, there is some variability among motherboards. Some have two pins for
the LED, which makes connection simple (as long as you watch your positive and
negative). However some have four pins. In this case, only two of the pins may work,
and you have to make sure you get the right pair. On other boards, however, you can
use either pins 1 and 2, or pins 3 and 4. Consult your motherboard manual.
9. Connect Speaker: The system speaker uses two wires to connect to the
motherboard. Conventionally, this is done using a four-pin connector and header,
with the two wires going on the outside (pins 1 and 4). The motherboard should have
a matching 4-pin header. Some cases no longer have the four-pin connector, and
instead just have two single-pin connectors. If yours is like this, simply attach to pins
1 and 4 on the motherboard header.
10. Double-Check Connections: Check over the connections you just made to ensure
that they are correct. Make sure you haven't accidentally loosened anything, attached
connectors to the wrong pins, or left out any connectors that come from your case.
Check to make sure that the wires coming from the case are not interfering
mechanically with any of the internal components on the motherboard, especially the
CPU fan.
· Floppy Disk Drive Connection Procedure
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This procedure provides instructions for making the power and interface connections to a
floppy disk drive. This procedure deals with the connection of a single drive in either a single
or dual floppy configuration. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the
drive; for instructions on installing the drive, refer to this procedure.
Procedure Overview:
· Time to Perform: 5 minutes or less in most cases.
connecting cables.
· I assume that you are using industry standard drives and an industry
standard floppy cable, which should have a "twist" in seven of the wires in the
middle of it. See here for more on the cable. If you are using non-standard
equipment you will probably need to set jumpers. I do not deal with this here
because it is unnecessary 99.9% of the time.
· 3.5" floppy disk drives use the smaller mini-plug usually provided on modern
power supplies. Adapters are available for a couple of bucks for use in older
systems.
· Obviously, the floppy disk drive must be installed in the system case before
you begin.
Procedure Steps:
1. Attach Power Cable: Attach one of the power-supply power connectors to the drive.
It may take a little bit of force to get one of the standard, large four-wire connectors
into a 5.25" drive; you may have to wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The
connector is keyed, so it can only go in one way. 3.5" drives use a smaller mini-plug,
which is also keyed but easier to attach.
2. Attach Interface Cable: Attach the interface cable to the drive. How this is done
specifically depends on what sort of drive you are using and whether this is the first
or second drive in the system. Follow these general instructions (refer here for a full
explanation of how the floppy cable works):
· The standard floppy cable has a twist in the middle of it. Connect the drive
that you want to be A: after the twist; the drive before the twist is B:. For
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standard drives, do not change any jumpers. Just use the positioning on the
cable. If you are installing a new drive as A: and moving the existing drive to
B:, just change which connectors on the cable are attached to which drive.
Note that if the drives have been swapped in the system BIOS, these rules
about A: and B: will be reversed.
· Most 3.5" drives have a set of pins for their interface to the cable, and most
5.25" drives use a card-edge connector, sort of like the connector on an
expansion card. Most floppy cables have a pair of connectors, one of each
type, both before and after the "twist". Use only one or the other in each pair.
Some cables only have the pin header connector and you will have to change
the cable if you need the card-edge connector type.
· The single connector by itself at the opposite end of the cable goes to the
motherboard or floppy controller.
· Always make sure to line up pin 1 of each floppy connector with pin 1 of the
motherboard, by attaching the cable so that the red wire on one edge of the
ribbon cable connects to pin 1 of each device. On some drives it can be hard
to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, which is why I recommend that
you examine the drive before physically installing it.
· Many 3.5" floppy drives today are not keyed to prevent upside down
connection of the floppy drive cable. This means that it is possible to connect
the cable upside-down, and then of course the drive will not work. In most
cases this will not cause permanent damage. If when you boot up the PC the
floppy drive activity LED comes on and stays on, this is a dead giveaway that
you have done this. Reverse the connector.
that they are correct. Make sure you haven't accidentally knocked anything loose.
· Hard Disk Drive Connection Procedure
hard disk drive. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the drive, only
with making the necessary connections.
Procedure Overview:
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· This procedure assumes IDE/ATA hard disk drives. While mechanically
configuring SCSI hard drives is similar, the interface connections made to
them are different.
connecting cables.
· Of course, the hard disk drive must be physically installed in the system
before you begin. For instructions on installing the drive, refer to this
procedure. It is also assumed that you have already decided how you want to
configure the hard disk drive, and that you have already set the appropriate
jumpers. See this procedure if you have not already done this.
Procedure Steps:
into the drive; you may have to wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The connector
is keyed, so it can only go in one way.
2. Attach Interface Cable: Attach the IDE interface cable to the drive. Make sure to
line up pin 1 of the connector with pin 1 of the motherboard, by attaching the cable
so that the red wire on one edge of the ribbon cable connects to pin 1 of each device.
On some drives it can be hard to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, which is
why I recommend that you examine the drive before physically installing it. IDE
connectors and cables are not keyed, so you can easily connect the drive backwards
if you are not careful. Choose one of the following depending on whether the channel
you are going to connect to has a device on it already:
· First Device on Channel: Simply attach one end of the cable to the drive,
and the other end to the controller or motherboard. Easy as pi (not pie! :^) ).
· Second Device on Channel: Examine the cable that is currently connecting

the first device on the channel; it should have a third, unused connector, but
some cables only have two connectors on them. If the cable has a third
connector, attach this to the drive you are installing. If you need to switch
which connector goes to which drive so that the cables will reach both drives,
you can do this, as it really doesn't matter for standard setups which drive
takes which connector. If the cable only has two connectors, you will need a
new cable with three connectors (available at most any decent computer
store).
that they are correct. Make sure you haven't accidentally loosened anything. For
example, if there was already a device on the channel when you attached this drive,
make sure you have not pulled the cable loose by mistake (which is common,
because the connectors don't fit very tightly on many systems).
· CD-ROM Drive Connection Procedure
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CD-ROM drive. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the drive, only
Procedure Overview:
connecting cables.
· This procedure assumes IDE/ATA CD-ROM drives. While mechanically

them are different. I also do not cover connection of the older, proprietary
interface CD-ROMs, which went out of style several years ago.
· I assume that you are connecting the CD-ROM to an IDE port or IDE
controller. If you are connecting the device to a sound card, you must of
course make sure the sound card is already installed before proceeding here.
· Of course, the CD-ROM drive must be physically installed in the system before
you begin. For instructions on installing the drive, refer to this procedure. It is
also assumed that you have already decided how you want to configure the
CD-ROM drive, and that you have already set the appropriate jumpers. See
this procedure if you have not already done this.
Procedure Steps:
It may take a little bit of force to get the connector into the drive; you may have to
wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The connector is keyed, so it can only go in one
way.
On some drives it can be hard to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, however
most CD-ROMs have pins 1 and 40 marked somewhere on the drive, more
prominently than hard disk drives are marked. Be aware that IDE connectors and
cables are not keyed, so you can easily connect the drive backwards if you are not
careful. Choose one of the following depending on whether the channel you are going
to connect to has a device on it already:
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and the other end to the controller or motherboard. That's it.

the first device on the channel. It should have a third, unused connector, but
store).
Attach CD Audio Cable (if appropriate): If your system has a sound card in it, attach the
thin three-wire CD audio cable between the CD-ROM drive and the sound card now. This
cable should come with the CD-ROM drive. (If you are following the New PC Assembly
Procedure, your machine doesn't have the sound card in it yet, and the directions for
attaching this cable are in a subsequent step). Due to several manufacturers having different
standards for their drives, most sound cards now have more than one jack for the CD audio
cable, and they may not be all different physically, so they can be confused for one another.
Usually the connectors on the sound card are labeled with common brand names for
CD-ROMs such as “Sony”, “Matsushita” (Panasonic) and “Mitsumi”. If your CD-ROM is not one
of the brands indicated, consult your documentation for which connector to use. If you can’t
find this information in your documents, you may want to contact the CD-ROM drive:
· Difficulty Level: 1-2 (Very low to Low). VLB video cards can be more difficult
than the others to install due to the large size of the connector.
· Hardware Required: Screwdriver and possibly one screw if it isn't already in the
case.

3. manufacturer's technical support, or simply try each of the connectors in succession
until you find one that works.
· Video Card Physical Installation Procedure
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This procedure describes how to install a video card into the motherboard. This is a very easy
procedure, especially with newer video cards. I cover the installation of PCI, VLB, and ISA
cards here (specific instructions on AGP cards will follow once I have used AGP personally; my
initial impressions are that they would be installed quite similarly to PCI cards). This
procedure deals only with the physical installation of the card.
· Procedure OverviewPreparation / Warnings:
· You may want to check out this section on video system interfaces or this one
on system bus types, if you need some help with understanding AGP, PCI,
VLB and ISA, or figuring out what type of card you have.
· If the card is being inserted as part of a new system build, I assume you have
already planned out where you want the card to go. You may want to look at
the System Layout Planning Procedure, which will provide you with tips on
choosing an expansion slot.
· Do not use excessive force to insert the video card into its expansion slot. Be
patient, especially with the very long connector on VLB cards.
· If the motherboard is flexing excessively when you try to insert the card, it
may not be physically supported properly. You may find some ideas for
improving this situation by examining this procedure on motherboard
installation.
Procedure Steps:
1. Identify Expansion Slot: Find an open expansion slot of the correct type for the
video card. You will want to choose a slot if possible that is far away from other cards
and other hardware inside the box.
2. Remove Metal Insert: Using a screwdriver, unscrew the metal insert in the case
that corresponds to the expansion slot you are using. It may help to take the video
card and align it to the slot. This will help you to visualize which slot goes with which
system case insert (since PCI cards are opposite from ISA ones, this isn't always
totally obvious.) Some cases may have simple punch-outs instead of screwed-in
inserts; if yours does then remove the insert by pushing it out and/or flexing it back
and forth until it comes off.
3. Insert Card: Align the pins of the video card's connector to the slot. Make sure the
metal insert that goes to the back of the case is also aligned correctly. Then apply
firm pressure to seat the card into the slot. You may need to rock the card back and
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forth to get it to go in. VESA local bus cards are the hardest to insert because their
connector is so long--be patient and work slowly. Do not force the card in or press it
to the point where the motherboard is flexing significantly. If you need to, support
the motherboard manually with one hand while you push with the other.
4. Secure Card: Screw the video card into place using the screw you removed from the
insert blank formerly in the case. You may need to supply a screw if your case is one
of the el-cheapo ones that doesn't come with screws for the expansion slots.
5. Double-Check Installation: Ensure that the card is securely in its slot. The card
may move from side to side slightly when wiggled but should not be loose. Make sure
that the card is not interfering with anything else in the case. Make sure that the card
is inserted far enough into the expansion slot.
· Post-Assembly Inspection Procedure
This procedure describes some overall system checks that I recommend you perform after
completing significant assembly procedures, such as a new PC build or a motherboard
upgrade. While each subprocedure of a build concludes with a step recommending that you
check what you just did, it is still worth a few minutes to double-check some of the more
important aspects of the assembly, to reduce the chances of an unsuccessful initial turn-on of
the system. I focus here primarily on the most common "gotchas" that I have run into in
assembling systems.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: A small flashlight is helpful but not required.
· Time to Perform: About 5 minutes.
· Preparation / Warnings: None, other than to be careful while checking for

problems not to introduce any new ones. :^)
Procedure Steps:
1. Power Inspection: Verify the following key items related to the system power:
· If the system case has a dual voltage switch, make sure it is set to the
correct voltage for your part of the world.
· Make sure the power switch is off. You don't want the PC booting up as soon
as you connect the power cord. Most power switches are toggles; you can tell
if the power is on or off by pushing the switch in several times; it will feel in
most cases as if you have to push the button in farther to make it toggle,
when it is on before you press the button.
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· If you are working in an AT system, double-check that the two 6-wire power
cables that go between the power supply and the motherboard have been
inserted fully and correctly, and that the four black wires are together in the
middle.
· If you are working in an ATX system, double-check that you have connected
the power switch to the motherboard properly.
· Make sure all your drives have a power connector attached to them correctly.
· Make sure that the CPU fan and any additional case fans have their power
connectors attached.
2. Cable Inspection: Check these cable connections to make sure they are correct.
Check for "off by one" alignment errors, loose connections or cables that are overly
taut. Make sure that you have lined up the red edge of the cable to pin 1 of each
device:
· Check the IDE cable(s) going to the hard disk drive and CD-ROM drive. Make
sure you have lined up the red edge to pin 1 of each device.
· Check the floppy cable going to the floppy disk drive(s).
· Check the cables that attach the I/O port connectors and PS/2 mouse port
connector to the motherboard (if appropriate).
· Make sure the cables running to the case switches and LEDs are correct.
3. Motherboard Inspection: Double-check these configuration and installation aspects

relevant to the motherboard:
· Double-check the motherboard jumper settings. If you decide not to bother

checking all of these, at least check the CPU voltage settings.
· Make sure the memory is inserted into the correct socket(s) and is fully
seated.
· Make sure the processor is inserted correctly and is all the way into its socket.
· Ensure that the heat sink is secured properly to the processor.
· Wipe up any thermal compound that may have leaked out from around the
CPU, if you used too much the way I always do. :^)
· Make sure the video card is seated properly in its slot.
4. Physical Interference Inspection: Check the following physical issues:
· Ensure that all the drives are properly physically secured in their bays.
· Make sure there are no loose wires in the case that may interfere with any
moving objects inside the case; for the mostpart, this refers to the CPU fan.
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· You are most likely going to be turning on the PC at first with the cover off.
Make sure that nothing from outside the case can poke or fall into the case by
accident.
· External Peripheral Connection Procedure
This procedure provides basic instructions for connecting the PC's external peripherals to the
system case. You will use this procedure when assembling a new PC that you have either
made or purchased. I do not attempt to cover the connection of every conceivable peripheral,
just the more common ones.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: You may require a screwdriver to connect some devices,

typically a flat blade.
· If you are performing the initial connections to the PC while in the middle of a
new PC assembly, you will probably not have some of the peripherals in the
machine yet that I refer to here. In particular, the modem and sound card
may not be installed yet.
· Don't over-tighten connections that use screws or you may have problems
when disconnecting peripherals.
· Don't force connectors such as those on keyboards or mice into their sockets
or you may damage the motherboard that the socket is attached to.
· You should be using some sort of power protection device. Make sure it is
plugged into the wall.
Procedure Steps:
1. Connect Power to Monitor: Attach the power cord to the back of the monitor and
connect it to your power protection device.
2. Connect Monitor to Case: Attach the video cable to the monitor and to the system
case. On modern systems the cable will have a male connector on both ends, each of
which has 15 pins. Note that on some monitors, the data cable is integrated into the
monitor itself instead of there being a detached cable. Some newer high-end
monitors also may use five round BNC connectors to attach to the monitor instead of
a D-shell 15-pin connector.
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3. Connect Power to Case: Attach the power cord to the back of the PC and plug it
into your power protection device.
4. Connect Keyboard: Attach the keyboard to the back of the system case using the
round connector. Depending on your system you will have either a large-diameter
five-pin connector or a smaller six-pin connector. The connector is keyed and can only
be inserted one way. On ATX systems, make sure you use the correct connector,
because the keyboard and mouse connectors are the same size and shape.
5. Connect Mouse: Attach the mouse to the back of the system case. Depending on
your mouse you will have either a D-shaped 9-pin connector (serial mouse) or a
small, round, six-pin connector (PS/2 mouse). If using a PS/2 mouse, make sure you
use the correct case connector, because the keyboard and mouse connectors are the
same size and shape.
6. Connect Phone Line to Modem (if applicable): If your system has an internal
modem in it, connect the phone cord to the appropriate jack. Most modems have two
jacks; one is to connect the modem to the wall and the other is a "pass-through" for
you to attach a phone to. You want to attach to the one that is normally labeled
"Line" or "Wall" and connect the other end to your phone jack on the wall.
7. Connect Sound Devices to Sound Card (if applicable): If you have a sound card
in your system, you will want to attach either your home stereo or your computer
speakers to it, depending on which you are using. You may also wish to connect a
microphone. The sound card should have several round ports--all of which naturally
are the exact same size and shape :^)--so choose the correct one. There are often
two different outputs, one labeled "Speaker out" and the other "Line out". The first
one is usually better for speakers and the other for a home stereo. The microphone
jack is often labeled "Mic In". Some systems of course have integrated speakers
and/or microphone, which simplifies this step considerably.
8. Connect Printer (if applicable): If you have a printer, connect the printer cable to
it and then the other end to the parallel port on the back of the PC. This connector is
D-shaped and will only go in one way.
9. Connect Other Peripherals (if applicable): Depending on your system you may
have other peripherals you will want to hook up as well.
· Post-Assembly Initial Boot Procedure
This procedure provides descriptions to help you handle the initial turn-on and boot-up of a
system. The only time you will need to use this procedure is right after you complete
significant assembly procedures, such as a new PC build or a motherboard upgrade. The
reason that a special procedure in these situations makes sense is that there is a much
greater chance of a problem with a newly-completed system, and you want to maximize your
chances of detecting such problems if at all possible. You also want to be in a position to
quickly shut the system off if problems become apparent. You also want to be ready to enter
the BIOS setup program as soon as possible on the first bootup of a new system.
Procedure Overview:
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· Difficulty Level: 2-4 (Low to High). The procedure is quite simple and if the system
works you will not have much to do here, however troubleshooting boot problems on
a new system can be quite difficult sometimes.
· Software Required: Bootable floppy disk.
· Time to Perform: Less than five minutes if there are no problems, otherwise this will
vary greatly.
· I assume that you have already completed assembling the system, have
checked for common problems, and have connected your external
peripherals.
· If you are going to be powering up the system with its cover off (and usually
you will, the first few times) make sure that you keep objects away from the
case at all times while the power is on to the system.
· I would strongly recommend that you read and understand the page
describing the system boot process before you turn on the system for the first
time.
· Your floppy boot disk should contain the necessary disk tools for setting up
your hard disk. In particular, for a DOS/Windows machine you generally will
need "FDISK" and "FORMAT" on the disk at a bare minimum. See this section
for details on boot disks.
· In general, it is not good to turn the system power off while the hard disk is in
use or immediately after turning on the PC. However, with a brand-new setup
you should be prepared to turn the system off immediately if any of the
following happen: smoke or sparks come from any of the hardware; the lights
in the room dim when the power turns on; or loud grinding, scraping or
whining sounds come from any piece of hardware. These are signs of a short
circuit, serious electrical connection problem, or mechanical interference. Go
over the entire machine with a fine-toothed comb and find out what is causing
the problem before turning the machine on again.
· Make sure you know what the correct key or key combination is to enter the
BIOS setup program on your motherboard before you start. On most modern
systems this is either {Del} or {F2}.
· If your system has a keylock switch, make sure that the case is not locked or
the keyboard won't work and you need it for this procedure.
Procedure Steps:
1. Turn On Monitor: Turn on the system monitor and let it warm up a bit. You want to
make sure you can see any messages that show up on the screen. Note that some
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newer monitors take several seconds to "sync" to the signal coming from the PC, so
you may end up "flying blind" at first regardless.
2. Insert Boot Floppy: Put your operating system boot floppy disk into your A: floppy
drive.
3. Press Power Switch: The moment of truth: hit the power switch and be ready for
action. You are looking to see what happens, to make sure the system is booting
properly. If it boots properly you will want to be ready to hit the appropriate key(s) to
immediately enter the system BIOS program. Assuming that the system boots
properly, here is what you should be checking for; bear in mind that all of this will
happen very quickly:
· The power LED will light up on the case, and depending on the system, the
turbo LED may as well.
· The fans in the power supply and on the CPU will start to spin up.
· The hard disk will spin up.
· You may hear a single beep when the system completes its power-on test;
this is normal.
· The first thing on the screen will probably be a message from the video card's
on-board BIOS; then the motherboard will display its BIOS startup screen and
begin counting the system memory.
· You may receive an error message such as "CMOS options not set",
"Date/time not set" or "CMOS checksum error". This is not uncommon when
powering up a new system for the first time.
4. Enter BIOS Setup: As soon as the BIOS splash screen appears, press the
appropriate key(s) to enter the BIOS setup. The right key combination will normally
be displayed at the bottom of the screen.
5. Troubleshoot the System, If Necessary: You may find that the system does not
boot, or that there is some sort of error message or problem at boot time.
Experiencing problems when booting up a new system for the first time is certainly
not uncommon, so don't let it get you down. I do not go into the details of
troubleshooting here, because there is a whole Troubleshooting Guide that covers
this. In particular, you may want to refer to the Boot Process Troubleshooter, which
will walk you through the most common parts of the boot process step by step and
will help you isolate the problem with your new system in most cases. This section
was specifically developed to help debug problems with booting new systems, so do
use it if you need it.
· Safe BIOS Setup Procedure
This procedure describes how to set the most important BIOS parameters to "safe" settings.
The focus here is on maximizing the likelihood of the system functioning properly. You will
want to use this procedure when setting up a new system or when having problems with the
PC. Setting the BIOS to low-risk values can help greatly to expose problems with a system
and help you eliminate them. Note that I do not describe all of the various BIOS settings
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here; see this Reference Guide section for details on BIOS settings. This procedure is based
on the structure in that section.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 3 (Moderate). BIOS settings can be somewhat confusing if you are
new to them.
· You should enter the BIOS setup program before starting this procedure,
obviously.
· If this is a system that has been set up previously, you may want to consider
loading the default BIOS settings before commencing. I strongly advise you
to back up the current BIOS settings before you do this.
· For assistance working within the BIOS setup program, reference this section.
· BIOSes vary widely. Make sure to check your particular BIOS setup program
and make whatever modifications are necessary to this procedure to suit your
system.
· I do not cover all possible BIOS settings here, only the most important ones
for proper system operation.
· This procedure is geared towards modern Pentium-class or later systems.

Older PCs will vary significantly.
· Be sure to remember to save your changes before quitting, or you will end up
doing this all over again.
Procedure Steps:
1. Autodetect Hard Disk: Find the entry in the BIOS setup menu for autodetecting
your hard disk and use it. This should detect your hard disk and set up its basic
parameters. Note that some systems do not have a separate entry in the menu for
autodetecting hard disks, but instead have autodetection as an option in the
Standard Settings menu, where the hard disk parameters themselves are. See this
section for more information on autodetection.
2. Set Standard Settings: Enter the Standard Settings menu and configure the
following options:
· Date: Make sure you enter this in the correct format, usually MM/DD/YY.
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· Time: This is normally entered in 24-hour clock format.
· IDE Primary Master / Primary Slave / Secondary Master / Secondary

Slave: These entries contain the parameters for your IDE/ATA devices. If you
successfully autodetected your hard disk(s) in the previous step then you
should see the hard disk parameters that the BIOS found displayed here.
These parameters are discussed in detail in this section. If your system does
not have a separate autodetection menu item, it probably autodetects
devices by pressing {Enter} while the cursor is on the "Type" setting; look at
your motherboard or system manual. You'll have to autodetect each drive
individually. I would recommend that you verify that the autodetection set the
hard disk settings correctly by going through this list, because sometimes the
settings are either not correct, or the BIOS tries to pick the most optimal
values (and we are looking for safe values here):
· Type: This should normally be set to "User" for hard disks. If your
system has it, set this to "CD-ROM" for your CD-ROM drive.
· Size: This is calculated and not something you can enter. Don't worry
about it.
· Cylinders / Heads / Sectors / Write Precompensation /

Landing Zone: These should be left at the values that were
autodetected.
· Translation Mode: For most modern hard disks, this should be set to
"LBA". Older hard disks below 504 binary megabytes (528 decimal
megabytes) should be set to "Normal" or "CHS", depending on the
BIOS. Do not change the translation mode on a drive that already
contains data or you may trash the drive's contents.
· Block Mode: This is supported by most hard disks but should be

disabled for maximum compatibility.
· PIO Mode: This can normally be left at whatever the BIOS detected.
However, if the BIOS set it to a value that you know exceeds the
maximum for the drive, reset it to whatever the maximum is. You
may want to try lowering this value if you experience problems with
your system. CD-ROMs generally have a maximum PIO mode of 3.
· 32-Bit Transfer Mode: Disable this for maximum compatibility; you

can re-enable it later.
· Floppy Drive A / Floppy Drive B: Set these to the correct type for the
floppy drive(s) in your system.
· Video Display Type: Set to "VGA" or "VGA/EGA".
· Halt On: Set to "All Errors" to make sure that all errors are trapped by the
BIOS.
3. Set Advanced Features: Enter the Advanced Features menu and configure the
following options:
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· Virus Protection / Virus Warning: I would strongly recommend disabling
this while configuring or setting up a system, or it will drive you nuts
interrupting you with warning messages when you partition and format your
hard disk.
· Internal Cache: This should be enabled. If you have to disable this to get
the system to work then you have a motherboard or CPU problem that will
undoubtedly manifest itself in other ways (as well as seriously degrading
performance).
· External Cache: This too, should be enabled at all times. If disabling this is
required for stable operation, you probably have a motherboard hardware
problem. It may also be a CPU problem, especially with processors that have
integrated level 2 cache.
· Quick Power On Self Test / Quick Boot: Disable this to ensure that all
POST tests are performed at boot time.
· Boot Sequence: The options for this parameter depend entirely on the
system. You want to choose a sequence that has the floppy disk (A:) first, so
that your boot disk will work properly.
· Swap Floppy Drives: Make sure this is set correctly (normally you want it
disabled) or you are going to be mighty confused about the behavior of your
floppy disk drives.
· Fast A20 / A20 Gate Option: Disable this for maximum compatibility.
· Video BIOS Shadow: Disable for maximum compatibility.
· System BIOS Shadow: Disable for maximum compatibility.
· xx00-xxFF Shadow: There will be a number of options for shadowing

various ranges of upper memory. Ensure that all of these are disabled.
4. Set Advanced Chipset Features: Enter the Advanced Chipset Features menu and
configure the following options. Bear in mind that for the mostpart you will not want
to move these values from their defaults:
· Chipset Special Features / Global Features: Disable this for now.
· Cache Timing: Leave this on "Auto" or whatever the appropriate setting is

for your type of cache.
· Level 2 Cache Size: If your system has this option, set it appropriately.
· DRAM Parity Checking: Enable this if using parity or ECC memory.
· DRAM Parity / ECC Mode: Leave this on "Parity" if using true parity
memory. Set to "ECC" if using ECC memory. Parity mode is preferred for a
new system or while debugging as it will tell you immediately if a problem
situation is arising.
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· DRAM Speed / DRAM Timing / DRAM Auto Configuration: Set this to
either "Auto" or to the correct speed of the memory you have installed. This
should lock out most of the other options in this section.
· DRAM Speculative Leadoff: If this option is not locked out, disable it.
· Turn-Around Insertion: If this option is not locked out, disable it.
5. Set PCI / PnP Configuration Settings: Enter the PCI / PnP Configuration menu
and configure the following options. Bear in mind that for the mostpart you will not
want to move these values from their defaults; use "Auto" settings wherever
possible:
· Plug and Play Aware OS: If setting up a Windows 95 system, enable this,
otherwise leave it disabled.
· Automatic Resource Allocation: Leave this set to "Auto". This should lock
most of the other settings in this section.
· PCI VGA Palette Snoop: Disable unless you know for sure that your system
requires it.
6. Disable Power Management: Enter the Power Management menu. You should find
that the first setting is some sort of global or master setting that controls all the other
power management settings. I recommend that you disable this at first when setting
up a new system, or if you are experiencing hardware or system problems. Note
however that if you totally disable power management, this will also eliminate some
advanced power features such as the ability to have Windows turn off the PC on an
ATX form factor system. As an alternative, leave power management enabled but
disable the standby/suspend timing parameters so that the BIOS does not
automatically turn off parts of the system after a period of time.
7. Set Integrated Peripherals Settings: Enter the Integrated Peripherals menu and
configure the following options:
· Integrated Floppy Disk Controller: Make sure this is enabled or your

floppy disk will not function.
· Integrated IDE / Hard Disk Controllers: You will either find two of these
parameters--one for the primary IDE channel and the other for the
secondary--or a single setting that controls both using options like "Disabled",
"Primary", "Secondary" and "Both". Enable whichever channels you are using.
Most systems will have at least one device on the primary channel. Some will
also have a device on the secondary channel.
· Integrated Serial Port 1 (COM1): You will normally want this enabled, and
the standard resource setting is IRQ #4, with I/O address 3F8h.
· Integrated Serial Port 2 (COM2): You will usually want this enabled, and
the standard resource setting is IRQ #3, with I/O address 2F8h. Disable
COM2 if you don't need it, or if you have or plan to install a modem
configured using COM2's default resources. (Many modems come configured
to use COM2 by default).
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· Integrated Parallel Port: You will normally want to enable this. The
standard resource assignment is IRQ #7, with I/O address 378h (3BCh on
some systems).
· Integrated Parallel Port Mode: Set this to either "SPP" or "EPP". Do not set
it to "ECP", as this mode involves the use of additional DMA resources and is
less compatible.
· PS/2 Mouse Enable: Set to "Auto" if your system has that option, otherwise
enable it if using a PS/2 style mouse, disable otherwise.
· USB Enable: Disable on most systems, unless using USB.
8. Set Hardware Device Settings (jumperless systems only): If you have a

jumperless motherboard, enter the "CPU Soft Menu" (or whatever it is called on your
system) and configure your motherboard options:
· CPU Operating Speed: If this option is present, set your CPU's speed here.
This will set and lock the "External Clock" and "Multiplier Factor" settings.
· External Clock: Set to the correct system bus speed for your PC.
· Multiplier Factor: Set to the multiplier factor for your PC.
· CPU Power Plane: Set to either "Single Voltage" or "Dual Voltage"

depending on what your CPU requires.
· I/O Plane Voltage: Set the appropriate external or I/O voltage for your
processor.
· Core Plane Voltage: Set the appropriate internal or core voltage for your
processor.
9. Save and Exit Setup: Return to the main menu and choose the option to save and
exit the BIOS setup program. This will reboot the system. If you are setting up a new
system, make sure your floppy boot disk is still in the floppy drive so that the system
will boot from it.
· Post-Assembly Initial Test Procedure
This procedure describes system tests that you should perform after setting up a system or
completing a significant upgrade such as a motherboard upgrade. Using this procedure will
help you to verify that you have completed your assembly successfully and that all the
various components in your system are working properly.
Procedure Overview:
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· Hardware Required: You may need a flashlight, screwdriver or needle-nose pliers if
you need to make adjustments to any of the hardware, but otherwise, no hardware is
required.
· Software Required: Bootable floppy disk.
· Make sure you ground yourself before touching any components. Also be
extremely careful when working inside the case with the power on.
· Always power the system down safely before changing anything inside the
box.
· Your system will probably vary from the one discussed here, so be sure to
test whatever your system actually contains.
· I assume that the system has been powered up and is able to boot up from
the floppy disk to a DOS prompt. If you are having problems getting the
system to boot up, you need to resolve that first before commencing this
procedure. Try looking at the Boot Process Troubleshooting section for help.
· If you have an AMI BIOS with a graphical BIOS setup program, then you
already know whether or not your mouse is working. Otherwise, you will have
to wait until you go to install Windows to test your mouse.
Procedure Steps:
1. Check LEDs: Check the power LED and the turbo LED (if connected). Both should be
on. You should also see the hard disk LED come on during the boot process, when the
BIOS is doing its testing, but it may not. You may want to try reversing the leads of
the hard disk LED if it does not light up, but you may also want to wait until you are
sure the hard disk is in action.
2. Test Turbo Button (if applicable): If your system has an operational turbo button,
press it and see if the turbo LED toggles. Note that in most systems this button does
not actually do anything.
3. Check Hard Disk Drive: The hard disk should be spinning.
4. Check Fans: Make sure that the power supply fan, CPU fan, and any other fans in
the system are all spinning and not obstructed.
5. Test CD-ROM Drive Mechanism: Press the eject button on the CD-ROM to test if
the drive has power and the tray is working.
6. Check System Configuration (during next bootup): In the next step you will
reset the system. While the system is rebooting, carefully check the system
configuration screen that the BIOS displays. Make sure that all the storage devices,
serial and parallel ports and other devices are listed. Check the listed total for the
system memory and make sure that it is correct. Make sure the processor's listed
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speed is correct. Reset the system a second time if necessary (the screen may scroll
past too fast).
7. Test Reset Button: Press the reset button and reboot the system.
8. Test Keylock: If your system has a keylock, test it by turning it to the locked
position and rebooting. You should get an error message saying that they keyboard is
locked. Unlock the case.
After the system has been running for at least 10 minutes, continue with these steps:
9. Turn System Off: Turn the power to the system off.
10. Ground Yourself: Touch the outside of the metal box of the power supply to ensure
that you are grounded.
11. Check Temperature of Processor, Memory and Cache Chips: Carefully touch the
metal of the heat sink near where it attaches to the processor, or the edge of the
processor itself. It should be warm but not too hot to the touch. Repeat for the
memory chips, and the cache chips on the motherboard or cache module.
12. Check Temperature of Hard Disk: The middle of the hard disk may be warm, but
should definitely not be hot (in fact, it will normally be not much above room
temperature).
· Additional Peripheral Installation
This subprocedure of the New PC Assembly Procedure describes briefly the installation and
configuration of secondary peripherals. These are not installed until the end of the assembly
process in order to reduce the chances of a problem in the system being difficult to
troubleshoot. I do not go into a great deal of detail here, because the particulars of installing
any specific peripheral depend almost entirely on what the peripheral is. In addition, installing
these peripherals is for the mostpart very similar to what you already did in installing your
video card.
Procedure Overview:
· Screwdriver.
· CD audio cable, if installing a sound card.
· Phone cord, if installing modem.
· Additional hardware may be required depending on what you are installing.
· Software Required: You may require driver disks or setup programs for some
peripherals.
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· Time to Perform: Depends entirely on how many devices are being configured and
how much trouble you experience. Figure on 10 to 15 minutes if performing the whole
procedure.
· Be sure to properly configure devices to avoid resource conflicts. In particular,

watch out for modems that default to using COM2, as they will conflict with
the built-in COM2 port unless the latter is disabled in the system BIOS.
· I do not go into as much detail in this procedure, because I assume that you
already have some familiarity with installing an expansion card after setting
up the video card in the system. If you need more specific details on card
insertion, refer to the Video Card Physical Installation Procedure.
· All of the steps in this procedure are optional. I include the installation of a
sound card, modem and network card here.
· I assume that the basic system has been assembled and is in decent working
order. I don't recommend adding peripherals to a system whose basics are
not functioning well.
Procedure Steps:
1. Turn System Off: If the system is on, turn it off and unplug it.
2. Install Modem: Follow these sub-steps to install your modem into the PC:
· If your modem is a conventional type that uses jumpers to set the COM port
and IRQ number, you need to configure the jumpers according to the
instructions in your modem manual. If your modem is plug and play (most
newer ones are) then you do not need to configure any jumpers on it.
· Select an open ISA expansion slot, preferably away from as many other
components as possible.
· Unscrew and remove the metal insert on the back of the system case that
corresponds to this expansion slot.
· Insert the card into the expansion slot carefully. You may have to rock it back
and forth from front to back to get it to go in.
· Secure the card by screwing it into place.
· Connect one end of the phone cord to the back of the modem (in the "Wall"
or "Line" jack) and the other end to the wall socket.
3. Install Sound Card: Follow these sub-steps to install your sound card, if you are
going to put one in the system:
· If your sound card is a conventional one that uses jumpers to set its
configuration and resource usage, you need to configure the jumpers
according to the instructions in your manual. If your sound card is plug and
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play (most newer ones are) then you probably do not need to configure any
jumpers on it.
· Select an open expansion slot of the appropriate type to match the system
bus type your card uses. Try to keep the sound card away from other devices
if possible.
and forth from front to back to get it to go in.
· Connect the CD audio cable between the sound card and the CD-ROM drive.
Due to several manufacturers having different standards for their drives,
most sound cards now have more than one jack for the CD audio cable, and
they may not be all different physically, so they can be confused for one
another. Usually the connectors on the sound card are labeled with common
brand names for CD-ROMs such as “Sony”, “Matsushita” (Panasonic) and
“Mitsumi”. If your CD-ROM is not one of the brands indicated, consult your
documentation for which connector to use. If you can’t find this information in
your documents, you may want to contact the CD-ROM drive manufacturer's
technical support, or simply try each of the connectors in succession until you
find one that works.
· You will want to attach either your home stereo or your computer speakers to
the sound card, depending on which you are using. You may also wish to
connect a microphone. The sound card should have several round ports, all of
which are the exact same size and shape, so choose the correct one. There
are often two different outputs, one labeled "Speaker out" and the other "Line
out". The first one is usually better for speakers and the other for a home
stereo. The microphone jack is often labeled "Mic In". Some systems of
course have integrated speakers and/or microphone, which simplifies this
process considerably.
4. Install Network Card: Follow these sub-steps to install your network card:
· If your network card is a conventional type that uses jumpers to set the IRQ
number and I/O address, you need to configure the jumpers according to the
instructions in your manual. If your card is plug and play (most newer ones
are), or uses a software configuration utility, then you do not need to
configure any jumpers on it.
· Select an open expansion slot of the appropriate type to match the system
bus type your card uses. Try to keep the network card away from other
devices if possible.
and forth from front to back to get it to go in. If your network card has a
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coaxial (10base2) connector on it, be careful when installing the card as the
coax connector will sometimes get caught in the insert hole of the case.
· Connect the appropriate cables to the network card.
5. Double-Check Installation: Go over the items that you just installed to make sure
that the cards are inserted correctly and that there aren't any problems with them.
6. Turn On System: Turn the system on. Make sure the system still boots up with the
new peripherals in it. Resolve any problems with the new devices.
7. Configure Peripherals: If your peripherals use a software configuration utility (as

some network cards do) then run them now to set up your hardware.
· Hard Disk Partitioning and Formatting Procedure
This procedure describes how to set up a new, empty hard disk so that it is ready for an
operating system to be installed on it. This process includes partitioning and formatting and
results in a bootable hard disk. The procedure covers configuring the hard disk as a single
large partition or splitting it into multiple, smaller partitions. The procedure provides specific
instructions for using the FDISK program and is based on the Windows 95 OEM SR2
(Windows 95B) FDISK version with FAT32 support.
Warning: This procedure is intended to be used for setting up a new hard disk containing no
information on it. Do not follow these steps if your hard disk has already been partitioned and
formatted, or data loss will likely result.
Procedure Overview:
· Risk Factor: 1 (Very low). This assumes that the hard disk has no data on it.
· Software Required: Boot disk containing the FDISK.EXE and FORMAT.COM

programs.
· Time to Perform: 5 to 20 minutes, depending on the size and speed of the hard
disks.
· To be safe, always run FDISK from DOS only.
· Be extremely careful when using the FDISK program, as one incorrect

keystroke can result in major data loss. In particular, in a system with
multiple hard disk drives be careful to make sure you are working on the right
physical disk or you may accidentally end up disturbing the contents of the
wrong drive. Beware that DOS drive letters can change after creating or
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deleting partitions, and that with multiple hard disks the partitions may be
lettered in an unexpected sequence. See here for more details on this.
· Do not perform this procedure until the system is in good working order.
Resolve any hardware conflicts or other issues before commencing.
· I assume that the system has been turned on and booted from the floppy
disk.
· FDISK uses binary megabytes when displaying drive and partition sizes, not
decimal megabytes. See this explanation of the difference for details.
· All commands in DOS or within FDISK require you to press {Enter} to select
them; I'm not going to repeat it a zillion times within the procedure below.
Procedure Steps:
1. Check Version Number: At the DOS prompt, enter the following command: "ver".
The system will respond with the version of DOS/Windows you have booted. Make
sure that this matches whatever you want to install on the hard disk. For Windows 95
OEM SR2 the version number will be "4.00.1111".
2. Plan Partitions: Decide how you want to partition your hard disk. In particular, for
large hard disks under Windows 95 OSR2, decide if you want to set up your hard disk
with a single large FAT32 partition, or several smaller FAT16 partitions. (You can of
course mix these). I provide instructions for doing either of these, but cannot tell you
how to set up your system. You must decide based on what makes sense for you. For
assistance in making this decision, and more general information on partitioning,
cluster sizes and related issues, refer to this section. Most people today prefer to set
up a new system using a single FAT32 partition.
3. Run FDISK.EXE: From the command prompt, enter the command "fdisk". If you
have a disk large enough to warrant the use of FAT32, you will be asked if you want
to enable "large disk support". Enter "Y" if you want to enable FAT32, or "N" if you do
not want to enable FAT32. If you do enable this, any partitions over 500 MB that you
create will be FAT32. Note that if you do not enable FAT32, you will not be able to put
your entire hard disk into one partition if it is greater than 2 GB in size.
If you decided to place your entire hard disk into a single partition, then follow this step:
4. Partition Hard Disk (Single Partition): Follow these steps to set up your hard
disk:
A. Select from the FDISK menu "1. Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive".
B. Select "1. Create Primary DOS Partition". FDISK will verify drive integrity.
Then it will ask if you want to use the maximum available size of the disk for
the primary partition and set it active. Enter "Y". The system will allocate the
whole disk to the partition, and that's that.
C. Press {Esc} to exit FDISK.
If instead you want to set up your hard disk with multiple partitions (or if you don't have
Windows 95 OEM SR2), follow this step. In order to make the process easier to follow, I am
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going to use an example below. In the example, a 3100 (binary) MB hard disk is being
partitioned into four partitions of 1000 MB, 800 MB, 700 MB and 600 MB respectively:
4. Partition Hard Disk (Multiple Partitions): Follow these steps to set up your hard
disk:
A. Select from the FDISK menu "1. Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive".
B. Select "1. Create Primary DOS Partition". FDISK will verify drive integrity.
Then it will ask if you want to use the maximum available size of the disk for
the primary partition and set it active. Enter "N". The system will show the
size of the entire disk in MB.
C. Enter the size of the primary partition. In our example, this would mean
entering "1000". The system will tell you that it has created the primary
partition, and will assign it the drive letter "C:".
D. Press {Esc} to return to the FDISK menu.
E. Select "2. Set active partition". Select partition 1. FDISK will report that it has
set partition 1 active.
F. Press {Esc} to return to the FDISK menu.
G. Select from the FDISK menu "1. Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive".
H. Select "2. Create Extended DOS Partition".
I. When prompted, press {Enter} to select the entire remaining area of the disk
for the extended DOS partition. FDISK will report that it has created the
extended DOS partition.
J. Press {Esc}. FDISK will automatically prompt you to create your first logical
DOS volume within the extended DOS partition.
K. Enter the size of the first logical partition (the second partition overall). In our
example you would enter "800". FDISK will create the partition, label it "D:",
and then say "Logical DOS Drive created, drive letters changed or added".
Don't touch anything, just wait, and FDISK will prompt you for the next
volume.
L. Repeat the previous step for the remaining partitions (in our example there
would be two more partitions to create, the 700 MB and 600 MB ones). When
all of the partitions have been created, FDISK will report "All available space
in the Extended DOS Partition is assigned to logical drives".
M. Press {Esc} to exit FDISK.
Continue with the procedure:
5. Reboot: Reboot the system using either the Reset button or the "three-fingered
salute" ({Ctrl}+{Alt}+{Delete}). Make sure the floppy disk is in its drive, since you
still need it. Note that you may get "Invalid media type reading drive C" errors while
rebooting. This is normal at this stage.
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6. Format Primary Partition: From the "A:" DOS prompt, issue the following
command: "format c:/s". Do not forget the "/s", as this is what will make your C:
drive bootable. You will get a "scary" warning message such as "WARNING, ALL DATA
ON NON-REMOVABLE DISK DRIVE C: WILL BE LOST. Proceed with Format (Y/N)?".
Since of course there is no data presently on drive C:, just enter "Y" and the system
will format the hard disk. The program will show you its progress as it formats and at
the end will prompt you for a volume label. Enter one if you wish.
7. Format Additional Partitions (if necessary): If you set up multiple partitions,

format the additional partitions now. This is done in almost the same way as
formatting the primary DOS partition, except that you leave off the "/s". So normally
you would be entering "format d:", "format e:" and so on, until all the partitions have
been formatted. The prompts should be the same as in the preceding step.
Warning: If you have a second hard disk in the system and it has a primary DOS partition,
that partition is probably assigned D: because DOS assigns letters to all primary partitions
before any logical partitions. Be careful of what you format.
8. Remove Boot Floppy: Eject the boot floppy from the floppy disk.
9. Reboot: Reboot the system using either the Reset button or {Ctrl}+{Alt}+{Delete}.
The system should boot up from the hard disk this time, and stop at the "C:" prompt.
Note that if you get an error such as "NO ROM BASIC, SYSTEM HALTED" or "No boot
device found" at this stage, this means you forgot to set the primary DOS partition
"active". Reboot from the floppy, run FDISK again and use option 2 to set the primary
partition active, then reboot. If you get an error like "No operating system", this
means you probably forgot the "/s" parameter when formatting the C: drive. Put the
floppy disk back in the drive and then return to step 5. See the Troubleshooting
Expert for more help with any errors you may encounter.
· CD-ROM Driver Installation Procedure
This procedure provides instructions for installing the CD-ROM driver for your CD-ROM drive.
(Driver, not drive; if you are looking for the procedure to install the CD-ROM drive itself
please look here instead.) This procedure is necessary in order to prepare a new system for
the installation of Windows, because CD-ROMs cannot be read natively by the PC without a
driver the way hard disks can. For more information, refer to the page on CD-ROM
configuration.
This procedure is designed for new systems that need to get the CD-ROM working in order to
allow Windows to be loaded from CD-ROM, but should apply as well to those setting up a
CD-ROM drive under DOS or Windows 3.x. Note that you do not need to run this procedure to
set up a CD-ROM drive for use on a system already equipped with Windows 95 or Windows
NT, because these operating systems have built-in CD-ROM drivers. You need it only for
installing DOS, Windows 3.x, or for setting up a new Windows 95/NT system that doesn't
already have Windows installed.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). Some finesse may be required depending
on how good your install software is.
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· Software Required:
· CD-ROM driver disk. If the driver disk does not contain MSCDEX.EXE, you will
need this file as well; it may be on your operating system boot disk, or
Windows 95 startup disk.
· Windows (or other operating system) CD-ROM.
· Time to Perform: About 5 minutes assuming there aren't any problems.
· If this is a new system, your hard disk should be partitioned and formatted
before you begin.
· I strongly recommend having some sort of text editor, such as EDIT.COM,

available for use in this procedure.
· Some CD-ROM driver install programs are totally brain-dead. I have no idea
why some companies are so lame that they cannot even do something as
simple as this properly, but it happens all the time. If you have troubles with
this procedure, it may be due to a hardware problem, but it is also highly
possible that the driver install program has done something stupid. Watch out
for the following in particular:
· Some install programs will not run if MSCDEX.EXE is not already on

the hard disk, even if you have it on the same floppy as the install
program. You need to copy it over before you start.
· Some install programs will not run if MSCDEX.EXE is not in the

C:\DOS directory on your hard disk, and they won't tell you this
either! They'll just say "MSCDEX not found" and stop. "C:\DOS" is the
traditional place for the MSCDEX.EXE file on older DOS 6.22 and
earlier PCs.
· Many install programs will put the path names in CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT incorrectly, sometimes leaving off the drive letter.
· Many install programs cannot deal at all with boot menus in the
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files. You'll have to manually edit
the files to fix them.
· Some programs get mighty confused if you try to run them with no
CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files on the hard disk already; they
aren't smart enough to create them.
· I assume that you have the system booted and are at the DOS prompt, root
directory of the C: drive.
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Procedure Steps:
1. Insert Disk: Place your CD-ROM driver disk into the floppy drive. Type "dir a:" and
{Enter} to verify that the disk is readable.
2. Copy Editor: If you have an editor on the floppy disk, copy it to the hard disk, it will
be easier to use this way. If it is EDIT.COM and the file is on the floppy, this
command will do the job, issued from the C: root directory: "copy a:edit.com c:".
3. Create System Files (if necessary): On a new system I recommend that you make
sure you have the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files already on the hard disk, as
some install programs are too dumb to figure out to make them and will malfunction.
You can do this the easy way or the hard way:
· Using an Editor: Create an empty file using your editor, and then save it as
"CONFIG.SYS". You can do this by entering the command "edit config.sys", if
you have EDIT.COM, and then pressing the {Space Bar} once and choosing
the option to save the file. Repeat for "AUTOEXEC.BAT" or copy CONFIG.SYS
to AUTOEXEC.BAT.
· Using COPY: Follow these steps to create empty CONFIG.SYS and

AUTOEXEC.BAT files:
A. From the command prompt, type this command: "copy con:

config.sys". The system will not respond, but rather will just drop the
cursor down one line and send it to the left edge of the screen.
B. Press the {Space Bar} once; the cursor will move one position to the
right.
C. Press Control-Z (typed as {Ctrl}+{Z}). "^Z" will appear on the

screen.
D. Press {Enter}. The system will respond "1 file(s) copied".

CONFIG.SYS has now been created with one space character in it.
E. Enter this command: "copy config.sys autoexec.bat". This will create

the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.
4. Run Driver Install Program: Execute the driver install program. The exact
command will depend on what is on your driver disk, but usually "a:setup" or
"a:install" is what you want. Respond to the questions that you are asked, and allow
the program to modify your CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files. The program will
respond by telling you to reboot the system in order to activate the driver.
5. Check System Files: Check your CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files by either
editing them or displaying them to the screen using the command "type config.sys"
or "type autoexec.bat". You should see the following:
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· CONFIG.SYS: There should be a line reading something like
"DEVICE=C:\CDROM\CDATAPI.SYS /D:MSCD001", and there may be other "/"
parameters in there as well.
· AUTOEXEC.BAT: Look for a line that reads "C:\MSCDEX /D:MSCD001". The

parameter after "/D:" should match that of CONFIG.SYS. There may be other
parameters as well.
6. Change CD-ROM Drive Letter: By default, the CD-ROM will be assigned the next
drive letter after whatever your hard disk partitions are using. The problem with this
is that if you later add another hard disk, that will take the letter your CD-ROM was
using, and this can cause a lot of your CD-ROM-based software to stop working
properly. This section in the Troubleshooting Guide explains what can happen. To
avoid this, it's best to pick a drive letter much "higher up" in the alphabet; I like to
use "J:" for my CD-ROM (use a higher letter if you have a lot of hard disk partitions).
Then, tell the system to use this letter by editing AUTOEXEC.BAT and adding this
parameter to the MSCDEX.EXE line: "/L:J" (change "J" to whatever letter you want to
use). So the line will now look something like "C:\MSCDEX /D:MSCD001 /L:J" (plus
whatever other parameters were there before).
Warning: Some people decide to wait until after installing Windows to change the drive
letter; I don't recommend this because if you do, Windows will always try to look for its CD at
the old location whenever it needs drivers later on. Change it now, and Windows will keep the
change and things will work much better.
7. Reboot: Remove the driver floppy disk from the floppy drive and reboot the system.
After the hard disk boots, you should see a message from the CD-ROM driver as it
loads, and then from MSCDEX as well, telling you that the CD-ROM has been
assigned a drive letter. If you encounter any errors, try to address them by making
sure the hardware is properly connected, and double-checking the commands in the
system files. Bear in mind the notes I put in at the top of this procedure about how
sometimes the install programs don't set up the files properly.
8. Insert CD-ROM and Access It: Place your Windows CD-ROM (or other disk) in the
CD-ROM drive. Type "dir J:" (or whatever your CD-ROM letter is) and the contents of
the CD-ROM should be displayed. If this works, the driver is installed and you are
ready to install the operating system. Note that it can take a few seconds for the disk
to be registered, so be patient. If you get an error message like "Invalid drive
specification", this probably means that your driver isn't installed properly or your
drive was not found. If you get other errors you may have a problem with your drive
or the particular disk you inserted. You may find the solution in this section of The
Troubleshooting Expert.
· Operating System Installation Procedure
This procedure is my attempt to provide instructions for installing Windows 95 on a new PC. I
approached this procedure with some hesitation, because installing Windows 95 is not a
simple thing to do sometimes, and what needs to be done depends a great deal on what the
hardware is in the machine and how the system is to be used. However, I think it is worth
outlining at least generally the steps involved in performing the installation. Just bear in mind
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while you read this, that it is not feasible to cover every possibility in setting up this operating
system.
This procedure is designed for those installing Windows 95 on a new system. It is based on
the latest version of Windows, which is alternatively called Windows 95 OEM SR2, Windows
95 OSR2, or Windows 95B (along with many other names, not all of them pleasant. :^) ).
The steps of the procedure for installing an older version of Windows 95 would be fairly
similar, although not exactly the same.
This procedure does not specifically address upgrading to Windows 95 on a system that
already has Windows 3.x on it. Again here, the procedure would not be that different. I do
not recommend installing Windows 95 on top of Windows 3.x for compatibility and
performance reasons.
Note that this procedure covers not just the basic installation of Windows (which would leave
you with a usable but highly non-optimal system), it also addresses the fundamental issues
of double-checking and fine-tuning the install. However, you will still most likely want to
make additional changes based on what is in your PC and how you plan to use it. The System
Optimization and Enhancement Guide may help with this.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-4 (Low to High). The installation itself is not that difficult, but
problems are not uncommon and you may in some cases have to "think on your
feet". Some of the optimizations require some thought also.
· Risk Factor: 1 (Very low). This assumes that the disk is new and there is nothing on
it.
· Hardware Required: None, unless you have to open the box to fix any hardware
problems that are discovered as a result of the installation.
· Software Required:
· Windows 95 OSR2 CD, plus the Certificate of Authenticity that should come
with it. If your CD did not come with a certificate, you should return it
immediately as you cannot install Windows without the product code that is
on the certificate.
· A blank floppy disk for making a startup disk, if you want one.
· Video card driver disk.
· Sound card driver disk.
· Other driver disks.
· Time to Perform: This varies widely and depends on the speed of the PC to a great
extent. I would generally allow 30 to 60 minutes for the full process.
· Windows 95 Setup is a very complex program, because of the large variety of

hardware and software it was designed to deal with. Due to this variety, this
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procedure cannot anticipate exactly how the install will go on any system, so
be prepared to adapt it to what you see on the screen. This procedure only
covers what is typical in the install.
· Make sure your hardware is all working properly before you start here, or you
most likely won't get very far.
· You should of course have your hard disk partitioned and formatted, and your
CD-ROM drivers installed and working, in order to access the Windows CD. I
assume the PC is booted and at the "C:" prompt.
· I've never installed Windows from floppy disk, but I imagine that the steps
would be similar (except for dozens of floppy disk swaps).
· Windows 95 OSR2 will not install on top of an existing Windows 95 installation

unless you first rename or delete every instance of the file "WIN.COM" on
every hard disk in the system. I have not personally tried to upgrade to OSR2
from an existing Windows 95 install, and I don't generally recommend doing
this.
Procedure Steps:
1. Start Setup: At the DOS prompt, enter the command "X:setup" where "X" is
replaced by the drive letter of your CD-ROM. Setup will begin.
2. File System Scan: The first thing Windows will do is to invoke the SCANDISK
program to check your hard disk for problems before it begins the installation. This
should proceed without trouble on a system that has DOS installed on it, but on a
new PC, SCANDISK will typically fail immediately because it will say that you do not
have an extended memory manager installed. Don't worry about this--on a new
system there's nothing on the disk anyway and no real reason to actually have the
disk checked. Ignore the error and press {Esc} to continue.
3. Welcome Dialog: The graphical interface for Windows and a "Welcome" box will
appear. Check your mouse and make sure that it is working; the setup will be much
harder to do without it. Select the "Continue" button. Windows will prepare the
"Windows 95 Setup Wizard".
4. License Agreement: The license agreement for Windows will be displayed. Read it,
then select "Yes" to continue.
5. Setup Wizard Start: The Setup Wizard box will display, showing you the three
phases of the installation. Click "Next".
6. Choose Install Directory: Setup will ask you which directory you want to use for
Windows. I strongly recommend that you accept the default, "C:\WINDOWS", for the
simple reason that this is the standard. Most Windows reference material is written
with instructions that assume this as the location for the Windows files. After you tell
Setup to proceed, it will perform some routine checks on your system.
7. Setup Options: You will now be given the choice of whether you want a "Typical",
"Portable", "Compact" or "Custom" install. The first three items are pre-set "option
packages" that you can use if you are in a hurry, but you won't really even know what
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you are getting and what you are leaving out. I recommend selecting "Custom", as
this will let you choose what components you install and which you do not.
8. Certificate of Authenticity: Enter the product code from your certificate of

authenticity to continue the installation.
9. Analyzing Your Computer: The Setup Program will now search your PC to
determine what hardware is in it. It is generally best to just let it "do its thing". If you
have a network card or a sound, midi or video capture card, check the appropriate
boxes. Then press "Next" to continue. The search will take several minutes, and your
hard disk will be very active, in fact, it will seem like the hard disk is going crazy. This
is normal. :^) Be patient.
10. Select Components: Now you will select which components of Windows to install.
Choose as you wish; you can select/deselect entire groups or only specific items
within groups. I recommend (and always include myself) the following: Accessibility
Options, Accessories, Communications, Multimedia, Disk Tools. Choose "Next".
11. Network Configuration: This will pop up even if you don't have a network card,
because Windows will by default add a dial-up network adapter. I recommend you
just accept the defaults for now and press "Next", as you'll have to adjust the
network settings later on anyway.
12. Identification: This is for the network setup; enter your computer name, workgroup
and computer description for networking purposes; bear in mind that you can change
all of this later on.
13. Computer Settings: Double-check these settings and change any that are incorrect.
Note that you can select different brands of the various components here, but only
from whatever Windows has in its driver database. You can't install custom or
updated drivers here; you'll do this later on. Select "Next".
14. Startup Disk: Setup will ask you if you want a startup disk. You can make one now if
you wish; I usually don't bother until I am finished installing and setting up Windows.
15. Start Copying Files: Setup is now done pestering you for a while and will start
actually copying the files to your hard disk. This will take a few minutes.
16. Finishing Setup: Select "Finish". Setup will reboot the system.
17. First Windows 95 Boot: The system will reboot and you will see the distinctive
deep-blue screen that Windows shows when "Getting ready to run Windows 95 for
the first time...". This may take some time.
18. Password: If you allowed Setup to install a network adapter you will be asked for a
password. Just hit "Cancel" for now.
19. Setting Up Hardware: Windows will now set up your hardware, look for Plug and
Play devices and set them up, and then configure other system settings.
20. Time Zone: Select your region's time zone and then select "Close". Note that the
world map cannot be clicked on; it used to work (and was quite cool), but they took it
out of OSR2 for political reasons (various countries quabbling over boundary lines as I
understand it).
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21. Add Printer Wizard: You can add your printer now, but I recommend that you just
hit "Cancel" for now and do this later on.
22. Setup Finished: A dialog box appears saying that setup has finished. Click "OK". The
system will reboot.
23. First "Real" Windows Boot: Windows will boot up. You may see a box saying
"Finalizing settings for your computer". Note that the first time you boot Windows it
will take longer than it will every time after that. When the boot is done you should
see the
24. Open System Properties: Open up the system properties dialog box so you can
check out the system. The easiest way to do this is to right-click on the "My
Computer" icon in the upper left-hand corner, and then select "Properties". The
system properties box will show up.
25. Check General Settings: Under the "General" tab of the System Properties box,
check to make sure the correct CPU has been detected and that Windows thinks you
have the correct amount of system memory. Also check the other settings.
26. Check Devices: Select the "Device Manager" tab of the System Properties box. You
will see a hierarchical display of the hardware and logical devices in your system. The
main thing you are looking for here are any devices with which Windows is registering
a hardware conflict. These are usually highlighted in the list by the infamous yellow
circle with an exclamation mark in it. Usually these mean a driver is incorrect for the
device, or it is malfunctioning; you need to resolve all of these. To check the status of
a device, follow these instructions:
· Select the device from the Device Manager list.
· Select the "Properties" button.
· A dialog box will pop up, containing one or more tabs, depending on the
device. You generally want to look at the "Driver" and "Resources" tabs for
information on the device.
27. Check Performance Status: Select the "Performance" tab of the System Properties
box. You should see "Your system is configured for optimal performance" in the
middle of the box. If you don't see this, you will probably see a list of some device
conflicts in the system, which you need to resolve. This usually does not happen
however. You may also want to double-check the advanced settings at the bottom of
the dialog box.
28. Optimize Virtual Memory Swap File Settings: The swap file is what Windows uses
to temporarily store memory contents when you are running multiple programs. The
default settings that Windows chooses for the swap file are not optimal for most
systems because by default, the swap file is mixed in with your regular files, and
Windows will resize the swap file often, hurting performance. How you optimize the
swap file depends on your hardware and what you want to do with the machine;
please refer to this section that discusses swap file optimization in detail, and make
the appropriate changes. You may be asked to reboot the system when you make
these changes; for now, don't until you complete your other modifications.
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29. Optimize Disk Cache Settings: Similar to how the default swap file settings are not
optimal, Windows by default does really stupid things with its internal disk cache,
which have a serious negative impact on performance. You will want to make changes
to these settings; refer to this section for more details and instructions on how to do
this. Again, do not reboot yet as you have other changes to make.
30. Optimize Conventional Memory: If you are going to use DOS programs under
Windows, you need to be concerned about conventional memory totals. By default
Windows 95 does not set up key parts of the system to load into upper memory, so
conventional memory for use by DOS programs is reduced. If conventional memory is
an issue for you, I recommend optimizing it by following the suggestions in this
optimization section.
31. Install Peripheral Drivers: Using the disks that came with your video card, sound
card and other devices, install the drivers for your system. Follow the directions that
come with the disks. You will probably have to reboot the system for the new drivers
to take effect.
32. Reboot System: If you didn't reboot the system in the previous step, do so now.
33. Make Other Changes: You will probably want to make other changes such as
setting a background image, screen saver, etc.
· Assembly Completion Procedure
This subprocedure of the New PC Assembly Procedure describes how to finish the assembly of
your new PC. This involves mainly tying up loose ends, optimizing BIOS settings and the like.
Pretty simple stuff, but you do have to finish the job. :^)
Procedure Overview:
· Screwdriver.
· Cable ties and wire snips are optional.
· You may need a pair of needle-nose pliers.
· Time to Perform: About 5 to 10 minutes.
· Make sure the power is turned off before you go back into the system to finish
it off. Some people try to save time by leaving the power on when they
re-assemble the case; I don't recommend it.
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· Be careful not to loosen any cables when tidying up the inside of the system
· Make sure the system is stable and working well before putting the case back
on.
Procedure Steps:
1. Turn System Off: If the system is on, turn it off and unplug it.
2. Tidy Up Inside the Case: Look inside the case for any cables that are dangling
loose that might get in the way of the CPU fan or other components. Make sure there
are no leftover or loose parts in the case. Try to tuck these out the way. You may also
want to use plastic cable ties (snip off the ends with wire snips) to secure loose wires.
3. Replace System Case Cover: I haven't bothered putting specific step-by-step

instructions for this; it's basically a matter of undoing whatever you did to open the
case up in the first place. :^) You may need to disconnect your keyboard, mouse and
other peripherals in order to get some cases back together.
4. Physically Position System Case: Put the system case in the location where you
want it to stay permanently.
5. Secure External Peripheral Connectors: You will want to now secure the
connectors for your mouse, monitor, and other peripherals. You may need a
screwdriver for some of these, but often you can just tighten them with your fingers.
6. Turn System Back On: Turn the PC back on and make sure it still works properly,
and immediately go into the BIOS setup program.
7. Optimize BIOS Settings: Now that you have the system working well, you will want
to optimize the performance of your system by tweaking some of the BIOS settings
that you previously left at default or safe values. Reboot your system and go into the
BIOS setup, then follow the recommendations in this section to optimize your
settings. Remember to save any changes you make.
· System Documentation Procedure
This procedure describes how to document certain critical information about your PC.
Recording and organizing information about your PC is a prudent investment of a few minutes
of your time. It will greatly help you if/when you have system problems or go to upgrade
your machine. You'll want to perform this procedure after building or buying a new system, or
performing significant upgrades.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: Paper and pen? :^)
· Software Required: Possibly a blank floppy disk.
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· Preparation / Warnings: There will probably be other specifics about your system
that you'll want to record in addition to what is written here.
Procedure Steps:
1. Record BIOS Settings: Go into the BIOS setup program and record your BIOS
settings. This is critical to restoring your system to working condition in the event that
your BIOS settings ever become cleared. See this section of the System Care Guide
for more information on this.
2. Record Jumper Settings: For a homebuilt system, write down the jumper settings
that you determined when configuring the motherboard.
3. Make Copy of System Files: I recommend printing out or archiving to floppy disk
the following files:
· C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT
· C:\CONFIG.SYS
· C:\WINDOWS\WIN.INI
· C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM.INI
4. Record Assembly Notes: If you built the system yourself, I strongly recommend
that you record some notes about what you did during your assembly. Write down
anything unusual or noteworthy about what you did during assembly now, while you
remember it. Concentrate on anything that is out of the ordinary that you might not
remember doing six months from now.
5. Gather Manuals: Collect together the various documents and manuals that came
with your system or components.
6. Store Documentation: Store the information you recorded and the manuals you
gathered in a safe place where you will be able to find them if you need them in the
future.
7. Back Up System: Assuming you have a backup method for your PC (and you
should), back up the PC now.
LESSON VII: PC Configuration
Configuration Procedures
This section of the Procedure Guide covers procedures that relate to the configuration of the
PC. This includes both physical configuration procedures, and also configuration procedures
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related to system hardware settings. Configuration procedures that involve software only, for
example tweaking operating system settings, are covered in the Software Procedures section
· System Layout Planning Procedure
This procedure discusses some of the important considerations in planning the internal case
layout of a system. This is a step that many people forget about when assembling a new PC,
and as a result, they end up wasting a lot of time moving components around after they have
been installed. Worse, poor planning increases the chances of problems with the system,
especially due to cooling, that may not show up until weeks or months after the system has
been installed. This procedure may also help those who have an existing system experiencing
overheating problems; using the guidelines here you may want to make changes to how the
system is laid out.
Note: This procedure isn't so much a set of step-by-step instructions like most of the others
are, but more of a collection of specific items to take into account when preparing to build or
rebuild a PC.
Procedure Overview:
· Time to Perform: Approximately 10-15 minutes.
· Having the system case open in front of you makes this procedure much
easier to do, because it allows for much easier visualization. For instructions
on opening up the case,
· As usual, be careful when handling loose components, ground yourself first,

and avoid touching anything made of metal.
Procedure Steps:
1. General Layout Planning Considerations:
· It is almost always better to place components further away from each other
than right next to each other. This means that if at all possible, leave space
between expansion cards, hard disk drives, etc. This improves cooling and
reduces the chances of physical interference.
· Items that generate a great deal of heat should be placed in a part of the
case that will get more ventilation.
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· Always allow slack in planning the length of cables. A cable that just barely
reaches between two components is much more likely to be pulled out
accidentally.
· You may want to very carefully place the loose motherboard into the system
case in the approximate place where it is going to go. This will allow you to
plan much better. Make sure you insulate the motherboard completely from
the metal of the system case!
· Similarly, you may want to temporarily slide the drives into their bays to see
where their connectors end up. Be careful.
2. Plan Location of Drives: Plan where you are going to put the drives in your system.
These are the factors you need to take into account:
· Decide how many IDE channels you are going to use; see the section on
setting hard disk and CD-ROM jumpers for more information on this. Then
examine the distance between the IDE header(s) on the motherboard, and
the drive bays in the case. Compare to the length of the IDE cables; obviously
they have to reach. If you are going to put two devices on the same cable,
make sure the cable will reach both drives.
· Some IDE devices are sensitive to the length of the cable used. Shorter is
better, all else being equal. You can get extended length IDE cables but I
don't recommend it with newer drives. The standard IDE cable limit is 18
inches.
· Check the distance of the floppy drive from the location of the floppy drive
header pins on the motherboard, and compare to the length of the floppy
cable. You can get extended-length floppy cables; the floppy is a low-speed
device so this doesn't usually cause a problem.
· Check the length of your CD audio cable. The CD-ROM drive cannot be further
away from the sound card than the length of this cable.
· Watch out for interference between drives and the motherboard. In

particular, the voltage regulator on modern motherboards can get very hot in
operation, and you want to keep it away from hard disk drives. In general, I
try to keep drives of all sorts away from the motherboard.
· It is preferable to mount hard disk drives horizontally (label up), rather than
vertically (on their side).
· Some cases have a spot for mounting a hard disk at the very top of the case.
This is usually not the best position for a hard disk, for two reasons: First, the
ventilation in this part of the case is usually poor. Second, this part of the
case is usually farthest from the motherboard, making it a stretch to get the
cable to reach.
· You can mount a 3.5" drive into a 5.25" drive bay using a mounting kit
adapter available at most computer stores. If you are low on bays, it is best
to use 3.5" bays for 3.5" drives whenever possible, since you can't go the
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other way. If you have a lot of bays, you may want to decide on where to put
the drives based more on cooling considerations.
· If the system is in a tower case that is going to be placed on the floor, it's
easier for the user to reach the drive doors to change media in floppy or
CD-ROM drives when they are towards the top of the case.
· Count the number of drives that are going into the system. Then count the
number of power plugs that come from the power supply. If the first number
exceeds the second, you will need to purchase and use a "Y adapter" to split
one of the plugs out for use by two devices.
· Check the ability of the power plugs from the power supply to reach the
drives in your planned locations.
3. Plan Location of Expansion Cards: There are a few considerations to take into
account when planning which expansion card slots you are going to use for which
devices:
· Consider where the video, sound, network and other cards are going to go in
the system and visualize whether they will conflict with any motherboard
devices or drives in the system.
· It is better not to place cards in adjacent slots. This allows for better cooling
and makes it easier to see the card without having to remove it.
· AT form factor motherboards usually have only a couple of slots that will
accommodate a full-length card. Leave these open unless you need them. Put
short cards in slots that can't take long cards due to their position with
respect to the processor socket or voltage regulator.
· Some slots may be directly next to pin headers or jumpers on some

motherboards. Using these slots makes reaching the headers more difficult.
· If your motherboard has a shared PCI/ISA slot, do not use it during the initial
system setup unless absolutely necessary. It gives you more flexibility for
future expansion, when you don't know which bus type you will need.
· Case Floor Relocation Procedure
This procedure will tell you how to relocate your PC from your desk to a position on the floor.
This is an enhancement that you can use to free up desk space and make your PC quieter at
the same time.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: You may require extension cables for your monitor, keyboard
or mouse if they do not reach the case in its new position.
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· Time to Perform: Approximately 15 minutes.
· Preparation / Warnings: Tower cases are much easier to put on the floor than
desktop cases. Some desktop models can also be put there, but things are more
complicated here. You need to be careful because some desktop units are not square
on the sides and will topple if mounted sideways. Also, CD-ROM drives that use a tray
mechanism (most of them) won't work on their sides, because the disk will fall out
when you open the tray. I recommend using a tower case for this reason.
Procedure Steps:
1. Identify Appropriate Location: Find a spot for the PC on the floor. Your main
objectives are to find a place where the PC is out of the way and will not interfere
physically with you when you are seated at your desk (or wherever). You want the PC
to be somewhere where it can be secured physically to ensure that it won't fall. You
also want to make sure it is not too far away from where your monitor, keyboard and
mouse will be.
2. Turn Off the PC and Disconnect the Cables: Turn the power off to the PC and
disconnect all the cables from it. Make a note of which cables connected where.
3. Move the PC: Move the PC to the location you picked for it. If the PC is a tower
model, you can usually put it right on the floor. If it is a desktop unit, you need to be
careful when putting it in place, to ensure that it is stable.
4. Secure the PC: You need to take some sort of measures to ensure that the PC is not
going to be easily pushed over. Normally the best way to do this is to put the case
next to a wall, or the side of a desk. Sandwiched (loosely) between a desk and a wall
is ideal. If the case is next to a wall but not a desk, consider using adhesive velcro or
similar on the wall and case to hold it in place. If the case is free-standing and seems
like it might wobble, you can obtain an inexpensive stand from most computer or
office stores that is designed specifically for this purpose.
5. Reconnect the Cables: Attempt to reconnect the cables for your keyboard, mouse,
monitor and other devices to the PC. You may find that one or more of them don't
reach now; this can sometimes be fixed by rearranging the cable, changing how it is
routed around the desk, or moving some of the equipment. Also, extension cables for
mice, keyboards and monitors are available very cheaply at most good computer
stores.
6. Check For Obstructions: Make sure that the PC's power supply fan is able to blow
properly and that it is not blocked off. If this happens, the PC will overheat.
· Floppy Disk Drive Connection Procedure
floppy disk drive. This procedure deals with the connection of a single drive in either a single
or dual floppy configuration. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the
drive; for instructions on installing the drive, refer to this procedure.
Procedure Overview:
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connecting cables.
· I assume that you are using industry standard drives and an industry
standard floppy cable, which should have a "twist" in seven of the wires in the
middle of it. If you are using non-standard equipment you will probably need
to set jumpers. I do not deal with this here because it is unnecessary 99.9%
of the time.
· 3.5" floppy disk drives use the smaller mini-plug usually provided on modern
power supplies. Adapters are available for a couple of bucks for use in older
systems.
· Obviously, the floppy disk drive must be installed in the system case before
you begin.
Procedure Steps:
into a 5.25" drive; you may have to wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The
connector is keyed, so it can only go in one way. 3.5" drives use a smaller mini-plug,
which is also keyed but easier to attach.
2. Attach Interface Cable: Attach the interface cable to the drive. How this is done
specifically depends on what sort of drive you are using and whether this is the first
or second drive in the system. Follow these general instructions (refer here for a full
explanation of how the floppy cable works):
· The standard floppy cable has a twist in the middle of it. Connect the drive
that you want to be A: after the twist; the drive before the twist is B:. For
standard drives, do not change any jumpers. Just use the positioning on the
cable. If you are installing a new drive as A: and moving the existing drive to
B:, just change which connectors on the cable are attached to which drive.
Note that if the drives have been swapped in the system BIOS, these rules
about A: and B: will be reversed.
· Most 3.5" drives have a set of pins for their interface to the cable, and most
5.25" drives use a card-edge connector, sort of like the connector on an
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expansion card. Most floppy cables have a pair of connectors, one of each
type, both before and after the "twist". Use only one or the other in each pair.
Some cables only have the pin header connector and you will have to change
the cable if you need the card-edge connector type.
· The single connector by itself at the opposite end of the cable goes to the
motherboard or floppy controller.
· Always make sure to line up pin 1 of each floppy connector with pin 1 of the
motherboard, by attaching the cable so that the red wire on one edge of the
ribbon cable connects to pin 1 of each device. On some drives it can be hard
to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, which is why I recommend that
you examine the drive before physically installing it.
· Many 3.5" floppy drives today are not keyed to prevent upside down
connection of the floppy drive cable. This means that it is possible to connect
the cable upside-down, and then of course the drive will not work. In most
cases this will not cause permanent damage. If when you boot up the PC the
floppy drive activity LED comes on and stays on, this is a dead giveaway that
you have done this. Reverse the connector.
that they are correct. Make sure you haven't accidentally knocked anything loose.
· Hard Disk Drive Connection Procedure
hard disk drive. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the drive, only
Procedure Overview:
· This procedure assumes IDE/ATA hard disk drives. While mechanically

them are different.
connecting cables.
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· Of course, the hard disk drive must be physically installed in the system
before you begin. It is also assumed that you have already decided how you
want to configure the hard disk drive, and that you have already set the
appropriate jumpers.
Procedure Steps:
into the drive; you may have to wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The connector
is keyed, so it can only go in one way.
On some drives it can be hard to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, which is
why I recommend that you examine the drive before physically installing it. IDE
connectors and cables are not keyed, so you can easily connect the drive backwards
if you are not careful. Choose one of the following depending on whether the channel
you are going to connect to has a device on it already:
and the other end to the controller or motherboard. Easy as pi (not pie! :^) ).

the first device on the channel; it should have a third, unused connector, but
store).
· CD-ROM Drive Connection Procedure
CD-ROM drive. This procedure does not deal with the physical installation of the drive, only
Procedure Overview:
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connecting cables.
· This procedure assumes IDE/ATA CD-ROM drives. While mechanically

them are different. I also do not cover connection of the older, proprietary
interface CD-ROMs, which went out of style several years ago.
· I assume that you are connecting the CD-ROM to an IDE port or IDE
controller. If you are connecting the device to a sound card, you must of
course make sure the sound card is already installed before proceeding here.
· Of course, the CD-ROM drive must be physically installed in the system before
you begin. It is also assumed that you have already decided how you want to
configure the CD-ROM drive, and that you have already set the appropriate
jumpers.
Procedure Steps:
It may take a little bit of force to get the connector into the drive; you may have to
wiggle the connector a bit to get it in. The connector is keyed, so it can only go in one
way.
On some drives it can be hard to figure out which end of the header is pin 1, however
most CD-ROMs have pins 1 and 40 marked somewhere on the drive, more
prominently than hard disk drives are marked. Be aware that IDE connectors and
cables are not keyed, so you can easily connect the drive backwards if you are not
careful. Choose one of the following depending on whether the channel you are going
to connect to has a device on it already:
and the other end to the controller or motherboard. That's it.

the first device on the channel. It should have a third, unused connector, but
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store).
3. Attach CD Audio Cable (if appropriate): If your system has a sound card in it,
attach the thin three-wire CD audio cable between the CD-ROM drive and the sound
card now. This cable should come with the CD-ROM drive. (If you are following the
New PC Assembly Procedure, your machine doesn't have the sound card in it yet, and
the directions for attaching this cable are in a subsequent step). Due to several
manufacturers having different standards for their drives, most sound cards now have
more than one jack for the CD audio cable, and they may not be all different
physically, so they can be confused for one another. Usually the connectors on the
sound card are labeled with common brand names for CD-ROMs such as “Sony”,
“Matsushita” (Panasonic) and “Mitsumi”. If your CD-ROM is not one of the brands
indicated, consult your documentation for which connector to use. If you can’t find
this information in your documents, you may want to contact the CD-ROM drive
manufacturer's technical support, or simply try each of the connectors in succession
until you find one that works.
· IDE/ATA Device Configuration Procedure
This procedure describes how to configure the IDE/ATA/ATAPI devices in the system. This
includes of course most common hard disk and CD-ROM drives, as well as other ATAPI
devices such as tape drives, Zip drives, etc. This procedure should be used when installing a
new PC, when changing the configuration of an existing system, or when adding a new device
to the system. This procedure does not deal with SCSI devices, which are configured and
handled completely differently.
In this procedure I try to look at configuring all the devices in the system as a whole. While
the task of configuring devices for a new PC install may seem totally different from what you
have to do when adding a new device, in fact, they are quite similar. The reason is that
because the configuration of the different IDE/ATA devices in the system has a strong impact
on performance. Adding a new device may require changing the configuration of existing
devices, or may simply mean that changing the configuration will make the PC run more
optimally. For this reason, it is always best to at least examine the configuration of all
IDE/ATA devices in the system whenever adding, removing or changing any of them.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 2-3 (Low to Moderate). It's not difficult to actually configure the
devices in most cases, but it can be tricky with some devices. It can also take some
experience to know how best to configure the devices when there are more than two.
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(long fingernails will do for some people).
· Software Required: None, but you may need the manual to help you configure one
or more of the drives.
· Time to Perform: 5 minutes, plus whatever analysis time is required to figure out
how you want to set up the system. For a simple system (one hard disk and one
CD-ROM drive), this means pretty much 5 minutes. :^)
· I strongly recommend reading this large section devoted to IDE/ATA

configuration if you do not understand what all of the following terms mean in
the context of IDE/ATA configuration: primary IDE channel, secondary IDE
channel, master, slave, jumpering. This section will give you a great deal of
background information that will be of value in performing this procedure.
· This procedure assumes that all of the devices can be configured as either
master or slave. Some devices can only be configured as either master or
slave, or may have problems in one configuration or the other. Obviously, this
needs to be taken into account when setting up the system.
· If you are using bus mastering drivers, you may run into compatibility
problems if you put hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives on the same IDE
channel.
· Tip: If a particular device requires that no jumpers at all be set for it to be in

the configuration you require, hang the jumper off a single jumper pin. This
will act the same as if the jumpers were totally removed, and it will be there if
you need it in the future.
Procedure Steps:
1. Determine Configuration: The first thing you need to do is to decide how you want
to configure your system. A system with one hard disk and one CD-ROM is usually
configured with the hard disk as the master drive on the primary channel and the
CD-ROM as the master drive on the secondary channel. However, some systems
place both drives on the same channel (which I usually do not recommend). There
are many different factors that must be taken into account when deciding on a
configuration. In addition, I provide specific configuration recommendations here, for
various common combinations of hard disk and CD-ROM drives. Refer to these
sections and decide how you want to set up your system.
2. Determine Which Drives Require Jumpering: Any new drives being added to the
system should be double-checked to ensure their configuration matches your system
configuration plan. However, existing drives that you've decided not to change do not
require rejumpering.
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3. Determine How to Jumper Each Device: Examine each drive you are going to
jumper, to determine how it is supposed to be set. Take into account the following:
· The best place to find jumpering information is the drive's manual. Major
manufacturers also provide jumpering information for all new and most legacy
devices on their web sites.
· Some drives jumper only as master or slave, while others have master, slave,
and "single" configurations. In the latter case, "single" is used when the drive
is by itself on the channel.
· There is no standard for jumpering IDE/ATA hard disk drives. Each drive may
have different numbers of jumpers, and they may be in different places.
Fortunately, most hard disk drives at least now put the jumpering information
on the drive labels.
· CD-ROM drives are fairly similar in the location of their jumpers and are
almost always labeled.
· You can technically leave a CD-ROM jumper as a slave drive by itself on a

channel, but it's better to just make it the master.
4. Set Jumpers for Each Device: Using a pair of needle-nose pliers or a similar tool
(or your fingernails), set the appropriate jumpers for each device.
· Motherboard Configuration Procedure
This procedure describes the steps required to configure a motherboard for installation. You
will normally use this procedure when building a new PC or performing a motherboard
upgrade. Configuring the motherboard is traditionally done using jumpers, which are small
pieces of plastic and metal that are used to change how the circuitry on the motherboard
functions. Some newer boards today are called jumperless, because they use not jumpers
but rather a special group of BIOS settings to set most of the configuration options that are
set with jumpers on conventional boards (they do still have some jumpers so the name isn't
entirely accurate). These boards reduce this particular procedure a great deal (but add an
additional step later on in the build process). You still need to look through this procedure
however since as I say, these boards do have some jumpers.
Note that this procedure covers configuration only; installation is addressed in this procedure.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 3 (Moderate). Motherboards can be quite confusing to figure out

and it can be hard to find where all the jumpers are.
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· Risk Factor: 4 (High). Setting the incorrect jumpers on the motherboard can lead to
permanent hardware damage or data loss. If you are careful this won't happen but it
is a possibility.
(jumpers are very small). Long fingernails will do for some people.
· Time to Perform: 10-15 minutes, as long as you know what the jumper settings
need to be or your manual contains the necessary information.
· This procedure lists the most common jumper settings, and is not an
exhaustive list. Always set and/or check every jumper that your board has.
Similarly, some of the settings discussed here may not apply to your
particular board.
· Some motherboards aggregate two or more of the individual jumper settings

listed in this procedure into a "processor type" group setting that changes
several functions at once. For example, some boards instead of spelling out
the jumper settings for processor core voltage, I/O voltage, system bus
speed and multiplier, just list every one of the common CPUs and tell you how
to set a block of different jumpers. Some manuals actually show it both ways.
It doesn't really make much difference, although you should realize that if the
individual jumpers are not listed, and you are using a newer CPU that wasn't
around when the manual was printed, you will have to contact the
manufacturer to find out what the jumper settings are for it. This procedure
shows only the individual settings.
· Always check all the jumper settings. Many motherboards have some jumper
settings that are almost never changed from their defaults. Do not be lulled
into not checking these, as sometimes the manufacturer will not correctly set
defaults. Incorrect jumper settings can cause bizarre problems later on that
are very hard to trace back to their actual cause.
· Similarly, some vendors will considerately pre-jumper the board to match the
CPU and other hardware you are using, if you buy this other material with the
motherboard. This is a nice service, but you should still double-check the
settings. Vendors are human too, and it's your hardware.
· Jumpers are most often labeled with a "JP" prefix, such as "JP20", however
many boards label them differently. Watch out for boards that use "JP" for
jumpers" and "J" for pin connectors (such as the hard disk LED, speaker, etc.)
It can be easy to mix up "J16" and "JP16". I've seen boards that even mixed
"J" and "JP" for both jumpers and connectors! I'd like to smack some of these
designers around sometimes. :^)
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· Be careful to jumper the processor based on the true bus speed and
multiplier settings required for it, and do not be fooled by the "P" rating on
some CPUs. For example, the Cyrix 6x86L-PR166 runs at 133 MHz, not 166.
See the reference section on processor families if you need to look up the
specifics for any processor, but this information is normally in a good
motherboard manual.
· Some newer CPUs interpret multiplier settings differently from what they are
specified as in the motherboard manual. In particular, since most standard
Pentium motherboards do not have a 3.5x multiplier, processors like the
K6-233 interpret 1.5x as 3.5x, and should be jumpered using the 1.5x
setting.
· If necessary, first carefully unpack the motherboard from its packaging and
inspect it for damage.
· Always exercise care in the handling of the motherboard. Watch out for ESD.
I normally place the motherboard on top of the anti-static bag in which it
came while working on it, and then on top of something soft to cushion the
metal pins that stick through the bottom of the board. Do not put the board
directly on a work surface or you could damage the bottom of the board.
Always work on a flat surface.
Procedure Steps:
1. RTFM: This of course stands for "Read The Fine Manual". (Now, now, none of that
please, this is a "G-rated" site. :^) ) Trying to configure a motherboard without
having the manual around is an exercise in masochism. If you don't have the manual,
find it, ask your vendor or local shop if they have a spare, or try to see if you can find
jumpering information from the manufacturer or on the Internet. Assuming you do
have the manual, read the section that describes the jumpers on your particular
board. You will want to set or check every one of these jumpers. Also look at the
picture of the board included in most decent manuals, to physically locate where the
jumpers are.
2. Set Processor Voltage Jumper(s): Most newer motherboards will have two voltage
specifications, one for the internal (core) voltage of the CPU, and one for the external
(I/O) voltage. Be sure to set the correct levels for your CPU; again, the manual may
tell you what settings you need for the processors it supports. If you are using an
older processor without split-rail voltage, set both settings the same (obviously).
3. Set Processor Speed Jumpers: The speed of the processor is determined by two
primary jumper settings: the system bus speed, and the multiplier (how many times
the bus speed the CPU speed is). For example, a Pentium with MMX 200 uses a
system bus speed of 66 MHz and a multiplier of 3x. Watch out for newer CPUs that
use a lower multiplier which is interpreted differently by the CPU. For example, 233
MHz processors are often jumpered as 66x1.5, and the CPU interprets the 1.5x as
3.5x internally. Again, consult your manual.
4. Set Secondary Cache Size and Type Jumper: Some motherboards accept cache
in different configurations and therefore have jumpers depending on how much cache
is on the board and whether it is soldered on or inserted via a COASt module. Some
boards, especially those using the Intel 430HX chipset, may have a jumper that
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needs to be set if you have inserted a second tag RAM chip to enable caching over 64
MB of system memory. Increasingly, newer boards are doing away with these
different configurations so this jumper is becoming less common. You definitely won't
find anything like this on a Pentium Pro or Pentium II motherboard, since these
processors have their own integrated secondary cache.
5. Check Flash BIOS Jumper: If your system has a jumper to enable the flash BIOS
feature, check it to make sure that it is disabled. This should be the default.
6. Check CMOS Clear Jumper: Some systems have a jumper that will let you clear the
contents of the CMOS memory, something that is needed most often when a system
password is set and then forgotten. Make sure that this jumper is set to the normal or
default position, or you won't be able to set any BIOS settings.
7. Check Battery Source Jumper: Some motherboards use a jumper to determine if

the onboard battery is to power the CMOS memory, or an external battery. Again,
make sure this is set to the default position (onboard battery) unless using an
external.
8. Check Disable Jumpers: Some motherboards have special jumpers to allow you to
enable or disable parts of the motherboard at a hardware level (for example, the
serial/parallel ports or the floppy disk controller). Make sure that these jumpers are
set properly (normally, you won't want to disable any of these items).
9. Set Memory Size Jumpers: Very rarely seen on new boards, jumpers to set the
size of the system memory were common on 486-class boards. Set these if your
board requires them.
10. Double-Check Settings: It may seem redundant to make all the settings and then
check them, but it's worth a few minutes to do this. Incorrectly-jumpered
motherboards are a leading cause of system problems and can be very hard to
diagnose.
· Motherboard and Case Connection Procedure
This procedure describes how to make the internal electrical and signal connections between
the motherboard and the system case. This includes providing power to the motherboard,
and hooking up the LEDs and switches on the case. This is an important part of the assembly
of a new system or installing a new motherboard. This procedure does not deal with the
physical installation of the motherboard, only with making these necessary connections. See
this procedure instead for help with the installation itself.
Procedure Overview:
· Difficulty Level: 3 (Moderate). Some of the connections can be tricky to make in

some circumstances.
· Risk Factor: 3 (Moderate). You can destroy your AT-style motherboard if you plug
the power cords into it backwards. The only reason I don't rank the risk factor even
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higher is that I took such exceptional steps to warn about this prominently below. :^)
· Hardware Required: A flashlight is often very helpful for this step, as it can be hard
to see the minute printing on the motherboard after it has been installed into the
system case.
connecting cables.
· For reference, you may want to read this section describing the cables and
connectors coming from the power supply, and/or this section describing the
connections on the motherboard.
· Motherboards and system cases vary. Your motherboard may not have all the
items I mention here, and the same holds true for your case. Furthermore,
you may find that your case and motherboard don't match in every situation;
for example, some cases have a turbo button and some do not, and some
motherboards have a connection for a turbo button and some don't.
· Watch out for "off by one" errors when attaching cables to pin headers. In
particular, some motherboards combine several pin connectors into a larger
block. The individual connections are the same, the motherboard just
physically groups the pins together into a larger matrix. Be careful when
working with these as making a mistake is much easier to do. Refer to the
manual.
· If the system is in a tower case, it is much easier to perform this procedure

with the case resting on its side.
· LEDs have two wires and are unidirectional, so they will not work if attached
backwards. You need to connect the positive lead from the case to the
positive pin on the motherboard, and the same with the negative.
Unfortunately, the case connector almost never has the positive and negative
labeled. Fortunately, attaching them backwards will usually not cause any
damage; the LED just won't work. One tip you can use: most cases employ
for each LED one colored wire (green, yellow, red, orange, blue) and another
wire that is either black or white. When this is the case, usually the colored
wire is positive (signal) and the black or white wire is negative (ground). This
isn't always true, but it's better than a random guess in most cases.
Procedure Steps:
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1. Connect Power to Motherboard: Find the special power connector(s) coming from
the power supply and attach them to the motherboard. The details of this step
depend on the form factor you are using:
· AT Form Factor: There should be a pair of six-wire cables coming from the
power supply. These go to the 12-pin power connector on the motherboard.
The connector has 12 pins in a long row. Now this is important: the four black
wires go together in the middle and the colored wires go on either side. (You
may be wondering: why did they do this, make two six-wire connectors that
can be so easily mixed up? Good question, but it's been this way since the
earliest PCs!) The connectors can be a bit tricky to get onto the pins due to
the funny plastic tabs that some of them have. Be patient.
· ATX Form Factor: There should be a single cable with up to 20 wires in a 2

by 10 rectangular configuration. Somebody wised up here and keyed this
connector, so you cannot insert it incorrectly.
Warning: If you are careful about nothing else in this procedure, be careful about this step if
you are working in an AT system. If you connect these cables backwards, I see a new
motherboard purchase (and maybe more) in your immediate future. Seriously.
2. Connect Power to CPU Fan: Attach the connector coming from your CPU fan to one
of the four-wire power cables coming from the power supply. Many of these fans
actually have a dual in/out "pass-through" connection that lets you connect the fan
and still leave a connector free to attach to another device. Some CPU fans use a
two- or three-hole mini-plug that gets power from the motherboard instead of the
power supply directly. If your motherboard has a matching connector, you can use
this; otherwise, you will need an adapter or a different fan.
3. Connect Case Power Switch (ATX systems only): On ATX systems the power
switch on the case attaches to the motherboard and not the power supply. Find the
appropriate two-pin connector and attach the wires coming from the switch to them.
Make sure you don't mix this up with the reset switch.
4. Connect Turbo Switch (if applicable): If your case has a turbo switch and your
motherboard has a connector to which to attach it, connect it now if you so desire.
Bear in mind that in modern PCs, even if the motherboard has a place to connect
this, it doesn't really do anything. If there is no place to connect this or you decide
not to bother, then roll up the wires coming from the switch and tuck them away
somewhere out of the way within the case. Note that on older PCs, the system may
not function properly if the turbo switch is not connected (or it may only function in
creaking "non-turbo" mode).
5. Connect Reset Switch: Find the wires coming from the reset switch and attach
them to the appropriate pin connector on the motherboard. This switch has no
polarity so it doesn't matter which way you connect it to to the motherboard.
6. Connect Power LED and/or Keylock Switch: OK, this one is a bit of an oddball
that depends entirely on the system case you have. Most motherboards have a
five-pin connector that is used for both connecting the power LED and the keylock
switch. The pins are normally laid out as follows:
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Pin # Signal
1 Power LED Output (positive)
2 No Connection (NC)
3 Power LED Ground (negative)
4 Keylock Signal (positive)
5 Keylock Ground (negative
The reason that these two seemingly-unrelated functions are together in a single,
five-pin header on the motherboard is that older cases had the four signals attached
to a single, five-pin connector that matched. You may find one of these in your case,
or you may find two separate connectors, one for the power LED and one for the
keylock switch. Make sure you connect them properly, and refer to your motherboard
manual for details on how to align the connectors. Some cases of course do not have
a keylock switch, so you will leave those pins unconnected in that situation.
7. Connect Turbo LED: Find the wires that come from the turbo LED on the case and
connect them to the appropriate place on the motherboard. As with the turbo switch,
this is a bit of a leftover from years gone by and may not be present on all systems.
In addition, on modern systems even if there is somewhere to connect it, the
motherboard won't likely actually be controlling it. I usually connect it anyway to
avoid concerns about why the LED isn't lit, but it really is entirely optional on newer
systems. You may use this LED for other purposes if you wish; for example, on a
system with a SCSI host adapter you can connect the LED to the host adapter and
use it as a SCSI activity indicator.
8. Connect Hard Disk Drive Activity LED: Find the appropriate pins on the
motherboard and connect the wires coming from the hard disk activity LED to them.
Here again, there is some variability among motherboards. Some have two pins for
the LED, which makes connection simple (as long as you watch your positive and
negative). However some have four pins. In this case, only two of the pins may work,
and you have to make sure you get the right pair. On other boards, however, you can
use either pins 1 and 2, or pins 3 and 4. Consult your motherboard manual.
9. Connect Speaker: The system speaker uses two wires to connect to the
motherboard. Conventionally, this is done using a four-pin connector and header,
with the two wires going on the outside (pins 1 and 4). The motherboard should have
a matching 4-pin header. Some cases no longer have the four-pin connector, and
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instead just have two single-pin connectors. If yours is like this, simply attach to pins
1 and 4 on the motherboard header.
that they are correct. Make sure you haven't accidentally loosened anything, attached
connectors to the wrong pins, or left out any connectors that come from your case.
Check to make sure that the wires coming from the case are not interfering
mechanically with any of the internal components on the motherboard, especially the
CPU fan.
· External Peripheral Connection Procedure
This procedure provides basic instructions for connecting the PC's external peripherals to the
system case. You will use this procedure when assembling a new PC that you have either
made or purchased. I do not attempt to cover the connection of every conceivable peripheral,
just the more common ones.
Procedure Overview:
· Hardware Required: You may require a screwdriver to connect some devices,

typically a flat blade.
· If you are performing the initial connections to the PC while in the middle of a
new PC assembly, you will probably not have some of the peripherals in the
machine yet that I refer to here. In particular, the modem and sound card
may not be installed yet.
· Don't over-tighten connections that use screws or you may have problems
when disconnecting peripherals.
· Don't force connectors such as those on keyboards or mice into their sockets
or you may damage the motherboard that the socket is attached to.
· You should be using some sort of power protection device. Make sure it is
plugged into the wall.
Procedure Steps:
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1. Connect Power to Monitor: Attach the power cord to the back of the monitor and
connect it to your power protection device.
2. Connect Monitor to Case: Attach the video cable to the monitor and to the system
case. On modern systems the cable will have a male connector on both ends, each of
which has 15 pins. Note that on some monitors, the data cable is integrated into the
monitor itself instead of there being a detached cable. Some newer high-end
monitors also may use five round BNC connectors to attach to the monitor instead of
a D-shell 15-pin connector.
3. Connect Power to Case: Attach the power cord to the back of the PC and plug it
into your power protection device.
4. Connect Keyboard: Attach the keyboard to the back of the system case using the
round connector. Depending on your system you will have either a large-diameter
five-pin connector or a smaller six-pin connector. The connector is keyed and can only
be inserted one way. On ATX systems, make sure you use the correct connector,
because the keyboard and mouse connectors are the same size and shape.
5. Connect Mouse: Attach the mouse to the back of the system case. Depending on
your mouse you will have either a D-shaped 9-pin connector (serial mouse) or a
small, round, six-pin connector (PS/2 mouse). If using a PS/2 mouse, make sure you
use the correct case connector, because the keyboard and mouse connectors are the
same size and shape.
6. Connect Phone Line to Modem (if applicable): If your system has an internal
modem in it, connect the phone cord to the appropriate jack. Most modems have two
jacks; one is to connect the modem to the wall and the other is a "pass-through" for
you to attach a phone to. You want to attach to the one that is normally labeled
"Line" or "Wall" and connect the other end to your phone jack on the wall.
7. Connect Sound Devices to Sound Card (if applicable): If you have a sound card
in your system, you will want to attach either your home stereo or your computer
speakers to it, depending on which you are using. You may also wish to connect a
microphone. The sound card should have several round ports--all of which naturally
are the exact same size and shape :^)--so choose the correct one. There are often
two different outputs, one labeled "Speaker out" and the other "Line out". The first
one is usually better for speakers and the other for a home stereo. The microphone
jack is often labeled "Mic In". Some systems of course have integrated speakers
and/or microphone, which simplifies this step considerably.
8. Connect Printer (if applicable): If you have a printer, connect the printer cable to
it and then the other end to the parallel port on the back of the PC. This connector is
D-shaped and will only go in one way.
9. Connect Other Peripherals (if applicable): Depending on your system you may
have other peripherals you will want to hook up as well.
LESSON VIII: Induction to Troubleshooting Techniques

· Troubleshooting and Your Mental state
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Very few people seem to understand how incredibly important the mental state is of the
person who is attempting to troubleshoot a system. I have personally seen many times (and
often with myself as the subject) the difference between a person in the right mental state
and one who is not, in the ability to identify and correct system problems. It can easily be the
difference between a problem that is fixed in minutes and one that languishes for hours or
days.
I would urge all troubleshooters to read this section and keep these rules of thumb in mind as
you try to work out your PC problems. If you get stuck, come back and refer to them again.
You may be surprised how much just thinking about the problem the right way can make it
much easier to solve.
Don't Panic or Overestimate the Magnitude of the Problem
Probably the most important single thing to keep in mind when you find a problem with
your PC is not to panic. Being in "panic mode" makes it extremely difficult for you to
work on solving the problem, and in many cases the panic will turn out to be unwarranted
anyway. Remember that most PC problems do not have to be solved with a clock ticking
away in the background; this isn't a time bomb you are dealing with and if it is easier to
turn off the PC and deal with the problem later, do so.
In fact, there are many problems with PCs that appear to be very serious but in fact are
not. It isn't always possible to tell at the beginning how serious a problem is just by its
outward symptoms. For example, there are some problems that can manifest themselves
with your hard disk appearing to be crashed and all of its data lost. Sometimes real crashes
do occur, but there are other problems that can cause a disk to appear crashed when really
the problem is simple and can be fixed in a matter of a few minutes.
Panicking can also lead you to jump to a solution to the perceived problem before you
really understand it, which can make matters worse.
Don't Jump to the Solution Before You Understand the Problem
I have noticed in my studies of problem-solving techniques that there seem to be

differences in the way that many Westerners approach problems and the way that many of
those of the East seem to. In Japan, for example, when a problem arises, the focus is
generally kept on analyzing the problem for a lengthy period of time, and using specific
techniques. In the U.S. and many other Western countries, when a problem arises the
focus seems to shift very quickly from the problem to implementing the solution.
The difficulty with jumping quickly to the solution to a problem is that if you don't take
enough time to really understand what the problem is, you may end up applying the wrong
fix to the situation and making things worse. You will also make it more difficult to figure
out what caused the problem so that you can prevent it from recurring. Even if you
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resolve the situation this time, you may find a similar issue cropping up again in the near
future.
The key is to exercise patience. If possible, you want to take enough time to make sure
that you understand what you are seeing and what the root cause is. (Although with some
sorts of intermittent problems you may not be able to explore the root cause easily). Only
by addressing the root cause of the problem will you be able to take the most effective
corrective steps and ensure that the problem will go away permanently.
Don't Be Stubborn
I'm a very stubborn person, and I know many others are as well, but believe me when I tell
you that nobody is going to out-stubborn a computer. If you are having a persistent
problem and everything that you have tried isn't working, try to think of something else
you haven't tried. Change tracks. Clear your mind for a while and then try to think of a
totally different possible explanation for what you are seeing. You may discover what the
problem is this way.
Keep an Open Mind
Very often the real cause of the problem you are seeing is the last thing that you can
possibly think would be it; problems simply are not always cause-and-effect. Keep in mind
the famous quote of Sherlock Holmes (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle): "When you have
eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth". It is
very common for a symptom to be the result of a problem in a completely different part of
the PC, which is why you need to make sure that you fully explore the problem before
looking for a solution. In addition, bear in mind that changes to a system usually are the
cause of problems that arise shortly thereafter, even if they are in unrelated areas.
Give Yourself Time
Starting a troubleshooting session on a difficult problem one half-hour before you have to
go away for the weekend is not a great idea. Since you haven't allowed yourself nearly
enough time to do a proper job of diagnosing the situation, you are going to feel rushed.
It's likely that you will misdiagnose the problem, have to stop half-way before you are
finished, and that you will generally feel uncomfortable during the entire process (even
more than usual).
Give yourself a fighting chance to resolve the problem properly by allowing yourself
enough time to do the job right.
Be Wary of Fatigue
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Problem-solving, which is what troubleshooting is at its core, requires concentration.
Concentration is hard to hold when you are feeling tired. If you start to feel fatigued, you
may be much better off to call it a night and try again the next day, unless there is a rush to
get the problem addressed for some reason. (While you are taking this rest, as well, your
subconscious mind may even help to solve the problem for you.)
A fresh look after a good night's rest has been enough to solve a problem that seemed
"unresolvable" the night before more than once for me.
If You're Stuck, Try Using Your "Background Processing Capabilities"
An amazing capability of the human brain is that under certain circumstances you can put
your own subconscious to work for you, to help you solve a problem without expending
any energy at all. I am no expert in the field of psychology, but I have used this technique
myself with great success on many occasions.
Have you ever tried to remember something, some detail of a past conversation, or a
phone number of an old friend, and felt that you knew it but just couldn't remember the
exact words or numbers you were looking for? And then a few hours or a day or two later
the answer will "pop into your mind" apparently for no reason, while you are doing
something else? This is what I am talking about, and sometimes it can help you to resolve
problems with your machine.
Some day, you may have a particularly difficult problem that you have been trying to solve
for quite a while. It may seem that the answer is obvious, yet you can't quite grasp it. If
this is the case, try just going on and doing something else temporarily. Take your
conscious mind off the task at hand and try to do something enjoyable, relaxing or
distracting for a few hours or the rest of the night. Let your subconscious work on the
problem "in the background".
Then come back the next day and look at the problem again. You may find it much easier
to resolve the problem now--I've even had the answer come to me in a matter of minutes
after spending the previous entire day trying to figure it out. You may even find the
answer popping into your head while doing something completely unrelated.
Two Heads are Better Than One
If you have at your disposal someone who knows about PCs, say a peer in your office or a
family member, have them take a look at a difficult problem. Even if you are great at
troubleshooting, there will be the occasional problem that for one reason or another, you
just won't be able to crack. Sometimes another person who can look at a problem from a
fresh perspective (who hasn't been staring at the same thing for days trying to resolve it)
will be able to set you on the right path to fixing the problem.
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Don't be afraid of asking for help. There is no shame in needing assistance, and it can be
an excellent way to learn.
· Steps To Take First When Troubleshooting
There are many different tricks and techniques that I outline in the Troubleshooting Guide,
but the ones in this section are the few that I always recommend be tried first before
proceeding into a full troubleshooting effort. The reason is simple: they can often solve the
problem you are having before you spend a lot of energy looking into it seriously.
Let the Vendor Do the Work!
You may not have to use the troubleshooting information on this site at all. If the system is
exhibiting strange behavior, especially if it appears that it has any failed or failing
components, and you purchased this system recently, you may want to just return it and let
the vendor figure out what the problem is. In many cases this is the best thing to do when
your PC is still under warranty, since this also eliminates any chance of you voiding the
warranty, and saves you time as well. That's what a warranty is for.
The problem with doing this is that you have to incur the hassle of bringing the PC back for
service. If the PC was purchased mail order, the problem is even worse. Sometimes looking
on the site first is a good idea anyway, to rule out any possible simple causes that you can
address yourself.
Scan For Viruses
If you experience any strange behavior on your system, especially either as it is booting, or
shortly after it completes, you should always use whatever antivirus software you own to do a
full scan of the system before you do anything else. You should use a clean boot floppy if
possible.
Do not fall into the "this can't be a virus" trap too easily. Obviously if you turn the power on
and nothing happens at all, or if your hard disk won't spin up, or if your system seizes while it
is doing the initial BIOS power-on test of your system memory, these are hardware problems
that are not caused by a virus. However virtually any other symptom that appears to be a
hardware issue can be either a hardware problem or simply a virus that is trying to
masquerade as a hardware problem. To remove the complicating factor of always having to
wonder "is this a virus?", scan your system before you spend a lot of time chasing ghosts.
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· General Diagnostic Techniques
This section discusses the rules of thumb that I recommend you employ when you are
troubleshooting. These are the general techniques and ideas that can help you solve all sorts
of different problems with your PC (and even in other parts of your life...) It often is worth
trying these general tips before attempting to find a specific answer to your problem in the
Troubleshooting Expert.
Get to the Root Cause: Ask "Why" Five Times
One of the keys to truly solving a problem is to first truly understand it. It is easy to observe
that too often, people are quick to jump to solve a problem before they really understand
what it is. It is easy to see a symptom and think that you know what is causing it, but
surprisingly often, if you take the time to explore more deeply you will find that what you
thought was the cause is in fact just another symptom, and that the problem lies much
deeper within.
One technique that you can employ is borrowed from Japanese manufacturing management
theory. This method is used to help identify the real causes of problems that occur on the
manufacturing floor. The goal is not to simply correct the effects of the problem, but to find
out the root cause of why the problem is occurring so that we can ensure that it will not
happen in the future.
One simple way to do this is called asking ‘why' five times. The idea is that by the time you
have asked "why" the fifth time, you will be at the root cause. It isn't always that simple, but
the exercise can be surprisingly insightful in helping you figure out what is really going on,
and can help you avoid "quick fix" solutions that are really just band-aids and don't resolve
anything. It is especially useful for tackling chronic problems that show up over and over
again in a system; it is less useful for problems that are unlikely to recur.
Here's an example. Let's suppose your hard disk is having a problem with bad sectors
showing up. The knee-jerk reaction to this happening is "the hard disk is bad, replace it".
Instead, ask yourself:
· "Why are bad sectors showing up when they didn't before?"
· "The hard disk is being corrupted somehow; something has changed."
· "Why?"
· "The timing of the system probably has been changed in some way."
· "Why?"
· "Hmm, I installed a new hard drive in that system just last week, perhaps it is
causing the problem."
· "Why?"
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· "The hard drive may not have been installed correctly, or perhaps I should have used
a different channel. Or maybe it was the bus-mastering driver that came with the
new drive; the old drive may not be able to support it".
You can see the general idea; the answers will differ in every case, but it is the process itself
that is useful. Another example: imagine an office that has just had a catastrophic data loss
due to a PC crashing after an electrical storm. The initially identified cause of this problem
was a lack of a UPS on the PC, which would have protected the system from the electrical
storm (usually). So the MIS department starts drafting purchase requisitions for UPSes for all
the PCs. Instead, if they looked at the problem carefully, they may have employed the
following process:
· "Remember that the problem here was the data loss, not the crashing of the PC. Why
was the data lost?"
· "The PC's hard disk crashed."
· "Why would that cause the data to be lost?"
· "Because we didn't have a backup."
· "Why wasn't there a backup?"
· "There is a tape backup unit on every PC in the building but very few of them are
being used."
· "Why?"
· "Because most of the PC users do not know how to use them."
· "Why?"
· "They have never been given any training in their use."
· "Why?"
· "Because we don't have a budget for PC hardware training."
As you can see, the root cause that we came up with here is very different than the cause we
saw when we only scratched the surface. This means of course that the solution will be very
different as well; it might well make a lot more sense here to spend a small amount of money
on training instead of a large amount of money on UPSes for every PC.
Be Observant and Look For Evidence
It is sometimes the subtle signs that can provide the triggering piece of information that
leads to discovering the source of a problem. In particular, you want to carefully investigate
anything that seems "unusual", "wrong" or "surprising". These are often the clues that will
get you going down the right track to figuring out what is giving you trouble. If you are
observant and careful about what you are doing, you will be much more likely to pick up on
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these things than if you are in a hurry or you are quick to discount your findings as "unrelated
to the problem".
Use the Process of Elimination
Virtually all problems with PCs involve more than one component or subsystem. The difficulty
is usually in figuring out which component is responsible for the problem. Using the process
of elimination, however, you can usually narrow the problem down rather quickly by making
small logical changes and observing the impact on the problem. Your objective is to isolate
the cause of the problem so you can correct it.
The key is to make only one change at a time and then see if the problem goes away; if it
does, then whatever you changed is likely responsible for the problem (although it could be
fixing the problem indirectly in some cases.) If you make more than one change at a time,
you cannot readily discern which change was responsible for fixing the problem.
You will want to first check the most probable sources of the problem, and also the things
that are easiest to change. For example, if you are having a problem with your disk drive
being recognized, it's a lot easier and cheaper to explore things like double-checking jumpers
and connections or replacing the interface cable, than it is to try replacing the drive itself.
That is something you'd only do after you had eliminated all the other possibilities (or if the
evidence implicated the hard disk directly).
Here's a simple example. Let's suppose one morning your PC will not turn on. You hit the
switch and nothing happens. There could be many different possible causes for this problem:
the power to the house could be out; there could be a malfunction in the wall socket; the
surge suppressor that the system is plugged into might have blown; the electrical cord may
be loose; the power supply could be damaged. To figure out what is going on you need to
eliminate these variables by making small changes and seeing what happens. For example:
· Change the wall socket you are using. If the PC now boots, you have isolated the
cause to the electrical wiring in the house.
· If the problem persists, examine the surge suppressor. Change it, or temporarily
bypass it and plug the PC into the wall directly. If it now works, the surge suppressor
is the problem.
· If the problem still isn't fixed, try changing the power cord.
· If the problem persists still, you may then have to open up the box and look at the
power supply unit to see if it might need replacing.
Realize that the key here is making these changes one at a time. If you approach this
problem by changing the wall socket you use, bypassing the surge suppressor, and changing
the power cord all at once, your problem may go away but how will you know what caused it?
This is a valid way to troubleshoot if you have to get the system back up immediately,
however. You can then undo the changes one at a time later on to find out what the cause is,
in effect doing the same single-change-at-a-time process, but in reverse.
Most problems with the PC can be diagnosed using this sort of process; it's very powerful.
You will notice many sequences like the one above in The Troubleshooting Expert.
Do One Upgrade or Assembly Step At a Time
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Changes made to the system are the most frequent cause of problems; this is the nature of
change. Much the way many problems can be diagnosed by using the process of elimination
through making single changes to the system, you can avoid or detect problems with
upgrades or new installations by going "one step at a time" in your changes as well. New
system installations or major upgrades often can have problems that are very difficult to
diagnose simply because there are so many modifications being performed at the same time.
When you build a new PC you will probably be assembling a large number of components that
have never been used or tested before. To whatever extent possible, try to go as slowly as
possible when assembling the machine. For example, when assembling a new PC from
scratch, it is always best to first make sure the basic system is working, with the only
expansion card in the system the video card (if applicable). Adding the sound card, network
card and other devices should be done later on, and one at a time if possible. Similarly, do
not try to do major software or operating system upgrades at the same time that you make
hardware changes. Doing this can make it very difficult for you to troubleshoot any system
problems.
If you do make multiple changes at once, try retracing your steps. Undo the changes you
have made one at a time and see if you can identify the change that caused the problem that
way.
Do One Upgrade or Assembly Step At a Time
Changes made to the system are the most frequent cause of problems; this is the nature of
change. Much the way many problems can be diagnosed by using the process of elimination
through making single changes to the system, you can avoid or detect problems with
upgrades or new installations by going "one step at a time" in your changes as well. New
system installations or major upgrades often can have problems that are very difficult to
diagnose simply because there are so many modifications being performed at the same time.
When you build a new PC you will probably be assembling a large number of components that
have never been used or tested before. To whatever extent possible, try to go as slowly as
possible when assembling the machine. For example, when assembling a new PC from
scratch, it is always best to first make sure the basic system is working, with the only
expansion card in the system the video card (if applicable). Adding the sound card, network
card and other devices should be done later on, and one at a time if possible. Similarly, do
not try to do major software or operating system upgrades at the same time that you make
hardware changes. Doing this can make it very difficult for you to troubleshoot any system
problems.
If you do make multiple changes at once, try retracing your steps. Undo the changes you
have made one at a time and see if you can identify the change that caused the problem that
way.
Make Use of Components That You Know Work
One valuable resource while troubleshooting is a "stockpile" of extra components. I put

"stockpile" in quotes because it doesn't have to be an actual stock of components, just a
resource that will let you borrow components that you know work while you are
troubleshooting your system. Another functional PC that uses the same or similar
components is normally quite adequate. Being in an office environment can be very helpful
this way since there are many PCs around to work with, and often they are similar to one
another; at home it may be more difficult if you only have the one machine.
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These extra components can be useful when you are employing the process of elimination to
resolve problems. For example, suppose that there is no video on your monitor when you
boot up the PC. After eliminating the simple stuff (cable disconnected, brightness turned
down far too much, etc.) there are two components that are most likely to be bad: the video
card or the monitor. An easy thing to try is to swap monitors with another machine that is
working properly. If the second monitor also doesn't work, and your original monitor works
on the other machine, you can feel quite confident that it isn't the monitor that is the problem
here.
You can sometimes avoid problems in assembling a new PC by testing out some of the
components you are going to use before you begin. For example, take your new mouse,
keyboard and monitor and attach them to a PC that is known to work, and test them out.
This way if you have problems when you build your new system you will know it isn't due to
these components. At my office, I keep an extra keyboard, mouse and monitor just for
debugging and assembling PCs. Since I know that they work, I reduce the number of
variables that I have to deal with when I experience a problem. Once the main PC box is
assembled and working, I connect the new keyboard, mouse and monitor. If a problem
shows up then, I know that it is not likely the PC, but the peripherals I just connected.
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CT 22

Servicing and Maintenance

Why DMA Channels were invented for data transfer . . .

Limitations of Standard DMA . . . . .

DMA Channels and the System Bus

Summary of DMA Channels and their Typical Uses . . .

LESSON II: File and Directory Structure

Internal Directory Structure . . . . . . .

LESSON III: I/O Addresses

I/O Address Multiple Devices and Conflicts . . . .

I/O Address Summary Map . . . . . . .

LESSON IV: Interrupt

LESSON V: Keyboard and Mouse Maintenance

LESSON VI: PC Assembly

Component Gathering and Inspector Procedure . .

(Plan System Layout)

(Configure Hard Disk Drive and CD ROM Drive)

(Install Heat sink)

(Perform Initial BIOS set-up)

(Install additional peripheral)

(Partition and Format Hard Disk)

(Install the Operating System)

LESSON VII: PC Configuration

Floppy Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . . . .

Hard Disk Drive Connection Procedure . . . . .

CD-ROM Drive Connection Procedure . . . . . .

Motherboard and Case Connection Procedure. . . . . .

LESSON VIII: Induction to Troubleshooting Techniques

Steps to Take First When Troubleshooting. . . . . .

Lesson I: (What is DMA)

DMA Channel Function and Operation

DMA Channel Details By Number

· Channel Number: The number of the DMA channel from 0 to 7.

· Third-Party and First-Party DMA (Bus Mastering)

· Limitations of Standard DMA

· DMA Channels and the System Bus

· DMA Request (DRQ) and DMA Acknowledgment (DACK)

· DMA, Multiple Devices and Conflicts

· Summary of DMA Channels and Their Typical Uses

0 no Memory Refresh None

SCSI host adapters, ECP

2 8/16-bit Floppy disk controller Tape accelerator cards

ECP parallel ports, SCSI host

4 no None; cascade for DMAs 0-3 None

SCSI host adapters, network

Sound cards (high DMA),

Sound cards (high DMA),

DMA Channel Details by number

· Channel Number: The number of the DMA channel from 0 to 7.

LESSON II: File and Directory Structure

Understanding the File Structure of Your Computer

How is it the same I can hear you asking?

Then click on explore

You will navigate to the My Documents directory.

Wasn't that easy!!

Find and Send a file via ICQ

Incoming file request screen

Internal Directory structure

File Size: The size of the file in bytes.

360KB 5.25" Floppy Disk 112

720KB 3.5" Floppy Disk 112

1.2MB 5.25" Floppy Disk 224

1.44MB 3.5" Floppy Disk 224

2.88MB 3.5" Floppy Disk 448